伯南克公开课第三讲
第二章中央银行的制度的类型和结构

一、 中央银行的权力分配结构
依据所在国家经济发展水平、国家体制以及历 史传统等,中央银行的权力、职责和范围等也 有所不同。中央银行在货币政策、中央银行业 务方针和主要干部的人事任免以及规章制度方 面的权力可以分为决策权、执行权和监督权, 各国中央银行体制不同,如何行使上述权限可 以分为高度集中和相对分离两种模式。
行政(总局) 钞票(局) 通讯(局) 律师向执行局 欧洲央行在华盛顿的代表 经济学(总局) 金融的稳定与监督(局) 人力资源,预算及组织(总局) 信息系统(总局) 内部审计(局) 国际与欧洲关系(总局)
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杜伊森贝赫
前任主席—任期 1998年6月1日-2003年10月31日
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(二)决策权、执行权和监督权相对分离的模式
在这种模式中,分别由不同的机构行使决策、 执行和监督权。在世界主要国家中,日本、法国、 德国采取这种模式。
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日本银行
日本银行的最高决策机构是日本银行政策委员 会,其主要职责是:改变再贴现率和存款准备金比 率;调整金融市场运行规则以及日本银行主要职能 机构的变更等重要事项。日本银行政策委员会由9名 委员组成,包括日本银行总裁和2名副总裁以及来自 外部的6名委员,全部由内阁任命,国会批准,任期 5年。
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抢答题
中央银行国有化的原因?
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第二节 中央银行制度的组织结构
中央银行的组织结构包括权力分配结 构、内部职能结构和分支机构设置等 方面
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最高权力机构设置的原则
(1)独立性原则。一是对商业银行的
超然;二是对政府特别是对财政保持 一定独立。 (2)对社会负责原则 (3)决策科学化民主化原则
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第三讲美林投资时钟

一、美林的投资时钟概述
第三讲美林投资时钟
1、什么是投资时钟?
p 投资时钟的含义
Ø 美林的“投资时钟”是一种将经济周期与资产和行业 轮动联系起来的一种直观的投资方法。时钟从左下角开始, 沿顺时针方向依次经历衰退期、复苏期、过热期和滞涨期, 并周而复始。
p投资时钟体现的是实体经济运行与投资策略的 基 本联系。
第三讲美林投资时钟
2、投资时钟的作用
(1)增长和通胀驱动投资钟,帮助我们预测市场 的变动。
我们把投资钟画为圆圈的一个优点是:可以分别 考虑增长率和通胀率变动的影响。经济增长率指向 南北方向,通胀率指向东西方向。当经济受到海外 因素影响或受到冲击时,如:“9/11”,投资钟不再 简单地按照顺时针方向变换阶段,投资钟的这种画 法可以帮助我们预测市场的变动。
Ⅳ 在滞胀阶段,GDP的增长率降到潜能之下,但通胀却继 续上升,通常这种情况部分原因归于石油危机。产量下 滑,企业为了保持盈利而提高产品价格,导致工资-价格 螺旋上涨。只有失业率的大幅上升才能打破僵局。只有 等通胀过了顶峰,中央银行才能有所作为,这就限制了 债券市场的回暖步伐。企业的盈利恶化,股票表现非常 糟糕。
第三讲美林投资时钟
p产出缺口与通胀的波峰和波谷 Ø 投资钟被重新画成一个圈(图3)。一个经典的 繁荣-萧条周期始于左下方,沿顺时针方向循 环。从一个阶段向下一个阶段的变换,可以通 过产出缺口与通胀的波峰和波谷来识别。
第三讲美林投资时钟
图3:投资时钟
来源:美林全球资产配置小组。箭头表示在一个经典的繁荣萧条周期中的循环顺序。
第三讲美林投资时钟
p 欧元区的情况当然更糟。11月份各国的平均通胀 率只有0.9%。这迫使瑞典和匈牙利慌忙再次将其 利率水平再次削减到更低的水平。而且这也导致 欧美日的央行在苦苦冥思,是否真正需要更低的 利率水平?
