欧盟民法典草案之述评(中)
欧盟民法典草案之述评(上)
上网找律师就到中顾法律网快速专业解决您的法律问题欧盟民法典草案之述评(上)付俊伟华盛顿大学法学院访问学者目次一、前言二、欧盟民法典立法背景三、民法典起草之争(一)、构建民法典的必要性1、“单一市场”的构建2、“弱势群体”的保护3、统一与自然融合(二)、构建民法典的可行性1、法理基础2、法律文化多样性上网找律师就到中顾法律网快速专业解决您的法律问题(三)、民法典的构建1、重回罗马法2、法典还是判例法3、重述还是法典四、民法典草案之结构五、民法典草案之特色(一)、继承性1、PECL(欧盟合同法原则)2、Acquis Communautaire(现行私法)(二)、融合性1、两大法系的融合2、与国际规则、惯例的融合(三)、创新性1、形式的突破上网找律师就到中顾法律网快速专业解决您的法律问题2、内容的独特(四)、时代性1、现代私法2、多元价值观六、民法典草案之评述(一)、进步性1、“以人为本”理念的融入2、欧盟私法统一的基础(二)、不足1、不统一性2、局限性七、总结一、前言对大多数欧洲国家来讲，立法者制定的条文是法律的主要渊源，其在私法上的产物则表现为民法典的诞生。
[1] 十九世纪初《拿破上网找律师就到中顾法律网快速专业解决您的法律问题仑民法典》的制定拉开了欧洲民法法典化运动的序幕，其孕育的个人意思自治原则对后世民法的发展产生了深远的影响。
[2] 然而，《拿破仑民法典》更多地继受了罗马法的传统，大部分条文都来自于习惯法与古罗马法当中。
[3] 普遍接受的观点则认为在启蒙思想的洗礼下，《法国民法典》是罗马法后期意思主义原则与法国大革命政治影响的结晶。
[4]《拿破仑民法典》对十九世纪的欧洲产生了深远影响，为当时民法的发展奠定了坚实的基础。
颁布之后的民法典很快在比利时也得到了实行，于1810年传入荷兰。
[5] 其独特的风格至今还未丧失原有的光辉，仍然对法国人的生活发挥着重大的影响，以至于在普通法(Common Law)中挣扎的路易斯安那州(Louisiana)也抹不去法国民法典的烙印。
欧洲民法典草案及其对我国民法典制定的借鉴意义
欧洲民法典草案及其对我国民法典制定的借鉴意义
近年来，欧洲民法典草案引起了广泛关注，这份草案的发布被视为欧洲重大民事法律改革的里程碑。
作为一份综合性的民法典，该草案旨在为欧洲国家提供一个统一的民法框架，并推动欧洲内部市场的深化和一体化。
在这份草案中，包含了关于合同法、物权法、责任法、家庭法等领域的规定，涵盖了民事法律的各个方面。
同时，该草案还强调了个人权利和自由的保护，以及对消费者和弱势群体的保护。
对于我国而言，欧洲民法典草案对我国民法典制定具有借鉴意义。
首先，该草案体现了法律规范的科学性和系统性，这对于我国制定民法典时建立科学、完整、合理的法律规范体系具有借鉴意义。
其次，该草案注重了对个人权利和自由的保护，这与我国民法典强调保护个人合法权益的理念相符合。
此外，该草案还特别关注了消费者和弱势群体的保护，这也是我国民法制定需要考虑的一个问题。
最后，欧洲民法典草案的发布，标志着欧洲国家在民事法律领域的一次重大改革，这对于我国在未来推动民事法律的改革和完善，将有一定的借鉴意义。
综上所述，欧洲民法典草案对我国民法典制定具有重要的借鉴意义，我们需要认真研究其中的规定和理念，以此为我国民法典的制定提供参考和借鉴。
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欧盟宪法草案对欧盟人权保护机制的影响 (The Draft Constitution an演讲范文
欧盟宪法草案对欧盟人权保护机制的影响(The Draft Constitution an演讲范文欧盟宪法草案对欧盟人权保护机制的影响 (The Draft Constitution an演讲范文1 the general introduction of the draft constitution in ect of the human rights2 short review of the human rights protection in European Union3 the new points in ect of human rights in the draft constitution 3.1 mon values3.2 incorporation of the Charter of fundamental rights3.3 other changes could affect the human rights4 arisen questions4.1 the protection different from under the Convention4.2 the two courts system and its application 5 conclusions in a historical view 1 general introduction of the draft constitution in ect of the human rights “Conscious that Europe is a continent that has brought forth civilization; That its inhabitants, arriving in successive waves from earliest times, have gradually developed the values underlying humanism: equality of persons, freedom, respect for reason” Extract from the preamble to the draft Constitution In past 16 years, the European Union (EU hereafter) has marked itself through a series of changes. From The Single European Act, in which the Union mitted itself to create a single market and at the same time establish on its territory the freedom of movement of people, goods, services as well as capital, to Maastricht Treaty, which brought the Union into reality and led to mon foreign policy and cooperation in the area of justice and internal affairs as ahigher level cooperation among Member States. Then the following Amsterdam (1997) and Nice (20xx) Treaties, strengthened cooperation in foreign and security policy and placed Justice and Home Affairs matters and established the frame for the Union as a legitimate institution, in which people from different nations integrated in a large region would have mon historical direction and splendid future before them. Just before the door of enlargement of the Union, it was argued that the Union has to improve democracy and transparency as well as efficiency, in order to outlines the EU’s purpose and petence clearly and streamline structures so as to prevent paralysis, therefore a new constitution for the Union is determined to replace the EU's series of key treaties in passed over the last 50 years as a single document . Under leading of former French President and master draftsman Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, the European Convention set about its work of drafting the European Union's first ever full-fledged constitution. With the convention's work pleted, the draft must now be finalized by an Intergovernmental Conference of European leaders that is expected to plete deliberations by the end of the 20xx. As far as our topic is concerned, noticeably modifications e out in the constitution contract, first of all, the incorporation of the Charter of Fundamental Rights, which we will discuss later. In the beginning it is meaningful to consider the statues of the draft constitution in the progress course of the Union. The Union desires to bring peace and prosperity, to promote economic and social progress through continuously integrating market and expanding freedom under light of united institution and socialsystems . These goals, however, are the foundation of development and protection of human rights . That means, if we regard human rights as a series right which realized at