第二语言习得复习整理
二语习得复习资料
二语习得复习资料填空、判断类1. 第二语言习得研究的交叉学科：语言学、心理学、心理语言学。
2. 第二语言习得研究的发端：Corder在1967年发表的《学习者偏误的意义》和Selinker在1972年发表的《中介语》。
3. 1984年，鲁健骥在《中介语理论与外国人学习汉语的语音偏误分析》这篇文章中，将第二语言学习者的语言“偏误”和“中介语”的概念引入对外汉语教学领域。
4. 强势说强调对比分析的预测功能，认为母语干扰是造成第二语言学习者语言习得困难和错误的主要原因。
5. 1957年，拉多在《跨文化语言学》中系统地阐述了对比分析的内容、理论依据和分析方法。
6. 对比分析这一基本假设建立在行为主义心理学和结构主义语言学基础之上。
7. Selinker被称为“中介语之父”。
8. 过度泛化指的是二语学习者在习得第二语言的过程中，将其一目的语的规则推广到超越所能接受的范围之外。
9. 输入假说是克拉申的语言监控模式整个习得理论的核心部分。
10. 克拉申的输入假说包括四个要素：输入数量、输入质量、输入方式、输入条件。
11. 情感过滤假说把成功的二语习得相关联的情感因素分为三大类：动机、自信、焦虑。
12. “社会文化理论”由前苏联心理学家维果茨基创立。
主要内容包括：调节论、最近发展区理论、个体话语和内在言语、活动理论。
13. 语言输入与互动的研究始于上世纪70年代14. 最早提出“关键期假说”这个观点的是著名神经外科医生Penfield。
15. 根据社会心理学家的观点，学习者的态度是有三个方面构成：认知、情感、意动。
16.影响学习策略选择的因素主要有学习者个人差异、学习者个人背景和情景社会因素等。
17. 沉浸式教学法是采用目的语作为学校课堂教学的媒介，课堂上主要是向学习者提供目的语语言输入。
18. 1945年，弗里斯在《作为外语的英语教学与学习》一书中提出了对比分析的思想。
19. 在第二语言习得顺序中，主要存在以下争议：①母语迁移；②“正确顺序”是否等于“习得顺序”；③第一语言习得顺序是否等于第二语言习得顺序。
二语习得复习题
1.第二语言习得研究发展的路径（P19）（1）。
上世纪六十年代的第二语言习得研究的理论初创阶段。
在这一时期，第二语言习得研究与第二语言教学研究尚未分离。
当时站主导地位的是以行为主义为心理学基础的“对比分析”方法。
（2）上世纪70年代，第二语言习得研究已经发展成为一个独立的研究领域，是第二语言习得研究大发展的阶段。
偏误分析应运而生，产生了“中介语”理论假设。
还有两个重要的理论研究和创建，一是以Dulay和Burt为代表的第二语言习得顺序研究二是克拉伸的“监控模式”等（3）上世纪80 年代，第二语言习得研究作为一个独立的学科开始逐渐走向成熟。
受其他学科的影响构成了第二语言习得研究的跨学科特点形成了不同的理论视角，如语言学视角、社会语言学视角、认知视角等。
2.语言输入观P181：（1）行为主义学习理论认为，语言输入在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，强调外在因素的中心地位。
行为主义学习理论认为外在因素是语言习得的决定因素，否定学习者内在因素的作用。
（2）与行为主义学习理论相反，心灵学派认为，学习者的内在因素，即语言习得机制，在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，他们把语言习得机制看做语言习得的决定因素。
（3）“互动论”的观点。
Elis认为，在互动论的旗帜下包括两个不同理论：一是以认知心理学为基础的“认知互动理论”二是“社会互动理论”。
认知互动理论不单单强调语言输入环境的重要性，也不仅仅强调语言习得内在因素的重要性，而是将两者结合起来。
3.学习策略的含义P304：学习策略是指学习者在整个语言习得或语言使用过程中，与某个特定阶段相关联的心理行为或行动。
学习策略的分类P306：（一）Skehan(1989)的分类：1.根据学习者处理学习情景的能力来分（1）主动参与策略（active task approach）学习者主动寻找学习机会，并参与练习活动，反映积极。
（2）解释与确认策略（clarification and verification）学习者利用查字典和意译的方式，获得词语等的应用实例，并从句子里确认词语等的意义。
完整版第二语言习得概论-考研复习
★1. SLA (Second language acquisition) is the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or in a classroom.★2. Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982)Acquisition refers to the learning of a language unconsciously under natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars.Learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars.3.Factors affecting SLASocial factors (external factors)Learner factors (internal factors)Social factors (external factors)Social contextLanguage policy and the attitude of the public sector;Social demandWith the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widely accepted among educators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated people Learner factors (internal factors)Motivation , Age , Learning strategyBehaviorist learning theory4.Behaviorist learning theory is a general theory of learning (i.e. it applies to all kinds of learning, not just language learning).It views learning as the formation of habits. The association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit. It is formed when a particular stimulus became regularly linked with a particular response.When applied to SLA, the process of second language acquisition is regarded as a process of habit formation.5.The causes of errors according to behaviorismDifferences between the first and second language create learning difficulty which results in errors. Behaviorist learning theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language. Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition. In this case errors will result. Errors, according to behaviorist theory, were the result of non-learning, rather than wrong learning. The means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists is Contrastive Analysis.Structuralism6.Language was viewed as a coded system consisting of structurally related elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence patterns)7.What is contrastive analysis (CA)?Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be done within one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes.8.Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in an L2 situation.According to CAH, L2 errors are result of differences between the learner ’s first language andthe target language. The strong form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to predict all errors that will occur. The weak form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to identify some out of the total errors that actually arise.difference vs difficulty9.“Difference” is a linguistic concept, whereas “difficulty” is a psychological concept. Therefore, the level of learning difficulty cannot be inferred directly from the degree of difference between two language systems.10.Definition of Error analysis (EA)the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners (Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, p.96).It involves collecting samples of learner language, identifying the errors in these samples, describing these errors, classifying them according to their hypothesized causes, and evaluating theirs seriousness.Interlingual error: deviated forms resulting from the interference of one,s L1, or the negative11.transfer of one,s mother tongue.Intralingual error:①deviated forms in learner language that reflect learners, transitional competence and which are the results of such learning process as overgeneralization.② confusion of L2 rules12.Factors causing errorsnguage transfer2.Overgeneralization3.Learner differences4.Strategies in L2 learning5. Strategies of L2 communicatione.g. The two students changed eyes and eyebrows in class.13.Types of learner strategyLearning strategy, Production strategy 表达策略Communication strategy:Communication strategies are employed when learners are faced with the task of communicating meanings for which they lack the requisite linguistic knowledge. Typical communication strategies are paraphrase and mime.14.Classifications of learning strategy(Cohen 2006)(2)By function: Metacognitive; Cognitive; Socio-affective(3)By skill: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, or translation strategies.15.Meta-cognitive strategiesMeta-cognitive strategy is the planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one,s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed.16.Cognitive strategiesCognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning material.Repetition, Resourcing, Directed physical response, Translation, Grouping, Note-taking , Deduction Recombination, Imagery, Auditory representation, Key word, Contextualization, Elaboration, Transfer, Inferencing17.Individual learner variablesPersonal factors:group dynamics; attitudes to the teacher and course materials; learning techniques General factors: age; aptitude; cognitive style; motivation; personality18.MotivationIntegrative motivation 融合型动机is present in learners who identify with the target culture, would like to resemble members of the target culture and who would like to participate in the target culture. It is assumed to be based in the personality of the learner.Instrumental orientation 工具型动机refers to those cases where the learners are interested in learning the language for the possible benefits, that is, the learner5 s goal is functional. Resultative motivation:因果性动机Learners’ motivation is strongly affected by their achievement. Intrinsic motivation:内在兴趣动机Motivation as intrinsic interest.Motivation as a multi-componential construct:Motivation = effort + desire to achieve goal + attitudesTask motivation: the interest felt by the learner in performing different learning tasks.★ 19Definition -interlanguageInterlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communicationthrough the target language. (Larry Selinker)It is independent of both the learner’s first language and the target language.It suggests that learners, language is between L1 AND L2 and that it is a continuum along which all learners traverse.