伯南克第一课英文讲义

伯南克第一课英文讲义时间3月21日凌晨,美联储主席伯南克稍早时在乔治-华盛顿大学商学院进行了针对该院学生系列讲座的第一讲,题目为:美联储的基本使命。
以下是伯南克本次讲座的英文讲义全文。
(资料来源于美联储)The Federal Reserve and the Financial CrisisOrigins and Mission of the Federal Reserve, Lecture 1George Washington University School of BusinessMarch 20, 2012, 12:45 p.m。
[Applause]President Steve Knapp: Well, good afternoon. I think the students here may know who I am but for those who are watching the broadcast, I'm Steve Knapp, President of George Washington University. And it's really a pleasure to welcome you to today's first class in the series entitled Reflections on the Federal Reserve and its place in today's economy, featuring the Chairman of the Federal Reserve, Dr. Ben Bernanke. I'm pleased to acknowledge that we have with us two of the university's trustees, Nelson Carbonell and Mark Shenkman, and also a number of faculty members are here in the audience and some of them will be teaching later in the series. Today is the first university lecture series delivered by a sitting Chairman of the Federal Reserve. I think it does provide an extraordinary opportunity for the students who are here in the classroom, but also for those watching online. They have an opportunity to gain insight into the nation's central banking system and a wide range of issues that affect this country and the world. I do want to say that there are microphones available for the students, and certainly encourage you when the Chairman's lecture is over to avail yourself of those and we hope there'll be a lively exchange of questions and answers at the end of the lecture. It's now a distinct honor to introduce the Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Dr. Ben Bernanke. Dr. Bernanke took office in 2006, and is now serving a second term as Chairman. He also serves as Chairman of the Federal Reserve's Open Market Committee. Before his appointment as Chairman, Dr. Bernanke was involved with the Federal Reserve in several roles as a Member of the Board of Governors, as a visiting scholar, and as a member of the Academic Advisory Panel at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. He also served as Chairman of the President's Council of Economic Advisers from June 2005 to January 2006.Now Chairman Bernanke is no stranger to academia. He's been a faculty member at Princeton, Stanford and New York University, as well as the MassachusettsInstitute of Technology. He's held a Guggenheim and a Sloan Fellowship, and is a fellow of the Econometric Society and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Chairman Bernanke received a Bachelor of Arts from Harvard University and a PhD from MIT. Ladies and gentlemen, please join me in welcoming Chairman of the Federal Reserve, Dr. Ben Bernanke.[ Applause ]Chairman Ben Bernanke: Thank you very much, President Knapp. Gee, this is great. This is what I used to do before I got in this line of work for 23 years and I've always enjoyed engaging with college students. So thank you for being here, and I hope we do have a good conversation. Let me particularly thank President Knapp and Professor Fort and George Washington University. As everybody here knows, these lectures are part of a real course and after I get off the scene there will be other professors talking about other aspects of the Fed and you'll hear different points of view which is great. And you'll have to do some papers and all those kinds of things and I'm going to read a few of the paper. So, I look forward to doing that.So, I'll be talking from slides, which is in part for the purpose of making this available to others who might be interested. These slides will be posted on the Federal Reserve's website, , as we go through. And so, if you need extra copies, by all means do that. And as President Knapp said, I'm going to be talking for a while from the presentation but at the end, I hope we can have some questions and answers.So, let me get started. So what I want to talk about in these four lectures is the Federal Reserve and the financial crisis. Now, my thinking about this is very much conditioned by my experience as an economic historian. I think when you talk about the issues that just occurred of the last few years, it makes the most sense to think about it in the broader context of central banking as its taking place over the centuries. So, even though we're going to be focusing a good bit of the lectures, particularly next week, on the financial crisis and how the Fed responded. I think we need to go back and look at the broader context. So, as we talk about the Fed we'll be talking about the origin and mission of central banks in general, and