first in peaceful and law-ruling society, then the Union has already kept on entrenching to appreciate these goal from beginning on, and now by means of perusing such goal in a larger region through enlargement, the EU’s influence extent to broader area and more people. The draft constitution then in such context should be viewed as another historical phase in the process. Because the promoting of well-being and fortune of people depend not only on the development of economic situation and adding some single freedom clauses into the governmental documents, but also upon the entire politic system and background in which we live. Without governing based on democratic and effective institutional structure, and especially a ripe legislation and judiciary mechanism, the realization and protection of human rights could only be on the paper. This is also one of the motive caused the Declaration on the future of the European Union which mitted the Union to being more democratic, more transparent and effective, in order to pave the way for a Constitution in response to the expectations of the people of Europe . In this perspective, one shall recognize the Constitution as a moving forward step of the whole EU institutionalization targeting its goal, so that to discuss the Constitution in connection with the human right protection, it is helpful to review the human rights protection in Europe and, especially in EU. 2 short review of the human rights protection in European Union The protection of human rights has been internationally e to life in the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights in 1948 (UDHR) with reanization of disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind and respect for inherent dignity as well as the equal rights of all members of the human. This declaration states explicitly that the rights and freedoms of humans have to be guaranteed without distinction and destruction by any group, state or person. These principles were broadly accepted by European countries, considering the origin of the EU (EC) and the historical separation in Europe after WWII, we denote only the contracting countries of European Community. For the Member States of EC, the Council of Europe has been up to now the most important instrument, which established in 1949 as a result of the Congress of Europe in The Hague , and took for the basic of the human rights protection. The Council accepted the principles of Universal Declaration of Human Rights and integrated it into The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights (the Convention hereafter), which and its 12 Protocols turned out to be the significant resource for Human Rights protection in Europe. Because of the existence of the Convention, the other two anizations established in the same age aftermath of the Second World War, i.e. OEEC and the European Communities didn’t include relevant clauses for Human Rights protection into their founding treaties. Since it was agreed at that time, the Council of Europe would focus on the protection of human rights, fundamental freedoms and democratic values, whereas the OECD and the European Communities were to be concerned with the economic restoration of Europe. The reason of separate anizations wasbased on a view to avoiding economic excuses for future inhumanity. Another reason came from the thought, which believed that the process of economic integration set forth in the Community Treaties could not lead to a violation of human rights. Furthermore, the original Member States in the Treaty of Rome feared, that the inclusion of a "bill of rights" in the Treaty might have brought about an undesirable expansion of Community powers, since it could lead Community institutions to interpret their powers as extending to anything not explicitly prohibited by the enumerated guarantees. Under the regime of Council of Europe, a lots of achievement of human rights improvement has been reached , yet along with the development and expansion of EU, another mechanism on protection of human rights which does not totally rely on the Council of Europe has derived out on one hand, on the other hand being lack of provisions ruling human rights protection in the Treaty establishing EC did not prevent the EC and the later European Union from providing care for the protection against the violations on human rights. Naturally, how could a swelling supranational anization as EC, which has been continually strengthening its power in all social ects, does not involve in human rights issues especially when the consciousness of human rights nowadays bee more significant both in international and national stages? Regarding to EU, The protection system has been formed in three ects. First of all, the legislation in the Member States of EU. Since there were no Member States of EU (EC) which accedes