★20.Definition of fossilizationFossilization refers to the state in which the second language learners stop to learning when their internalized rule system contains rules different from the target language. That is to say, the interlanguage stops evolving towards the TL.21.Classification of fossilizationTemporary fossilization: the phenomenon is alterable under certain conditions.Permanent fossilizationThis means the learner,s language stops evolving forever. Because stable stage is not real fossilization, so there is no real permanent fossilization.22.Causes of fossilizationInternal: Motivation; Communicative needs; Acquisition device External: Communicative pressure Lack of learning opportunities Feedback:positive cognitive feedbacks cause fossilization ; (e.g, “Oh,I see”)negative feedbacks help to prevent fossilization. (e.g. “I don’t understand you” )★23Definition of UGCook(1985) summarizing the Chomskyan position, defines ‘universal grammar, as ‘the properties inherent in the human mind,. Universal grammar consists of a set of general principles that apply to all language rather than a set of particular rules.. Markedness24Markedness refers to the idea that some linguistic structures are ‘special, or ‘less natural, or ‘less basic, than others.Linguists working in the Chomskyan school suggest that linguistic rules can either be part of the core grammar (i.e. the universal rules) or be part of the periphery.Core rules are considered to be unmarked and therefore easily acquired.Periphery roles are considered to be and therefore different to learn.25Krashen's Monitor ModelKrashen's monitor model mainly consists of the following five hypothses:(1)Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis:there are two kinds of ways of learning a second language ,i.e., acquisition and learning.(2)Natural Order Hypothesis:SLA follows a universal route that is not influenced by factors such as the learners7 first language, age, and the context (classroom or natural setting).Implications:Errors are developmental and are a natural byproduct of learning - tolerate them.Allow learners to make errors and do not correct them(3)The Input Hypothesis cIt laims a move along the developmental continuum by receiving comprehensible input.We acquire, only when we understand the structure that is “a little beyc where we are now Comprehensible input is defined as L2 input just beyond the Learner,s current L2 competence, in terms of its syntactic complexity. If a learner,s current competence is i then comprehensible input is i+1. Input which is either too simple (i) or too complex (i+2/3/4…)will not be useful for acquisition.(4)The affective filter hypothesisSLA is affected by factors like Motivation, Self-confidence, Anxiety and so on.Learners who suffer from anxiety or lack of motivation or negative attitude somehow switch off their comprehension mechanisms and so even if they are provided comprehensible input, they will not be able to process the input. Therefore a low affective filter is important.(5)Monitor hypothesisBoth language learners and native speakers typically try to correct any errors in what they have just said. This is referred to as monitoring.Krashen uses the term Monitoring (with a big M) to refer to the way the learner used learnt knowledge to improve utterances produced by means of acquired knowledge.nguage transferLanguage transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously( and perhaps imperfectly ) acquired.★27. LAD (language acquisition device)The LAD is a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn structures, and the mistakes they make as they learn.★28. critical age period hypothesisIt claims that there a period when language acquisition can take place naturally and effortlessly, but after a certain age the brain is no longer able to process language input in this. Researchers differ over when the critical period comes to an end.★29. field independent vs. field independentLearners are different in the ways of receiving, conceptualizing, organizing, and recalling information. Field dependents operate holistically (i.e. they see the field as a whole),Whereas field independents operate analytically (i.e. they see the field in terms of its component parts).