we're looking at previous financial crises, most notably the Great Depression, and see how that informed the Fed's actions and decisions in the recent crisis. So let me just give you a roadmap of the four lectures. Today, lecture one, we won't touch on the current crisis at all. Instead, we'll talk about what central banks are, what they do, how central banking got started in the United States and we'll do some history. We'll talk about how the Fed engaged with its first great challenge, the Great Depression of the 1930s. The second lecture on Thursday, we'll take up the history. We'll review developments in central banking and with the Federal Reserve after World War II talking about the conquest of inflation, the great moderation and other developments that occurred after World War II. But we'll spend a good bitof time lecture two, in lecture two, talking about the build-up to the crisis and some of the factors that led to the crisis of 2008, 2009.Then next week, we'll get into the more recent events. In lecture three, we'll talk about the intense phase of the financial crisis, its causes, its implications, and particularly, the response to the crisis by the Federal Reserve and by other policymakers. And then, in the final lecture, lecture four, we'll look at the aftermath. We'll talk about the recession that followed the crisis, the policy response of the Fed including monetary policy, the broader response in terms of the changes in financial regulation, and a little bit of forward-looking discussion about how this experience will change how central banks operate and how the Federal Reserve will operate going forward. So this is our topic today is origins and missions of the Federal Reserve. So let's talk in general about what a central bank is. If you've had some background in economics you know that a central bank is not a regular bank, it's a government agency, and it stands at the center of the monetary and financial system of a country. Central banks are very important institutions, they have helped to guide the development of modern financial systems, modern monetary systems and they play a major role in economic policy. Now, we've had various arrangements over the years but today, virtually, all countries have central banks. The Federal Reserve in the United States, the Bank of Japan in Japan, Bank of Canada, and so on. The main exception is only cases where you have what's called a currency union where a number of countries collectively share a central bank. The most important example by far of that is the European Central Bank which is central bank to 17 European countries who share the common currency, the Euro. But even in that case, each of the participating countries does have its own central bank which is part of the overall system of the Euro. So central banks are now ubiquitous, even the smallest countries typically have central banks. Now, this is a very important theme here, what do Central Banks do? What is their mission? And as I'll discuss throughout the lectures, it's convenient to talk about two broad aspects of what central banks do. The first is to try to achieve macroeconomic stability. And by that, I generally mean stable growth in the economy, avoiding big swings, recessions and the like, and keeping inflation low and stable. So that's the economic function of a central bank. The other function of central banks, which is going to get a lot of attention, obviously, in these lectures, is the financial stability function. Central banks try to keep the financial system working normally and in particular, they either, they try to prevent or if unsuccessful in preventing they try to mitigate financial panics or financial crises. And I'll talk more about what those are. Now what are the tools that central banks use to achieve these two broad objectives? Very, in very simple terms, there are basically two broad sets of tools. On the economic stability side, the main tool as I'm sure everyone knows is monetary policy. In normal times, the Fed, for example, can raise or lower short-term interest rates. It does that by buying and selling securities in the open market. And again, in normal times, if the economy is growing too slowly or inflation is falling too low, the Fed can stimulate the economy by lowering interest rates. Lower interest rates feedthrough to a broad range of other interest rates that encourages spending, acquisition of homes for example, construction, investment by firms, borrowing. It just generates more demand, more spending and more investment in the economy, and that creates more thrust in growth so that to stimulate an