to the Community without being a member of the Council of Europe, and according to the Convention, it impose obligations on the Member States that theyshould ensure that the internal laws and practices ply with the human rights standards set out in the instruments. Very member states in EU have recognize the principles derived from the Convention and incorporated them somehow into national laws, most importantly, provided constitutive protection as the basic legal resource for human rights protection. For example in Germany, Basic Law (Grundgesetz) Art 1 to 19 deliver explicit provisions even beyond the Convention; the same case as Part VIII (§71-85) in Constitution of Denmark ; in Britain the Act of Human Rights came into force on 2 October 2000 steers extending a ways, in which the Convention can be used before domestic courts. Certainly, according to the classic human rights lessons, the basic protection of human rights could only be afforded at the national level through national legislation and excise of authoritative power. Secondly, the institutions and legislation at the EU level acts also with high respect to the human rights protection. The EU has showed its mitment to human rights and fundamental freedoms and has explicitly confirmed the EU's attachment to fundamental social rights ever since its establishment. The Amsterdam Treaty established procres intended to secure their protection. It was ascertained, as a general principle, that the European Union should respect human rights and fundamental freedoms, upon which the Union is founded. For the first time a procre is introduced, according to which severe and continuing violations of Fundamental Rights can lead to suspension of voting and other rights of a member state, if the Union determined the existence of a serious and persistent breach of these principles by that Member State. As to the Candidatecountries, they should also respect these principles to join the Union. Furthermore, It has also given the European Court of Justice the power to ensure respect of fundamental rights and freedoms by the European institutions. In accordance with the inner requirement for the implementation of development cooperation operations, in order to reach objective of developing and consolidating democracy, EU also need its rule respecting for human rights. Such cases we have are for instance the EU Council’s regulation on human rights, Council Regulation (EC) No 975 Likewise, at their meeting in Cologne in June 1999, EU leaders declared that in respect to the current stage of progress of the European Union, the fundamental rights applicable at Union level should be pushed forward, namely be consolidated in a Charter and thereby made more evident. They argued, that the legal resources of human rights protection e from not only the European Convention of Human Right, but also from various international conventions drawn up by the Council of Europe as well as the United Nations and the International Labor Organization, they also include EU treaties themselves and from the case law of the European Court of Justice. As a result, a Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (the Charter hereinafter) was sketch out, which highlighted the EU’s respect for human rights, for fundamental freedoms and for the principle of democracy through listing more rights a more precise definition of the mon values paring the early documents including the Convention. We will continue to concentrate on the Charter in point 3 since it has been integrated in the draft Constitution as an outstanding achievement. Finally, the opinion and case-law of EuropeanCourt of Justice (ECJ hereafter) also have immense impact on the establishment of the instrument of human rights protection within EU. Although the jurisprudence developed by the ECJ recognizes the Convention as the standard-setter in cases in which the Court has to consider and decide a human rights issue, since there were no relevant legislation existed in the frame of the Community, the ECJ furnish itself power in this ect by means of case-law. Earlier in 1974, the ECJ first made reference to the ECHR in the Nold judgment, in which the ECJ emphasized its mitment to fundamental human rights based on the constitutional traditions of the Member States’ fundamental rights form an integral part of the general principles of law which the Court enforces. In assuring the protection of such rights, the Court is required to base itself on the constitutional traditions mon to the Member States and therefore could not allow measures, which are inpatible with the fundamental rights recognized and guaranteed by the constitutions of such States. The ECJ declared, that the international treaties on the protection of human rights in which the Member States have cooperated or to which they have adhered could