★30. input vs. intakeInput refers to the language learners are exposed to.It serves as the data which learners must useto determine the rules of the target language.However, not all available input is processed by the learner, either because some of it is not understood or because some of it is not attended to.That part of input that is processed, assimilated and fed into the interlanguage system is referred to as intake.★31.attitudes vs. aptitude vs. intelligenceAttitudes refer to the learner’s beliefs about factors such as the target language culture, their own culture, their teacher and the learning tasks they are given.Aptitude refers to the specific ability a learner has for learning a second language.Intelligence refers to the general ability to master academic skills.petence vs. performanceWhen learners acquire a L2, they internalize rules which are then organized into a system. This constitutes their competence.The actual use of this system to comprehend and produce utterances is referred to as performance.33.OvergeneralizationIt refers to the extension of some general rule to items not covered by this rule in the target language.34.foreigner talk vs. teacher talkWhen native speakers address learners, they make adjustments in both language form and language function to facilitate understanding. These adjustments are referred to as foreigner talk.When teachers address learners, they make adjustments in both language form and language function to facilitate understanding. These adjustments are referred to as foreigner talk.35.formulaic speech vs. patternsFormulaic speech consists of expressions which are learned as unanalysable wholes and employed in particular occasions.Patterns are one type of formulaic speech. They are unanalysable units which have one or more open slots, e.g. ‘Can I have a —’。
二语习得期末复习大纲
第一讲1、什么是第一语言、母语、本族语？P2第一语言是最先习得的语言（未必是你的母语）母语指本国或本民族的语言第二语言在第一语言之后的语言，范围很广。
外语是外国语言（与母语相对）（下意识）（有意识）相同点：1、都是为了获得语言的交际能力。
2、都是有意义的创造性过程。
3、会使用某些相同的学习策略。
差异：１、主体儿童←→成人２、动机生存←→动机各异３、起点４、环境自然的语言环境，不受时间限制←→课堂５、方式直接将语音与实物实景联系在一起←→常常通过母语来联结语音与概念６、教育者亲属输入←→教师７、过程儿童习得母语从不自觉到自觉←→成人习得二语从自觉到不自觉８、文化儿童沉浸在和母语息息相关的文化中←→成人往往未沉浸在相应的文化中第二讲1、影响二语习得的因素有哪些？动机、态度、性别、年龄、母语背景、外语背景、社会环境、性格特征、焦虑、文化2、性别与二语习得的关系如何？有关系，但性别不是二语习得的决定因素。
这种语言能力的发展差异，可从两方面找原因：１、生理学角度在青春期之前，女性大脑左半球发育比男性快；青春期之后两者逐渐接近。
２、性格差别男：开朗好动；女：温柔喜静，在需要较多记忆的二语学习中更胜一筹。
3、年龄与二语习得的关系如何？有关系，但年龄不是二语习得的决定因素。
关键期哈佛大学医学院教授Eric Lenneberg 认为关键期到12岁。
他认为人的大脑从两岁开始侧化(lateralization)，在侧化完成前，人是用全脑来学习语言，大脑完成侧化后，语言学习主要由左边大脑负责。
人脑侧化后的语言学习不如全脑学习时期好。
因此，语言学习最好在大脑完成侧化之前。
●年龄和习得速度许多研究结果显示，在习得速度上，儿童并不一定占有优势。
成人在学习二语的速度上比儿童快，特别是语法。
但儿童经过足够的环境浸泡后可以超越，这种情况发生在课堂教学中的可能性不及自然环境中大。
●年龄和习得顺序实验证明，年龄不会改变习得顺序。
4、什么是语言学习的关键期？语言学习的关键期是指人的一生中有一个固定的时期比其他任何时期都更容易习得语言，过了这段时期以后，一般很难习得完美的母语。
第二语言习得研究整理
1．目的语：也称“目标语”，一般是指学习者正在学习的语言。
这种语言可能是他的第二语言、第三语言甚或第四语言。
它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言，与学习者的语言习得环境无关。
比如，美国学生无论在美国学习汉语，还是在中国学习汉语，其目的语都是汉语。
如果他们同时在学习法语，那么法语也是他们的目的语。
对第二语言学习者而言，母语对其目的语的习得具有重要的影响。
2.第一语言：是我们从小就学会的语言，简称"一语"，也叫"母语"。
第二语言：在掌握第一语言之后，人们还可以继续学习并在不同程度上掌握的语言，简称“二语。
“第一语言”通常是指学习者的母语或本族语而言的。
尽管有些时候，学习者的第一语言并不是他的母语或本族语。
“第二语言”是相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言的。
因此，“第二语言”自然包含第三、第四或更多的其他语言。
3.第二语言习得简称SLA,是指人们在获得母语（第一语言）的基础上习得另一种或几种语言的过程。
SLA这一术语也可以指一门学科，即研究习得第二语言的过程和规律的学问。
是语言学的一个分支，也可以看做心理学的分支。
交叉学科、边缘学科。
4.外语习得是指人们学习外语的过程。
外语指外国的语言，属于第二语言，但第二语言却不一定都是外语，二者所指范围不同，第二语言与外语是包容关系，第二语言所指的范围比外语要广。
二语习得的环境也同外语习得的环境不同。
5.第二语言习得研究的学科性质：二语习得已经发展成为一门诸多学科交叉的，有明确研究对象及一整套独立于普通语言学、一般语言习得理论的完整知识体系和研究方法的独立学科，并迅速发展成为当代应用语言学的前沿阵地和相关学科。
如外语教学法理论的基础理论研究。
全世界尤其是欧美国家的语言学界、语言教学界等领域普遍认可二语习得研究是一门独立的学科。
(1)第二语言习得研究与语言学a.研究对象不同第二语言习得研究以第二语言“学习者的语言系统”为研究对象。
《第二语言习得研究》重点知识点汇总
第二语言习得研究第一章第二语言习得研究概述第一节第二语言习得研究的基本概念1.母语：通常是指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”。
一般情况下，母语通常是儿童出生以后最先接触、习得的语言。
因此，母语通常也被称作“第一语言”。
2.目的语：也称“目标语”，一般是指学习者正在学习的语言。
它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言，与学习者的语言习得环境无关。
3.第一语言：指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言。
4.第二语言：相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言的。
强调的是语言习得的先后顺序，与语言习得的环境无关。
5.习得：指“非正式”的语言获得。
“习得”通常是指在自然状态下“下意识”的语言获得。
隐学习是通过无意识或下意识的方式来获得语言知识。
通过“习得”方式获得的是“隐性语言知识”。