economy, you lower interest rates. And similarly, if the economy is growing too hot, if inflation is becoming a problem, then the normal tool of central bank is to raise interest rates. So by raising the overnight interest rate, known in the United States as the federal funds rate, higher interest rates feed through the system and help to slow the economy by raising the cost of borrowing, of buying a house, of buying a car, or of investing in capital goods and that will slow the economy and reduce pressure of overheating. So, monetary policy is the basic tool that central banks have used for many, many years to try to keep the economy at a more or less even keel in terms of both growth and inflation.Now, a little less familiar is the main tool of central banks in dealing with financial panics or financial crises. And that tool is the provision of liquidity. So to address financial stability concerns and for reasons I'll explain, one thing that central banks can do is make short-term loans to financial institutions. As I'll explain, providing short-term credit to financial institutions during a period of panic or crisis can help calm the market, can help stabilize those institutions and can help mitigate or bring to an end a financial crisis. So this activity which is an old one, as I'll discuss, is known as the lender of last resort tool. So again, if financial markets are disrupted, financial institutions don't have alternative sources of funding, then the central bank stands ready to service the lender of last resort providing liquidity to the system and thereby helping to stabilize the financial system.Now, there's a third tool which the Fed has had from the beginning and most central banks have which is financial regulation and supervision. Central banks usually play a role in supervising the banking system, assessing the extent of risk on their portfolios, making sure their practices are sound, and in that way, trying to keep the financial system healthy. To the extent that financial system can be kept healthy and its risk-taking within reasonable bounds, then the chance of a financial crisis occurring in the first place is reduced. However, this activity, and I will come back to it, this is something which is not unique to central banks. In the United States, for example, there are a number of different agencies, like the FDIC or the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency that work with the Fed in supervising the financial system. So this is not unique to central banks and so I'll be down playing this for the time being and focusing on the two principle tools, monetary policy and lender of last resort activities.Now, where do central banks come from? One thing people don't appreciate, I think, is that central banking is not a new development. It's been around for a very long time. The Swedes set up a central bank in 1668, three and a half centuries ago. TheBank of England was founded in 1694 and that of course for many decades or if not centuries was the most important and influential central bank in the world, and France in 1800. So, central bank theory and practice is, again, not a new thing. We have been thinking about these issues collectively as an economics profession and in other contexts for many, many years. Now, I've exaggerated slightly in a sense that, say, the Bank of England in 1694 wasn't set up from scratch, it's a full-fledged central bank, it was originally a private institution. And over time, it acquired some of the functions of a central bank such as issuing money or serving as lender of last resort. But over time, these central banks became essentially government agencies, government institutions as they all are today. Certainly, one important responsibility of central banks for much of the period that I'm talking about was to manage the gold standard to issue paper money that was backed by gold and I'll talk more about gold in a few moments.Now, the lender of last resort function, which I mentioned earlier, became important in the-- mostly in the 19th century. Early in the 19th century, the Bank of England was doing a lot of this type of activity and they became very good at it. And as we'll see, while the United States was suffering with banking panics in the latter part of the 19th century, banking panics in the United Kingdom were quite rare. So the Bank of England sort of set the pace in some sense. It was the most important central bank and it helped establish the practices and the approaches that we still use today. Now, I need to talk a little bit because it's less familiar about what a financial panic is. In