also supply indications which may be taken into account within the framework of Community law. That implied, even without clear regulations in the treaties, the remedy against violation on human rights could also be provided within the framework of the Community in respect for the mon traditions applied to the Member States, and in connection with we have mentioned about the Member States’ above, the principles and resource applied to the Member States derived from the Council of Europe. Thus a EU standard could be established by transforma rating parison of the members’ legal systems to the case-law in ECJ in respect for human rights. In this context, the ECHR serves as only an alternative source of knowledge, because based on the gradually increased legal resource- from the mon principles applied to the member states to the legislation of EU institutions and the case-law developed by the ECJ itself as well as the synthetically Charter of Fundamental Rights, the ECJ has been enabled to deliberate and judge cases relying on sufficient recourses existed in EU body in connection with human rights without referring to the ECHR. In a similar case, Cinéthèque, The Court made a move forward: It expressed the normative statement about respect for human rights as a condition for lawfulness as an institutional duty: it is the duty of this Court to ensure the observance of fundamental rights in the field of Community law, as stated by the Court. In this way, the Court of Union gradually enables itself to break in the field of excising more power in human rights protection. Based upon three ects above, it is reasonable to be aware of, that before the draft Constitution for Europe materialized, it already existed two de facto mechanisms supervising and providing legal protection for human rights in the scope of European Union. One of them is the Council of Europe based in Strasbourg, which provides basic standard of human rights via the Convention and other guideline mechanisms , and oversees its enforcement with the judiciary body: the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR hereafter). The other system, however, was gradually established during the progress of EU, which consists of two legislative bodies in Members States and Union levelrespectively, and the ECJ as the juridical instrument. The two systems, however, are not definitely distinguished with each other, but overlap and work in coordination. Because on the one hand, the fifteen European countries made mitment to respect the ECHR, and agreed to submit themselves to the jurisdiction of ECtHR in Strasbourg, in spite of that they have transferred some sovereign petence to Brussels. On the other hand, the ECtHR still plays a role as an effective co director of the ECHR legal regime, which maintain its unofficial partnership with the ECJ, whose own doctrine obliges it to honor the ECtHR whenever the Convention is relevant. Moreover, the EU is still lacking in ample legislation with respect to human rights. The main work of ECJ is to ensure that EU law is not interpreted and applied differently in Member State. However, the current circumstances might be changed according to the new Constitution for Europe.3 the draft Constitution with the incorporated Charter One of the most outstanding acplishments of the draft Constitution is incorporation of the Charter of Fundamental Rights into the Constitution. The Charter, in its three years’ life, has obtained appreciations from all around though it has not yet legal binding force. In order to analyze the effect of the Charter on the EU human rights system, we first examine at first the Charter itself, then based on the analyze of legal status of the Charter, we concentrate on the relationship of the Charter in the Constitution and ECHR as well as the possible two courts system could be occur. 3.1 the content of the CharterThe Charter was designed as a political and legal objective of EU while the EU has entered a more resolutely political phaseof integration. As the European Commission stated in its Communication of September 2000: “The Charter is a major milestone for Europe as a political force, which is evolving into an integrated area of freedom, security and justice, simply as a consequence of citizenship. It is an indispensable instrument of political and moral legitimacy, both for the citizens of Europe in relation to politicians, administrations and national powers and for economic and social operators.” Besides, it was considered that the list of rights contained in the Charter offers a more precise definition of the mon values that must be respected in a wider environmental entity by means of establishing a mon language on fundamental rights in EU. The Charter presents better practical protection for fundamental rights in the EU. Most of these rights are indicated in both