语言学

名词解释1.Subordination:It refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they havedifferent syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.2.Back-for mation: Itrefers to an unusually abnormal type of word-formation where a shorterword is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.3.Illocutionary act:an act performed in saying something. To saysth.is to do sth.4.Categorization:the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based oncommonalities and differences. It is a major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge and it allows us to relate present experiences to past ones. There are three levels in categories:basic level, superordinate level, and the subordinate level.5.Socilect: Sociolect or Social-class dialect, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of aparticular social class. Social dialect has to do with separation brought about by different social conditions.6.Allophones:Variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.Allophonesrefer tothe different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment.nguage:a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for HUMANcommunication.8.Derivation：Derivation or affixation is a word-formation process by which new words arecreated by adding affixes to the root.○1Derivations can make the word class either changed or unchanged.②In English, there is usually one inflectional affix per word, but multiple derivational affixesare allowed.9.Sense：It may be defined as the semantic relations between one word andanother, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another. It is concerned with the intralinguistic relations.10.Fossilization: a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguisticsfeaturesbecome a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.Fossilization may occur at any time and at any level.10.Interlanguage: Interlanguage refers to the lea rners’ independent system of thetarget language which is of neither the NL northe target language, but a continuum or approximation from his NL to the TL.简答1.Explain the design features of human language with your own words1)Arbitrariness:Saussure refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. There are no direct or intrinsic links between the symbol or word and the thing it refers to.2)Duality:By duality, we mean thatlanguage has the property of having two levels of structures. The units of the primary（higher）level are composed of elements of the secondary （lower ）level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3) Creativity (productivity)By creativity we mean language is productive because of its duality and its recursiveness.It refers to the ability that we can construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences.4）Displacement移位性Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.It means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined, in past, present, or future, or in far-away places.5）Cultural transmission 文化传承性Language is passed on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.2.What is assimilation?Illustrate 2 types of it with examplesAssimilation is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.E.g. In word “can”, the vowel “a”is nasalized because of the influence of the following nasal consonant “n”.The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation.E.g. In word “map”, the vowel “a”is nasalized because of the influence of the former nasal consonant “m”.3.Explain with examples and distinguish “homonymy” and“polysemy”Polysemy means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time.The commoner the word, the more meanings it has.Homonyms are words different inmeaning and either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in spellingor sound.Classification of homonyms(1) Perfect homonyms (同音同形异义词):Words identical both in sound and spelling but different in meaningare calledhomonyms.E.g.air n. 空气ball n.球air n. 曲调ball n.舞会(2) Homophones (同音异形异义词)E.g. dear a. 亲爱的deer n. 鹿(3) Homographs (同形异音异义词)E.g.tear n. 眼泪tear v. 撕裂(4) Homoforms (语法同形或同音异义词)E.g.lives v. (live)lives n. (life)How to distinguish polysemy and homonymy(1)Etymology: Whether the meanings develop from one source(2)Semantic relatedness:Whether the meanings are closely related and can be traced back to one central meaning.4.Explain the 3 syntax relationships with examplesSyntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of positionrelations of substitutabilityrelations of co-occurrence1). Positional relationsPositional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.E.g.The boy kicked the ball.Boy kicked the ball.The ball kicked the boy.If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.also called : Syntagmatic Relation（横组合）Horizontal Relations , Chain Relations，2). Relation of SubstitutabilityFirstly the Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.Secondly, it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word or a particular set.This is what Saussure calledAssociative Relations, or in Hjemslev’s term Paradigmatic Relations(纵聚合). To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.E.g.The ______ smiles. （man/boy /girl）3). Relation of Co-occurrenceIt means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.E.g.5.Analyze the following dialogue. What maxim does B violate and whatconversational implicature is thus produced? P192Flouting the maxims (Quantity)(1)Make your contribution as informative as is required:A: 昨天上街买了些什么?B: 就买了些东西。