general, a financial panic is sparked by a loss of confidence in an institution and I think the best way to explain this is to give a familiar example. How many of you have ever seen the movie "It's a Wonderful Life"? No? Less people are watching Christmas movies than they used to be, I guess [laughter]. Well, one of the problems that Jimmy Stewart runs into as a banker in “It’s a Wonderful Life” is a threatened run on his institution. And what is a run? Well, let's imagine a situation like Jimmy Stewart's situation before there was any deposit insurance, no FDIC. And imagine you have a bank on the corner, just a regular commercial bank, the first bank of Washington, D.C., and this bank makes loans to businesses and the like, and it finances itself by taking deposits from the public and deposits are demand deposits, which means that anybody can pull out their money anytime they want which is important because people use deposits for ordinary activities, like shopping.Now imagine what would happen if for some reason, a rumor goes around that this bank has made some bad loans and is losing money. As a depositor, you say to yourself, "Well, I don't know if this rumor is true or not。
现代西方哲学讲义

现代西方哲学讲义2015.06第一讲现代西方哲学概论 (2)第二讲新黑格尔主义之鲍桑葵 (4)第三讲意志主义之叔本华 (8)第四讲意志主义之尼采(1) (12)第五讲意志主义之尼采(2) (17)第六讲生命哲学之柏格森 (20)第七讲精神分析学之弗洛伊德 (25)第八讲实用主义之詹姆斯 (31)第九讲科学哲学之波普尔 (35)第十讲现象学之胡塞尔 (40)第十一讲存在哲学之海德格尔(一) (44)第十二讲存在哲学之海德格尔(二) (51)第十三讲:存在哲学之萨特 (57)第十四讲分析哲学之维特根斯坦 (62)政治哲学之罗尔斯 (65)第十六讲哲学的终结与后哲学 (70)第一讲现代西方哲学概论三、现代西方哲学(一)西方哲学的发展线索1. 柏拉图主义与亚里士多德主义:柏拉图和亚理士多德哲学奠定了整个西方哲学的传统和基本走向。
实际上,西方哲学一直有两条线,分别由柏拉图和亚理士多德开启。
前者重概念和先天,后者重具体事物和经验。
2. 唯实论与唯名论:中世纪早期主要以柏拉图主义为其思想资源,后期则转向亚里士多德主义。
基于共相与殊相关系的唯名论与唯实论之争也源于柏拉图和亚里士多德的思想分歧:唯实论是柏拉图哲学的产物,唯名论则与亚里士多德有不解之缘。
3. 理性主义与经验主义:近代哲学中的唯理论延续了柏拉图路线,经验论则是亚里士多德的后裔。
康德看到了唯理论和经验论各自的优势和局限性,于是对二者加以综合,形成了他的批判哲学体系。
4. 大陆哲学与分析哲学:19世纪晚期,穆勒基于德法两国和英国哲学家对康德的不同回应,首次在欧洲大陆哲学和英国哲学之间做出区分,后来这种区分逐渐被双方的哲学家所采纳和加强,形成了两种风格迥异的哲学传统,从而构成了20世纪以来西方哲学的一道独特的风景。
大陆哲学与分析哲学不是两种不同的哲学思潮,而是“做哲学”的两种不同的风格。
“二十世纪的哲学史是刺猬与狐狸的历史,是那些努力想认识一件大事物的哲学家与那些只满足于认识许多小事物,甚或只是一件小事物的哲学家的历史。
在桥边2014 经典 实用 公开课

伯尔的小说创作,从1947至 1951年,主要取材于第二次世界大 战,它们揭露和批判法西斯侵略战 争,以被迫充当炮灰的普通德国士 兵的遭遇,反映了德国人民的苦难。 1953至1965年,伯尔的创作主题从 批判战争转为批判战后的西德社会, 小商贩、小职员、孤儿寡妇等小人 物的社会遭遇成了他作品的主要内 容。
为了后者这一艰难的重建工 程,不少刚刚从战争和死亡的阴 影下解脱出来的年轻人,昨天的 士兵或联军俘虏,拿起了企盼已 久的笔,释放出压抑积累多年的 所思所想,表现出九死一生和灵 魂震撼之后的人性悲悯和不妥协 的批判精神。
1924年至1928年,伯尔在天主教市 民学校学习。此后转入国立的威廉皇帝 高中。1937年中学毕业后,他开始在位 于波恩的书商那里当学徒。在十一个月 之后因故中断。在此期间,他开始了最 初的文学写作尝试。1938年,伯尔服了 一年帝国自愿服务。1939年夏,他进入 科隆大学,学习日尔曼语言学和经典哲 学,同时开始写作第一部小说,《教堂 边缘》,但是在夏末时他被征召入伍。 此后一直在军中服役,直到1945年4月被 美军俘虏,并在同年9月被释放。
他始终认为重要的是从日常 生活中提取社会状况,并关注那 些公众舆论不重视的东西。指出, “要了解一个国家的人道情况应 该去看它所废弃的东西,看这个 国家把哪些日常的,哪些还可以 用的,哪些诗意的东西视为应该 丢弃和被消灭的”。
七十年代,伯尔连续发表了 三部重要作品,通过小人物的不 幸遭遇,展现德国战前、战争年 代以及当前人们的生活风貌,揭 露西德社会的弊端,使其文学成 就达到了新的高峰。
我的乱数:象征着我对现状的不 满和无声的反抗; 心爱的姑娘:象征着精神和理想; 坚持漏数姑娘:文化失落大背景 下对精神和梦想的坚守; 缝补假腿和数过桥人、马车、汽 车数量的差事:物质意义上的抚 恤
美联储的起源和使命--伯南克乔治华盛顿大学公开课

美联储的起源和使命--伯南克乔治华盛顿大学公开课广义央行:央行是政府机关,它处于一个国家货币和财政系统的中心地位,它帮助规范现代财政和货币系统的发展,在经济政策中起主要作用.央行的功能:1、(经济功能)促进宏观经济的稳定,即稳定经济增长,防止大的浮动和衰退,保持低而稳定的通胀率。
2、(财政稳定功能)央行尽力保持财政系统的正常运作,央行尤其尽力阻止,若未能阻止就尽力缓解金融恐慌或金融危机。
央行实现这两大目标所使用的工具:第一个工具--货币政策:在稳定经济方面,在常态下,央行主要的货币工具是提高或降低短期利率,通过在开放市场上买进或卖出证券.在常态下,如果经济增长缓慢,或是通胀降至过低,美联储将通过降低利率来刺激经济,低储蓄率将馈通(传导)其他各种利率,这将鼓励消费,例如购置房产,鼓励建设,公司投资,贷款,也就是将引发更多的需求,更多的消费,更多的在经济上的投资,也就拉动了经济增长。
因此要刺激经济,就降低利率;如果经济增长过快,如果通胀过高而成为问题,央行通常的应对是提高利率,通过提高隔夜利率(美国称为联邦基金利率),更高的利率馈通金融系统,这又助于减缓经济,通过提高买房的借贷成本、生产资料投资借贷成本,这将减缓经济过热的压力,因此,货币政策是基本工具,以将经济保持在一个增长和通胀都基本平稳的状态;第二个工具--最后贷款者行为:而我们更不熟悉的工具是央行应对金融恐慌和金融危机的主要工具,即流动性供给,为了解决对金融稳定笥的担忧,以及其他我将解释的原因,央行能做的就是向金融机构提供短期贷款,我将解释在恐慌或危机时期,向金融机构提供短期贷款能稳定市场,稳定金融机构,帮助缓解或结束金融危机,这并不是一个新方法,这种方法被称为“最后贷款者”。
如果金融市场崩溃,金融机构没有其他资金来源,这时央行将随时准备,作为最后贷款者来向系统提供流动性,从而帮助稳定金融系统。
第三个工具:美联储从最初就有的、大多数央行也有的是金融监管,央行通常起监管银行系统的作用,评估其证券投资组合风险程度,保障其行为的合理可靠,从而保持金融系统的健康。
chapter3 John DonnePPT课件

English Literature during the English Bourgeois Revolution and the Restoration
Historical Background
The English Revolution: The death of Queen Elizabeth ends the collaboration between the monarchy and the bourgeoisie. With the accession of CharlesⅠ to the throne in 1625, the conflict became more acute between the monarch and the Parliament composed of solid middle-class country gentry and merchants, nearly all puritans. The clash led to a civil war in 1642 between the Royalists troops and the Parliamentary forces under the command of Oliver Cromwell. The Parliamentary forces, though suffered some setbacks in the beginning, decisively defeated the Royalists in Naseby in1645. The Civil War ended with the capture and execution of CharlesⅠ in 1649 and a republic under the name of the Commonwealth of England was founded with Cromwell as Lord Protector.