the case law of the ECJ and Article 6 of the Treaty on European Union. However, with the reference of the Charter, it is anticipated, the EU citizens need neither to consult the case law of the ECJ nor to read the articles of the plex treaties, in which the provisions refer to yet again other sources such as the ECHR and the constitutional traditions of Member States, in order to get a clear consciousness of their rights. Indeed, the articles in the Charter are grouped explicitly around six fundamental values: dignity, freedoms, equality, solidarity, citizenship and justice. While most of the rights listed are granted to everyone, some certain rights are granted to specific groups of people: i.e. children, workers Union citizens , Citizens of the Union and nationals of non-member countries residing in the Union As we have mentioned in point 2, the Charter could be regard as asyncretism by means of absorbing rights from broader recourses besides the ECHR. Thus the content of the Charter is broader than ECHR provides, while the ECHR is restricted only to civil and political rights. For example the Article II 8 in the Charter protection of personal data is derived from Article 286 EC Treaty; Directive 95 Paragraph 2 right to conscientious objection might be developed from national constitutional traditions ; more typical is Article II-18 right to asylum es from both the Article 63 EC Treaty and Protocols relating to the United Kingdom and Ireland annexed to the Treaty of Amsterdam and to Denmark . The same cases we can cite in all places from the Charter, which reflects the nature loose relation between the Charter and the ECHR and other documents of Council of Europe. So according to the content of the Charter, it is sensible to summarize it as a self sufficient constitutional legal source providing adequate and plete protection for human rights. 3.2 the change of the legal characteristic of the Charter The Charter was supposed to function as a symbol that would “counterbalance the euro and bee part of the iconography of European integration and contribute both to the identity of and identification with Europe” when it was finally signed in the IGC in Nice. Since the Charter was not integrated into EU treaties, which led to non-binding force status. However, the Charter itself seems to have already paved a way to its incorporation into EU treaty as a constitutional “bill of rights”. Because it has created potential and provided a more solid basis for the mitment of the EU institutions to the protection of fundamental rights. This is the deficiency in EU Treaties, which should be plementedsooner or later . It is also unambiguous that the EU institutions, which have proclaimed the Charter, would mit themselves to respect the Charter. As a result, then on the one hand the Charter made EU citizens better to understand the extent of their rights to defend against violations on human rights. So that they should be capable of referring to the Charter when they challenge any decision against their deserved fundamental rights taken by EU institutions or by Member States implementing EU law. On the other hand, the EU Institution should act on the Charter whenever they drew policies and settle disputes according to petition. As a logic consequence, the ECJ as judiciary part should also regard the Charter as a binding inter-institutional agreement. It was yet exactly the reality. Short after the proclamation of the Charter, the European courts published new case law established referred to the Charter. Until early 20xx, the Advocates General of ECJ had referred to the Charter in 14 of the 23 cases they handled in relation to human rights .The Court of First Instance has also acted on the Charter. In a significant judgment of 3 May 20xx the Court even changed the rules governing individual access to the European courts, making reference to Article 47 of the Charter, which guarantees individuals whose rights are violated the right to an effective remedy before a tribunal. In any case it is obvious from above discuss, though the declaratory character of the Charter does not have legal binding as far as the legislative status of the Charter is concerned, it has already unchallengeable impact. So the incorporation of the Charter is only a question of time and method. Now as the Charter enshrined in the Constitution, it bee directly binding if thedraft Constitution e into force after ratified by member states.3.3 the difference from the Convention The Union had currently no petence to adhere to the ECHR, while this petence is explicitly provided for in the draft Constitution, which stipulates that the Union will endeavor to adhere to the ECHR . It was declared, that as for the incorporation of the Charter in the Constitution, adhesion to the ECHR does not mean any change to the Union's powers as