6.学习：指“正式”的语言规则学习，即通过课堂教学的方式来获得第二语言。
一般是指“有意识”的语言知识的获得。
外显学习是在有意识的状态下通过规则学习来获得语言知识。
通过“学习”方式获得的是“显性语言知识”。
7.第二语言习得：指学习者在目的语国家学习目的语。
学习者所学的目的语在目的语国家是公认的交际工具，当然也是学习者用来交际的工具。
8.外语习得：学习者所学的语言在本国不是作为整个社团的交际工具，而且学习者所学的语言主要是在课堂学习的。
9.第二语言环境：指学习者所学的语言在语言习得发生的环境中作为交际语言。
10.自然的第二语言习得：指以交际的方式获得第二语言，而且语言习得通常是在自然的社会环境下发生的。
11.有指导的第二语言习得：以教学指导的方式获得第二语言，语言习得通常是在课堂教学环境中发生的。
12.语言能力：是由交际双方在语法规则的心理表征构成的。
语言能力是一种反映交际双方语言知识的心理语法。
母语使用者对句子的合语法性的直觉判断依据的就是这种隐性语言知识。
语言能力是关于语言的知识。
13.语言表达：交际双方在语言的理解与生成过程中对其在语法的运用。
第二语言习得复习资料
第⼆语⾔习得复习资料★1. SLA (Second language acquisition)is the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or in a classroom.★2. Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982)Acquisition refers to the learning of a language unconsciously under natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars.Learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars.3. The study of second language acquisition is a branch of applied linguistics.It mainly deals with how the second language is acquired. The process not only involves linguistics but also a great many subjects including linguistic physiology, psychology, psycholinguistics, cognitive science and so on.4. Factors affecting SLASocial factors (external factors)Learner factors (internal factors)Social factors (external factors)Social contextLanguage policy and the attitude of the public sector;Social demandWith the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widely accepted among educators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated peopleLearner factors (internal factors)MotivationAgeLearning strategy5. Through observations and experiments they have found that children all undergo certain stages of language development. Babbling stage (articulating certain speech sounds)(6 -12)One word or Holophrastic stage (using single words to represent various meanings)（12-18 months)Two –word stage (18-20 months)Telegraphic speech stage (using phrase and sentences composed of only content words.)(2-3 years )6. Language acquisition和Second Language Acquisition之间的关系7.(1) Behaviorist learning theoryBehaviorist learning theory is a general theory of learning (i.e. it applies to all kinds of learning, not just language learning).It views learning as the formation of habits. These arise when the learner is confronted with specific stimuli which lead to specific responses, which are, in turn, reinforced by rewards. Behaviorist learning theory emphasizes environmental factors as opposed to internal, mental factors.(2) The habit-formation theoryThe association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit. It is formed when a particular stimulus became regularly linked with a particular response.Two important characteristics of habitsObservable: the true basis for psychological enquiry existed only in objects that could be touched and actions that could be observed. (Watson)Automatic:habits were performed spontaneously without awareness and were difficult to eradicate unless environmental changes led to the extinction of the stimuli upon which they were built.Two means: imitation and practiceImitation and practice play an important role in the process of habit- formation, because the behaviorists maintained that imitation will help learners identify the associations between stimuli and responses while practice will reinforce the associations and help learners to form the new linguistic habits.Theories of habit formation were theories of learning in general.The process of second language acquisition is regarded as a process of habit formation. (The association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit.)8. The causes of errors according to behaviorismDifferences between the first and second language create learning difficulty which results in errors.Behaviorist learning theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language.Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition. In this case errors will result.Errors, according to behaviorist theory, were the result of non-learning,rather than wrong learning.Attitude towards errorErrors should be avoided and should be corrected if they have been made, because they are indication of non-learning and have the danger of becoming bad linguistic habits.Errors could be avo ided by comparing the learner?s native language with the target language, differences could be identified and used to predict areas of potential error.Where are the means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists?The means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists is Contrastive Analysis.9. StructuralismLanguage was viewed as a coded system consisting of structurally related elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence patterns)10. What is contrastive analysis (CA)?Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be done within one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes.11. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in an L2 situation.12. Contrastive Analysis Assumptions1. Language learning = habit formation2. L1 is major source of error in L2 production/reception3. Errors are accounted for by considering differences between L1 and L24. The greater the differences, the more errors will occur5. Focus on dissimilarities in learning; similarities require little new learning6. Difficulty and ease in predicted by differences and similarities between L1 and L213. Steps for contrastive analysis①Describing L1 and L2②Selecting a linguistic feature③Marking an L1-L2 comparison on this feature④Using the results to predict or explain err ors in learner?s L2 performance.14.The Validity of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis(正确性)Over-simplification to think that comparing two languages is a straightforward comparison of structures.Other factors such as innate principles of language, attitude, motivation, aptitude, age, other languages known, and so forth. In the 1960s, the behaviorist theory of language and language learning was challenged. Language came to be seen in terms of structured rules instead of habits. Learning was nowseen not as imitation but as active rule formation.Another criticism of the role of CA had to do with the concept of difficulty. Differences are based on formal descriptions of linguistic units –those selected by a linguist, a teacher, or a textbook writer. It is not a real measure of difficulty. (Difference=difficulty=error)too negative about borrowing from L1Ignoring the conditions of interference.Empirical study found that not all actually occurring errors were predicted; not all predicted errors occurred.15.Theoretical Criticisms（批评）Chomsky?s attack on behaviorismRelationship between “difficulty” and “error”Problems concerning the linguistic basis of contrastive analysisNeed to accommodate the variability of learner performance when predicting errors16.“Difficulty” and “Error”There were objections to the validity of equating …difference? with …difficulty? on the hand and …difficulty? with …error? on the other.difference vs difficulty“Difference” is a linguistic concept, whereas “difficulty” is a psy chological concept. Therefore, the level of learning difficulty cannot be inferred directly from the degree of difference between two language systems.17. Definition of EAError analysis:--the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners (Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, p.96).--A type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learners? interlanguage and the target language;--A methodology of describing L2 learners? language systems (Corder, 1981)The Purpose of EATo discover the processes learners make use of in learning & using the target language,To identify the causes of learner errors,To obtain information on common difficulties in L2 learningBasic AssumptionsHuman learning is fundamentally a process involving making errors;Language learning is like any other human learning;Errors made by L2 learners can be observed, analyzed, classified, and described ( Brown,1987: 169-171) Procedure of Error AnalysisIdentification of ErrorsDescription of ErrorsExplanation of errors: determine the sources of errors Comapararison:18.Interlingual error: deviated forms resulting from the interference of one?s L1, or the negative transfer of one?s mother tongue.Intralingual error:①deviated forms in learner language that reflect learners? transitional competence and which are the results of such learning process as overgeneralization.