金融的本质读后感范文

金融的本质读后感金融的本质读后感范文看完一本名著后,大家一定对生活有了新的感悟和看法,这时候,最关键的读后感怎么能落下!可是读后感怎么写才合适呢?以下是小编收集整理的金融的本质读后感范文,希望对大家有所帮助。
金融的本质读后感篇1《金融的本质》完整记录了伯南克所作全部四讲讲座,第一讲美联储的起源与使命,第二讲二战后的美联储,第三讲美联储应对金融危机的政策反应,第四讲危机的后遗症。
媒体讨论较多是第三讲和第四讲,因为这两讲重点介绍了美联储在次贷危机期间政策制定的考量因素和决策程序,在某种程度也被视为是伯南克对其危机处理措施批评意见的辩解和回应,具有“揭秘”效应,自然也十分吸引眼球。
剖析和反省次贷危机的作品早已汗牛充栋,伯主席的评点虽然精道但新意不多,通读《金融的本质》全书,反倒是前两讲关于央行职能和美联储历史这些看似ABC的内容,通过伯南克深入浅出、举重若轻的解读,更引发我的兴趣。
在市场经济体系中,中央银行具有货币发行权、市场规则制定权和监管权,因而成为金融市场的“首脑机关”。
一般认为,央行应当具有独立性,最好不受政府的微观干预,目前美联储和欧洲央行也确实具有很大的政策自主权。
长期以来,一种批评声音认为我国央行缺少与主要经济体央行一样的独立性,货币政策掣肘过多,金融部门成为政府意志的附庸。
也有很多研究认为,政府干预央行决策并不能提高经济政策的效率,相反还会造成社会福利损失。
我国货币政策始终与财政政策配合使用,两者搭配关系大致根据经济增速和通货膨胀水平决定。
这种“两手抓”的经济治理模式似乎是十分奏效的,最好的证据是我国经济建设取得的巨大成功。
但是,随着经济结构转型深入,市场化程度提升和政府在经济活动中的角色异化,缺少可预测性和独立性的货币政策在效果上越来越表现出难以驾驭的复杂性,如同是一个正处于青春期的孩子,性格中多了叛逆的成分。
货币政策的影响需要通过特定的渠道层层传导,大家最熟悉的传导渠道是利率渠道,也就是央行通过调整市场关键利率(在我国主要是一年期存、贷款基准利率)影响资金价格,进而影响市场长短期流动性水平。
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伯南克公开课第三讲美联储与危机伯南克自辩危机应对:必须“注水”,没冒险使用纳税人的钱希望金融机构“大而不能倒”的困境不再出现2008年以前,美国金融机构极力怂恿居民通过抵押贷款购房伯南克(Ben S. Bernanke)在此前两课中我曾提到这一系列讲座的关键主题是央行的两大主要责任,即力求金融稳定和经济稳定。
为实现金融稳定,央行的主要工具是其作为最后贷款人的能力,央行通过向金融机构提供短期流动性来弥补匮乏的融资。
为实现经济稳定,央行的主要工具是货币政策,包括调整短期利率水平等。
今天我将主要讲讲金融危机发生的2008年和2009年,并关注央行作为最后贷款人的功能。
非优质贷款被“扮靓”并遍布所有金融机构上次我谈到了金融体系中存在的一些脆弱性使房价下跌的影响更加复杂,否则,仅仅房价下降给经济带去的冲击不过是像2000年科技股泡沫散去一样。
这里的脆弱性包括私人机构的脆弱性,包括过度举债等。
而更重要的是,银行无力监管自身风险,从19世纪一些银行的遭遇可以发现,如果短期资金撤出,那么银行面临挤兑状况时将无能为力。
此外,像信用违约掉期和其他有毒金融工具的过度使用等,都会导致风险在特定公司或特定市场中过度集中。
公共机构也存在脆弱性,包括监管结构上的缺陷、重要公司和市场未得到有效监管或至少法律方面的监管不充分等。
例如,监管机构在要求银行提高监管和管理其风险的能力上的努力是不够的。
危机开始后我们也关注到:不同的监管机构负责金融体系中的不同领域,而对整个金融体系的稳定则关注不够。
公共机构存在脆弱性的典型表现就是被称为政府资助企业的房利美和房地美。
房利美和房地美(下称“两房”)虽有股东和董事会,却并不仅仅是私人企业,它们是国会批准成立的,其使命是支持住房市场。
它们并不提供住房抵押贷款,相反,它们是作为中间人存在的,介于房屋抵押贷款最初提供方和抵押贷款的最终持有人之间。
所以,一家银行可以将抵押出售给房利美和房地美,后者会接受这些抵押品,并将其转变成抵押贷款支持债券。
房贷支持债券就是抵押贷款的证券化产品,这一过程被称为债券化。