defined in the Constitution. The full incorporation of the Charter and adhesion are plementary rather than alternative steps, because the Charter does not function in petition with the ECHR. In this context Article II 52 of the draft Constitution makes clear, that the Charter respects the Convention, its protocols, and the case law developed by the European Court of Human Rights. The rule seems simple: the rights and liberties shared by the Convention and the Charter have the same meaning in both texts, even if the wording of the Charter is different, either in an attempt to update the Conventions text written in 1950 or to create a shorter and more readily prehensible version. However, it is all what the Charter and the draft Constitution seek? Most importantly, what highlights in the Charter such as respect for the principle of democracy, for human rights and fundamental freedoms is not a new pledge, but they why the Charter reaffirms explicitly and makes them perfectly, then upgrade them to constitutive rights? According to my view, the adhesion to ECHR seeks the minimum security of human rights, however there is no reason to allege that the interpretation respecting the Convention must be accurate for the EU, especially along with the growth of the Council of Europe thatmany countries of East Europe attended including Russia. After all, the status of Council of Europe being more pan-European after a astonish increase of the members after collapse of the socialism block after 1990. The criteria of being a member of Council of Europe is distinct from those of join the EU. If the Council of Europe could reach mon understanding consistent with the human rights issues through its mechanism such as the mittee of ministers, and achieve the Convention’s aims as provide remedies suitable for all the members under ECHR, then, such situation may be not the case today. Since it is likely undue that one can claim fair and working condition easily in large eastern European area where the unemployment rate is high up to almost 15%; it is also impossible to enforce some new set-up democratic countries to bee conscious of the right of citizens to good administration as in the Charter states, on the contrary, too. So accordingly, the Charter avoids imposing limitations on rights that are unlimited in the Convention, as this would seriously lower the level of protection afforded by the Charter. Actually, as it states in the final report of working group of the draft Constitution: The second sentence of Article 52 § 3 of the Charter serves to clarify that this article does not prevent more extensive protection already achieved or which may subsequently be provided for (i) in Union legislation and (ii) in some articles of the Charter which, although based on the ECHR, go beyond the ECHR because Union law acquis had already reached a higher level of protection (e.g., Article 47 on effective judicial protection, or Article 50 on the right not to be punished twice for the same offence). Thus, the guaranteed rights in the Charter reflecthigher levels of protection in existing Union law. Then the Charter further includes a standstill clause: Article II 53. It sets out to preserve the level of protection already afforded by Union, national and international law, in their respective spheres of application, as well as Member States’ constitutions and international agreements. This clause also makes specific reference to the Convention, stresses that the Charter cannot undermine rights already guaranteed by that agreement. Clearly, that means it is the Convention which supplies the minimum protection as the lowest standard but the aim of the Charter of EU is to provide fundamental rights protection at a higher level than the Convention, which focus depend on the enlargement and the improvement of the democracy institutionalization of EU itself. In this context, as it states in the preamble of the Charter in the Constitution , the Union respects and interpreters the Charter in pliancy with the ECHR, could be only a scheme to recognize the current circumstance, while the principles of human rights protection derived from the Council of Europe have been general evolutes as constitutional traditions and international obligations mon to the Member States. 3.4 possible consequences: two courts system If the Constitution provides different protection of human rights for EU citizens, the question will left to the judicatory of EU: what a possible procre could be for Courts of EU to refer questions relating to the Convention if the Constitution e into force, in which the accession to the Convention was expressed clearly in Article I-7. Though the accession would ensure a uniform minimum level of protection across Europe irrespective of the legalactor, it would bring the conflict of jurisprudence between two Courts- ECJ and ECtHR. It was suggested that the ECtHR could give its advisory opinion for the ECJ to apply. However, sensitive issues took place, for example: whether judges from countries outside the Union would hear cases relating to EU law. Especially as we mentioned, it is suspectable whether with the rapid expansion of Council of Europe membership in the east, there will be possibility that the standards of protection applied by ECtHR could be weakened. And what could deal with the appeal according to the rights provided by the Charter but not fall in scope of ECHR? It is now hard to give satisfactory answers to these questions, however, one thing is sure, that the Courts of EU should acquire more petence in this part. Theoretically, the ECJ has played the same role as ECtHR in some cases. The ECtHR provides the ultimate remedy against relevant authority in case the applicant regards he is personally and directly the victim of a breach of one or more f these fundamental rights by one of the States when all domestic remedies has been exhausted. Alike, for several decades, the ECJ has also played an important role in ensuring the protection of fundamental rights inside the Union legal order, by developing a method for the review of performances of the Union institutions for human rights violations, despite lacking of sufficient relevant provisions in Treaties. Though the Court's fundamental rights jurisprudence was limited to guarantee that individuals are protected from violations of their fundamental rights resulting from acts of Union institutions, reviewing the case of individual against public institutions in member states was also。
欧洲民法典草案减价制度研究
欧洲民法典草案减价制度研究王金根【摘要】减价制度起源于罗马法“减价之诉”.减价的基础在于公平原则,目的在于维持合同之均衡,从而避免因履行不符约定而遭致破坏.在欧洲民法典草案中,减价只适用于合同之债,只有债务人履行不符,而债权人愿意接受不符履行,并及时给予不符通知的,债权人方得主张减价.但债务人给予补救或债权人拒绝接受补救除外.即使债务人得以主张法定免责,亦不影响债权人减价权利.减价与损害赔偿及部分解除并不相同.减价性质上兼有请求权与抗辩权之性质,具体视债权人是否已支付价款而定.欧洲民法典草案规定对我国完善减价制度具有借鉴意义.【期刊名称】《泉州师范学院学报》【年(卷),期】2016(034)001【总页数】8页(P110-117)【关键词】欧洲民法典草案;减价;损害赔偿;部分解除【作者】王金根【作者单位】泉州师范学院陈守仁工商信息学院,福建泉州 362000【正文语种】中文【中图分类】DF529减价制度最早起源于罗马法。
在罗马法要式口约买卖时期，买卖遵循的是买者当心，买方通常应对标的物的瑕疵自负其责。
但由于标的物有些瑕疵难以察觉，只能在使用中发现，因此当事人在签订合同时往往特别订立瑕疵担保义务条款，以弥补法律的不足。
后来，罗马市政官明确在谕令中规定，在公共市场上出卖奴隶和牲畜的卖方，必须说明标的物之物理瑕疵，如有卖方所未告知之瑕疵出现，买方可在12个月内提起“减价之诉”(actio quanti minoris)，获得已支付价金与有缺陷标的实际价值之间的差价。
在该“减价之诉”中，卖方是否知悉瑕疵，不予考虑，故此实行的是严格责任，这与损害赔偿完全不同。
后来，该市政官谕令规定的责任扩展到市场外的买卖，并最终被优士丁尼法扩展到任何物(包括土地)的买卖中[1]196。
罗马法的“减价之诉”为后世大陆法系各国民法典所吸收，并作为物的瑕疵担保效力之一，以减价权名义规定于买卖合同中。
如法国民法典及比利时、卢森堡民法典第1644条，德国民法典第441条，意大利民法典第1492条，希腊民法典第534条、第535条及第540条，葡萄牙民法典第911条和第913条，丹麦货物买卖法第42条及第43条，芬兰及瑞典货物买卖法第37条及第38条。
欧洲民法典草案消费者撤回权制度
消费者撤回权制度的目的和功能
• 功能 • 保障消费者权益：消费者撤回权制度可以保护消费者在购买商品或服务后因冲动消费、信息误解等原因产
生的后悔，使其能够无损地撤回合同，避免承担不必要的经济损失。 • 促进电子商务发展：在电子商务和远程交易中，消费者往往缺乏与商家面对面的沟通机会，容易产生信息
不对称和消费纠纷。消费者撤回权制度可以增加消费者对电子商务的信任度，从而促进电子商务的健康发 展。 • 增强消费者对数字市场的信任：消费者撤回权制度的实施可以减少消费者对数字市场的疑虑，增强消费者 对数字市场的信任，有利于维护良好的市场秩序和公平竞争环境。
有益的参考和借鉴。
研究不足与展望
尽管本文对欧洲民法典草案中的消费者撤回权制 度进行了较为全面的梳理和分析，但仍存在一些 研究不足之处。
其次，本文对于消费者撤回权制度与其他国家和 地区的类似制度的比较研究还不够充分，需要进 一步拓展和深化。
首先，本文主要侧重于对消费者撤回权制度的法 律规定的解读和分析，而对其在实际操作中的具 体执行情况和存在问题缺乏深入的研究和探讨。
案例分析
例如，张三在一家网上商店购买了一件商品，但在收到商品后的7天内，他意识到自己并不需要它。由 于商店接受消费者撤回权，张三可以无理由地取消订单并获得全额退款。
面临的挑战和问题
要点一
挑战
对于商家来说，消费者撤回权可能增加了他们的工作量 ，特别是对于那些处理大量在线订单的企业。此外，某 些情况下可能难以确定消费者是否真的对他们的购买感 到后悔。
欧洲民法典草案消费者撤回 权制度
2023-11-06
目 录
• 引言 • 欧洲民法典草案消费者撤回权制度概述 • 欧洲民法典草案消费者撤回权制度的具体规定 • 欧洲民法典草案消费者撤回权制度的实践应用
浅议新一轮欧洲民法典之争
目录浅议新一轮欧洲民法典之争论权利瑕疵担保责任独立性之否认论在先权利与商标专用权冲突浅议新一轮欧洲民法典之争过去十几年里，欧洲法律学术界围绕着欧洲民法典的必要性与可行性的争论从未停止过。
支持派依旧在不厌其烦地历数着在欧盟成员国间一系列条约框架下数十年里所取得的法律进展，而反对派在质疑欧盟法缺乏外部全面性和内部连贯性的同时，亦毫无留情地着墨于欧盟各成员国内不同的法律和社会文化对欧盟法律一体化过程的反向牵拉效用。
连年的质疑之声和欧洲宪法与里斯本条约在欧盟内连续遭遇的困境并没有泯灭相当数量的法学家的欧洲民法典之梦，自2003年以来在欧洲私法尤其是合同法领域内，一些学术团体跳出目前欧盟法框架前瞻性地独创出一系列的法律标准参数(CFR)，如2008年初发布《法律标准参数草案——欧洲私法基本原则、定义和现代法》，这些学术成果已在欧洲法学界掀起了新一轮的欧洲民法典之争。
本文从历史上几次有名的欧洲民法典之争谈起，着重对自2003年以来的欧洲私法学术界在法律标准参数上取得的成果进行初步的价值衡量，以求为欧洲私法乃至欧洲民法典或部门法典的未来进行建设性的思考。
一、理智还是敌意?欧盟以及前身欧洲共同体的超国家性无疑是欧洲民法典之争的根源所在，当大批欧洲法学家对一部可能的欧洲民法典欢呼雀跃并急不可待地开始对民法典的性质、结构乃至内容进行论证的时候，来自欧洲内部与外部的质疑和批评之声也从未休止过，而其中最有名的当属加拿大法学家皮埃尔 罗格郎。
在皮埃尔于1997年发表在《现代法评论》的一篇文章里[1]，他指出欧洲各国法律并未真正走上相互融合之路，而所谓的欧洲民法典之说纯粹是无稽之谈，他的理论依据之一在于对法律移植说本身的全盘否定。
这不仅使人联想起二三十年前恰恰就是以皮埃尔为主角的围绕着法律移植轰动一时的那场辩论，以法律史学家艾伦 沃森为首的支持派认为历史上多如繁星般的实例已经证明了法律移植的无处不在，而皮埃尔则依托并发展了法国孟德斯鸠的相关学说并指出法律移植的不可能性，一部法律或一项法律制度在转移至另一法律文化后必然丧失本意。
欧盟法与欧洲法院的案例分析与讨论
后才能适用。
补充适用原则
在成员国国内法没有相关规定 时，可以适用欧盟法作为补充
。
03
欧洲法院职责与程序
欧洲法院组成及职责
法院组成
欧洲法院由一名院长、若 干名法官和助理法官组成 ，他们由成员国政府共同 任命，任期通常为六年。
职责范围
欧洲法院负责对涉及欧盟 法的案件进行审理和裁决 ，确保欧盟法律得到统一 和有效的解释与适用。
02
探讨欧盟法在成员国间的影响
欧盟法对各成员国国内法的影响日益显著，通过案例分析可以探讨这种
影响的程度和范围。
03
促进欧洲一体化进程
欧洲法院作为欧盟司法机构，在推动欧洲一体化进程中发挥着重要作用
。对其案例的分析有助于理解这一进程中的法律问题和挑战。
欧盟法与欧洲法院概述
欧盟法体系
欧盟法体系由基础条约、条例、 指令、决定等构成，具有直接适
案例二：涉及竞争政策案例
案例名称
微软案（Microsoft）
案件背景
欧洲委员会指控微软滥用其在操作系统市场的支配地位，通过捆绑销 售等方式排挤竞争对手。
判决结果
欧洲法院裁定微软滥用市场支配地位，违反了欧共体竞争法，要求微 软支付巨额罚款并采取措施恢复市场竞争。
重要意义
此案表明了欧洲法院在维护市场竞争和保护消费者权益方面的决心， 也提醒企业应遵守竞争法规。
06
总结与展望
本次研究总结回顾
要点一
研究成果概述