房利美和房地美开创了这一金融工具,将其作为通过放贷获得融资的基本途径。
特别是当它们出售房屋抵押支持债券时,也为信贷损失提供担保。
也就是说,一旦抵押贷款出现问题,它们将为投资者承担风险。
现在,两房被允许在有效资本下运营,一旦发生太多抵押贷款损失的情况,两房将陷入困境。
它们没有充足资本来支付,无法兑现支付承诺的担保。
金融危机的很多方面都未被提前预测,这便是其中之一。
回到危机发生10年前,美联储人员和其他很多人就认为,两房如果没有充足资本,将威胁到金融体系的稳定。
但情况是,两房不仅出售债券,还买入了包括其他私人机构发行债券在内的大量债券。
它们通过持有房屋抵押而获利,连未受保护的房屋抵押都一并拿下。
然而,它们无法承受损失,缺乏资本也使他们面临风险,这是触发危机的一个重要原因。
这不仅仅是房市荣枯问题,伴随的还有抵押贷款产品和金融实践等。
此外,加上很多不标准的贷款(标准贷款是那些利率固定的30年期优质抵押贷款),各种各样的抵押贷款的申请者经常还是信用状况不佳的购房人。
这些抵押贷款的特点是,只有房价不断上涨,贷款才能够被偿付。
例如,你申请了利率可变动的房屋贷款,最初的利率如果为1%,前一两年还款没问题,两年后利率或升高至3%,4年后或升高至5%,不断上涨,你不得不在某刻再融资,转入更为标准化的抵押贷款。
只要房价不断上涨,还能够为房主带来流动性,他就能够进行再融资。
但一旦房价不再上涨,贷款人发现不但未获得流动性,反而房屋的市场价值低于所欠的按揭款。
它们无法再融资,还发现还款额不断上涨。
在2006年前,房价开始大幅下降便验证了上述理论。
不良抵押贷款的实践例子很多各有特点,如利率可调贷款、可选择部分还款(初期少还月供,以后再多还)等,有些抵押贷款合同还没有贷款人的信用材料,放贷方因此也无法确保贷款者的信用及其还贷能力。
当时的一些广告很能暴露问题。
我们看看它们提供的条件。
如只有“1%的低初始利率”,也就是第一年的利率,而没有告诉你下一年的利率,又如“收入自报”,意思是你告诉银行你的收入,银行写下就完了,这就是全部的信用审核。
还有“100%融资”,就是无需首付。
“仅付利息放贷”,就是你只需付息,不必非要还本金。
“债务合并”,这个很有趣,意思是你找到房贷公司,并说:“我不仅想借钱买房,还想把信用卡欠款和其他负债转入抵押贷款中,我想也使用1%的起始利率,”这是很有问题的贷款方式。
现在房贷公司、银行和其他很多机构,都搞这种贷款,它们的结局将如何?它们如何融资?其中,一些抵押贷款被计入到放贷发行人的资产负债表,但更多的有毒或次级放贷被打包成债券,并在市场上出售。
举个例子,如果放贷抵押被出售给房利美和房地美,它们必须满足两房的发行标准,两房会把它们打包成抵押贷款的支持债券并与担保一同出售。
这还是有抵押贷款支持的简单形式的债券,复杂的债券则更是叫人费解,比如说抵押债券通常是将放贷与其他债券合并的债券,并且可以被分层次出售,即可向一个投资者出售债券中最为安全的那部分,再向另一个出售最为高风险的那部分。
投资者欣然购买这些债券的一个原因是:评级机构给予很多这些债券3A级高评级。
也就说“它们很安全,你不必担忧这些债券的信用风险”。
由此,很多这样的债券卖给了包括养老基金、保险公司、境外银行甚至是富人这样的投资者。
此外,债券还会卖给发放这些贷款或创建这些债券的金融机构,它们能够创造会计神话,通过这些债券的商业票据等廉价的负债表工具来融资。
通过上述形式,一些债券被卖给投资者,一些则由金融机构自身持有。
另外,还有美国国际集团这样出售保险的公司,创造出各种各样的信贷衍生品,其实质就是:“给我们些钱,如果你买入的房贷支持债券背后的抵押贷款出现问题,风险我们承担,你不会遭受损失。
”虽然这些债券都是3A评级,但上述操作使相关债券乏善可陈。
最后的局面是:风险可以扩散至整个体系。
房价下跌让投资者惊醒大公司已难逃厄运现在想想什么是危机?有金融机构时就会发生危机或金融混乱。
例如,一家银行有长期贷款这样的流动性资产,也有存款这样的短期负债。
典型的银行危机是:如果存款人对银行所持有资产的质量失去信心,他们将选择提现。
如果银行不能及时地将贷款转变为现金,将没有钱支付每个存款人,挤兑就发生了。
这个时候,银行要么破产,要么快速在市场上将长期资产变现,并承受巨大损失。