本次研究对欧盟法与欧洲法院的案例 进行了深入的分析与讨论，揭示了欧 盟法在欧洲一体化进程中的重要作用 ，以及欧洲法院在解释和适用欧盟法 方面的权威地位。
欧洲民法典草案及其对我国民法典制定的借鉴意义
作者： 王金根
作者机构： 泉州师范学院陈守仁工商信息学院,福建泉州362000
出版物刊名： 西部法学评论
页码： 35-48页
年卷期： 2010年 第6期
主题词： 欧洲民法典草案 我国民法典制定 借鉴意义
摘要：欧盟经济一体化导致在私法领域需要实现交易规则的一体化。
为此，欧洲民法典研究所与欧盟现行私法研究所共同起草了一部“欧洲民法典草案（共同框架建议草案）”。
该草案无论是在结构上还是在具体内容上都颇有特色。
我国应从该法典民商合一的方法、大陆法系与英美法系融合的方法等多个方面借鉴其有益经验。
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上网找律师就到中顾法律网快速专业解决您的法律问题欧盟民法典草案之述评(中)付俊伟华盛顿大学法学院访问学者(三)民法典的构建在对欧盟民法典建立的必要性和可行性讨论过程中，“市场和效率”成为欧盟推动民法典构建的主要动力，近年来欧盟对私法统一所采取的措施和行动表明民法典的构建已是大势所趋。
然而，如何构建这部民法典则成为讨论的议题。
1、重回罗马法以赖因哈德·齐默尔曼(Reinhard Zimmermann)为代表的历史法学家提出了欧盟民法典应当以古罗马法为基础，重新回到中世纪的“共同法”(ius commune)之上。
[1] 历史法学家们发掘，欧洲各国在18世纪以前都享有着一部共同的法律，而现在欧盟各国法律的多样性是从十八世纪以后才开始逐渐区分的。
[2] 在这之前，欧洲各国共享着一部共同的法律，这部法律来源于古罗马法。
自从十一世纪学说汇纂(Digest)从博洛尼亚(Bologna)发掘出以后，欧洲兴起了前所未有的古罗马法研究热潮。
在那段时期，欧洲各上网找律师就到中顾法律网快速专业解决您的法律问题国的专家学者纷纷前往博洛尼亚学习法律。
随着亚里士多德《形而上学》和《伦理学》的翻译出版，以及阿奎纳将神学与哲学巧妙结合的阐述后，罗马法的研究逐渐走向理论化。
[3] 历史法学家通常认为罗马法学家只注重法律条文的完善，而不懂得从这些法律条文中寻找出法律的一般规则。
这也使得古罗马法学只具有一套成熟的规则，而缺乏理论的研究。
在文艺复兴精神的引导下，中世纪的法学家更懂得将古罗马法规则与古希腊思想相结合。
[4] 他们认为，古罗马法所有的规则都来源于古希腊哲学思想。
例如，罗马合同法来自于亚里士多德对“交换正义”的划分，而侵权法则来自于对“矫正正义”的阐述。
不仅如此，他们还认为古希腊哲学思想甚至影响到了整个罗马法的发展与构建。
[5] 在这种思想的影响下，中世纪的法学家试图构建出一套非常完美而系统的法学理论。
这套法学理论影响了整个欧洲国家法律的发展，欧洲各国也就是由这套精心建筑起来的法学理论统治着。
因此，历史法学家们认为我们现在所讲的私法统一，并非是将现行私法“欧洲化”(Europeanisation)，而是应当重新回到中世纪的“共同法”的时代。
[6] 他们认为，自十八世纪起，欧洲的这套共同法逐渐开始民族化，这就造成了当今各成员国私法的多样性。
但其根本法律基础都是由这套中世纪的“共同法”发展而来，如果重新回到这部法律中，那么法律文化基础多样性的差异也随之可以获得解上网找律师就到中顾法律网快速专业解决您的法律问题决。
历史法学家提倡的“重回罗马法”时代，在法学界引起大部分倡导构建民法典学者的共鸣。
值得一提的是，在欧盟私法统一过程中，各法学流派根据自己的宗旨和目的组建了法律研究的团队，推动了欧盟私法的快速发展和融合。
而历史法学流派组建的团体直接称为“共同法研究院”(Ius Commune Research School) [7]，将从部分罗马法条款到现代法律规则的演变淋漓尽致地展现了出来。
历史法学家提出的欧盟民法典的构建应当重新回到中世纪共同法的观点，也引起学界的一些反驳。
有学者指出，中世纪“共同法”是建立于《学说汇篡》基础之上的。
《学说汇篡》虽来源于公元六世纪的优帝法典，但该汇篡只是对以前法学家片断文字的综合，并不是法条或者教科书的汇集。
在汇篡中，时常出现观点和理论的相互矛盾、对立和不系统的现象。
因此，反驳者认为汇篡价值只能是学习和继承罗马法的研究方法，并非可以直接用于当今欧盟统一私法的构建。
同时，古罗马时代法律的调整对象与当今欧盟需要的私法相差甚远，古罗马法反映的是一种初级商业经济发展的需要，而现在我们寻求的私法统一则需要满足当今复杂化经济发展的要求。
因此，他们认为重回古罗马法时代的想法不切实际。
然而，历史法学家的提倡虽然没有全被采纳，但是其对古罗马法的研究客观上促使了欧盟私法的统一进程。
如“共同法研究院”系列丛书中的《诚实信用》(Good Faith)一书，使欧盟合同法对这一大陆上网找律师就到中顾法律网快速专业解决您的法律问题法系国家奉为“民法帝王规则”的理解更加深刻，同时也使这一模糊概念逐渐清晰。
2、法典法还是判例法在欧盟民法典构建过程中，私法统一的形式也成为争论焦点。
由于法典具有不灵活性，同时欧盟对法典的颁布也缺乏法理基础的支持。
因此，有学者建议应该像普通法系国家那样采取判例法的形式。
可以对欧盟法院的判决赋予一定效力，利用先前判例对以后判例具有约束力这一原则，使欧盟私法的统一以判例法呈现出来。
[8] 而普通法系灵活性这一优越特点也能使欧盟私法的统一不至于太僵化，同时也可以解决欧盟缺乏权力颁部法典这一问题。
然而，这一提议受到多数学者的反对，他们认为判例法国家的法律虽然具有灵活性，但是其法律并不系统，这也就是为什么美国现在要起草《法律重述》的重要原因。
[9] 判例法虽然能够及时应对社会发展中出现的新情况，但是不具有稳定性，同时判例法的发展也需要相当长的时间才能累积出一套体系。
而当前欧盟“单一市场”经济的发展迫切需要一部系统、健全的法典，以解决多样性私法所造成的阻碍。
[10] 值得一提的是，当今两大法系间的融合不断加深。
判例法国家已经认识到法典具有稳定性的优越性，也逐步借鉴大陆法系国家的经验而进行一系列的改革，美国的《统一商法典》就是一个典型，而英国上网找律师就到中顾法律网快速专业解决您的法律问题现在也正在考虑《统一商法典》的制定。
与此同时，大陆法系国家也认识到判例法所带来的“相同案情，相同判决”的公平、安定及灵活性特点。
以荷兰为例，荷兰民法典于1838年颁布，继承了《法国民法典》的精神，其主要规则直接来源于《拿破仑法典》。
1992年荷兰民法典得到重新修订，共分为八编，第一编为人法与家庭法，第二篇为法人法，第三编规定了财产法总则，第四编继承法，第五编物权法，第六编债法总则，第七编规定了有名合同，第八编运输法。
目前最后两编“知识产权法”与“国际私法”仍在起草中。
虽然荷兰是法典化国家，但在现实生活中，如果下级法院在相类似的案件中做出与最高法院发布的案例截然相反判决，当事人有权以最高法院的判决为依据请求对原判决进行复审。
[11] 这种规定无疑在采用法典制的同时，也吸收了判例法的公平、安定和灵活性的特点。
但欧盟在采用法典化的同时，是否也会赋予欧盟法院判决对其成员国法院具有约束力的效力，欧盟法院是否能对民法典作出具有“先例”效力的解释，还有待于讨论。
3、重述还是法典“重述”(restatement)一词来源于《美国法律重述》(American Law Restatement)，其主要特点是将现行多样性法律的普通规则表现出来。
而“法典”(codification)主要用于大陆法系国家，主要特点是具有强制执行力的统一规则的汇集。
[12] 而在欧盟民法典的构建上网找律师就到中顾法律网快速专业解决您的法律问题过程中，有学者提出应当像美国一样通过“重述”的形式将私法规则表现出来。
[13] 其目的主要有两点：第一是所有的规则来源于现行各国成员法律当中，起草小组只是从这些规则中找出最普遍适用的规则。
这与《美国法律重述》一致，其主要目的也是从各州多样性的法律当中找出最合适的规则。
这种方式不至于使起草小组重新创造出条款或规则，以至于将外来规则或概念强加于欧盟私法的融合之中;第二点是《美国法律重述》没有强制约束的效力，也是由非官方的专家、学者等组成的民间机构进行起草。
而欧盟民法典起草小组也是如此，其成员并非由官方指派。
同时，起草后的民法典应当也不具备强制约束力，而只供私法主体与法官参照。
因此，有学者建议欧盟民法典应当采用“重述”的形式。
[14]然而，批判者指出，欧盟颁布民法典的主要目标是为了消除私法多样性带来的阻碍，而完全采取“重述”的形式对促进“单一市场”经济发展作用甚微。
法典的形式能使欧盟更有效的解决私法多样性对自由市场的阻碍。
欧盟民法典草案的颁布表明“法典”的形式还是被多数学者所赞同。
但是《美国法律重述》的经验，尤其是从各州私法中寻找出最合适规则的方法论，无疑为欧盟民法典和《欧盟合同法原则》的起草提供了借鉴。
值得一提的是，欧盟民法典草案中的条款并非创造出来，而是在现行的各成员国所实行的法律中找出最普遍适用的规则。
上网找律师就到中顾法律网快速专业解决您的法律问题四、民法典草案之结构“欧盟民法典草案”，全名为《欧盟私法的原则、定义和示范规则：共同参照框架草案的暂时性版本》(Principles, Definitions and Model Rules of European Private Law: Draft Common Frame of Reference (DCFR) Interim Outline Edition)，于2007年底部分提交至欧盟。
但提交的版本并非全部草案内容，仅为“暂时性版本”(Interim Outline Edition)。
最终起草的全部草案共分为十篇，其中包括合同法、侵权法、不当得利与物权法等内容。
最后三编“物权法”(Property Law)和第四编“有名合同”(Specific Contracts)的其余部分于2008年底提交至欧盟，07年底提交的仅为前七编内容。
[15]在立法技术上，草案以编(Book)、章(Chapter)、节(Section)、分节(Sub-section)、条(Article)和部分(Part)为单位而构建起来。
07年底提交欧盟的“暂时性版本”从内容上分为：第一编一般规定(General Provisions)。
包括草案的适用范围，对各术语的定义、时间起算的标准和对草案条款的解释规则。
其中对术语定义(Definitions)和时间起算(Computation of time)的具体内容分别规定于附件一(Annex 1)和附件二(Annex 2)中。
上网找律师就到中顾法律网快速专业解决您的法律问题第二编合同与其它法律行为(Contracts and other juridical acts)。
包括一般条款(General provisions)、非歧视原则(Non-discrimination)、合同缔约前义务(Marketing andpre-contractual duties)、合同的成立(Formation)、撤销(Right of withdrawal)、代理(Representation)、有效性(Grounds of invalidity)、解释(Interpretation)、合同内容和效力(Contents and effects of contracts)。
第三编债和相应的权利(Obligations and Corresponding rights)。