2008年、2009年金融危机是发生在不同机构身上的典型的金融危机。
不仅发生在银行业,而是在更广泛的金融市场环境下。
2006年、2007年房价下降时,我们无法偿付人们借入的次级抵押贷款,拖欠贷款或违约的情况越来越多,并最终使金融公司(及其发明的投资工具)和美国国际集团这样的信用保险公司得不偿失。
如果假设全美国的次级抵押贷款都变得一文不值,金融体系的全部损失约等于股市糟糕的一天所减少的市值,这还不是特别巨大。
但骇人的是,由于债券过于复杂,金融公司对其自身风险的监控不充分,当损失分散至不同的债券、不同的领域,并没有人真正知道损失发生在何处、谁将承受损失。
所以,这在金融市场引发了巨大的不确定性。
结果便是:不管何处的短期融资,无论是商业票据还是其他类型的短期融资,不像存款那样保险,这些“批发融资”,多来自投资者和其他金融公司。
一旦一家公司遭遇信用危机,就会引发更多的人去银行挤兑,投资者、借款人、交易对手将纷纷撤出资金,这道理和存款人从被认为有麻烦的银行取现是一样的。
大规模挤兑一旦发生,将给金融公司带来巨大压力,它们失去资金,被迫快速出手资产,金融市场也会被严重干扰。
1930年代大萧条时期,数千家银行破产,大多为小银行,只在欧洲有一些大银行破产。
而2008年危机的不同之处在于:在很多小型银行破产的同时,美国多个最大型的金融机构也承受巨大的压力。
贝尔斯登2008年3月在短期融资市场上承受了巨大的压力,在美联储辅助下,被出售给了摩根大通。
此后危机略有缓解,甚至夏季时一些人认为金融危机或将得到控制,但到了夏末,事情就开始恶化了。
2008年9月7日,房利美和房地美明显被卷入,两房没有足够资金偿付抵押贷款担保损失。
美联储与两房监管机构及财政部合作,确定了资金缺口,最后财政部在美联储帮助下介入接收了两家公司,将其置于一种有限破产模式下,即托管。
更广为人知的是,雷曼兄弟在9月中期遭受了严重损失,既找不到收购方又找不到愿意提供资本的机构,在9月15日,该公司申请破产,同日,另一家大交易公司美林被美银收购。
我谈到的这些金融机构都为美国前10或前15排名的大型公司,欧洲也是类似的情况。
所以,情况是不仅仅小型银行受到影响,最大的、最复杂的跨国金融机构也面临破产。
向金融机构提供资金是克服恐惧的最佳办法现在我们来讨论第二部分。
首先,请记住美联储在20世纪30年代大萧条时期的教训——在稳定银行系统方面做得不够。
在当时的金融恐慌中,美联储本来应该根据巴杰特规则大量发放贷款以阻止挤兑、竭力维持金融系统的稳定。
此外,美联储在防止通缩和货币供应萎缩方面也做得不够,因此需要有适应性的货币政策避免经济深度衰退。
而在这次金融危机中,美联储和联邦政府显然吸取了上述教训,采取有力行动阻止金融恐惧,并在此过程中与其他机构和其他国家央行、政府通力合作。
值得特别指出的是:2008年10月10日这天,在华盛顿举行的G7会议发布了一项从头写就的声明并分发,声明以美联储的部分提议为基础,其中首先是:我们打算共同防止系统重要性银行再破产。
因为在雷曼兄弟公司破产之后,我们准备确保银行和其他金融机构可从央行获得融资、从政府得到资本。
我们准备努力恢复储蓄者信心和投资者信心,尽可能合作以推动信贷市场的正常化。
再看看10月10日G7会议后多个国家发布声明后的情形如何,在几天内,我们开始看到银行的压力减小,到该年年末和2011年1月初,银行系统的融资压力有了重大改善。
因此我认为,这是国际合作的典范,充分说明这不仅是美国才有的现象,不仅是美国的政策,也不仅是美联储,而是真正的全球合作,尤其是美国与欧洲的合作努力。
美联储在此过程中发挥了重要作用,提供流动性以确保遏制金融恐慌。
对此我只做简要概述,下面将讲一些基本知识,并分析两个案例阐述其中的部分问题。
美联储有一个叫贴现窗口的机构,常规运作是向银行提供短期融资。
银行可能是一天运营结束时发现资金短缺,它希望向美联储提供抵押品,以此可获得隔夜贷款,利率是美联储收取的所谓贴现率。
因此,要允许美联储向银行提供贷款的贴现窗口始终存在。
贴现窗口总是有效的,无需采取特别步骤向银行提供贷款,一直以来,美联储始终在向银行贷款。
为了让银行对信贷的可获得性感到放心,我们做了一些调整。
为了向银行系统注入更多流动性,我们对通常为隔夜贷款的贴现窗口贷款展期,我们延长它的期限,拍卖贴现窗口资金,各金融机构可以竞标。