②confusion of L2 rules19. Sources of ErrorsIn language learning, learner?s errors are caused by s everal different processes, including--Interlingual transfer--Intralingual transfer--Transfer of training or context of learning--Cognitive & affective factors20. Levels of ErrorsSubstance errorsText errorsDiscourse errors21. Implication & ApplicationError Analysis is significant theoretically and practically.--Theoretica l: it is part of the methodology of investigating the language learning process--Practical: it has direct relevance to the improvement of language teaching materials and methods★22. Differences of error analysis Between EA and CA1.Interest in errors ：EA interested in errors resulting from interference from L1CA interested in the totality of the errors of a L2 learner2.Classification of errors :EA classifies only errors resulting from interference of L1CA classifies all errors3.Source of errorsEA: errors are the result of negative transferCA: errors are a learner?s hypotheses in relation to the new language and considered to be a natural part of L2 learning4.Position of errorsEA: errors are harmful and it seeks to correct themCA: takes no position on errors5.When CA/EA beganEA:begins with Fries and LadoCA: a type of study that has existed for a long time6.PerformanceEA. interested in learner?s performance and correlates it to L1CA: interested in the learner?s performance and correlates it to L1 and the developing L222. Factors causing errors1. Language transfer2. Overgeneralization3. Learner differences3. Strategies in L2 learning5. Strategies of L2 communicatione.g. The two students changed eyes and eyebrows in class.23. DefinitionStrategy VS. technique Stern (1983)Strategy is general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learner, while techniques to refer to particular forms of observable learning behavior.Strategy : conscious , behavioral24. Types of learner strategyLearning strategy 学习策略Production strategy 表达策略Communication strategy 交际策略25. Classifications (Cohen 2006)By goal; By function; By skill; Others(1) By goal: Language learning strategies (e.g., translating, memorizing) or language use strategies(e.g., retrieval, communicative, and cover strategies).(2) By function: Metacognitive; Cognitive; Socio-affective(3) By skill: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, or translation strategies.(4) Others: Strategies by proficiency levels, by specific cultures (i.e., learning the language of a specific culture), or by specific languages.O?Malley & Chamot (1990)MetacognitiveCognitiveSocial26.Meta-cognitive strategiesMeta-cognitive strategy is the planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one?s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed.Organize/plan your own learningManage ……..Monitor………Evaluate……….Importance of meta-cognitive strategiesStudents without meta-cognitive approaches are essentially learners without direction or opportunity to review their progress, accomplishment, and future directions.27. Cognitive strategiesCognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning material.RepetitionResourcingDirected physical responseTranslationGroupingNote-takingDeductionRecombinationImageryAuditory representationKey wordContextualizationElaborationTransferInferencing27. social/affective strategiesSocial strategiesstrategies for regulating emotions, motivation, and attitudes; strategies for reduction of anxiety and for self-encouragement.协作（cooperation）提问澄清（question for clarification）Affective strategies:strategies for regulating emotions, motivation, and attitudes; strategies for reduction of anxiety and for self-encouragement.28. Individual learner variablesPersonal factors:group dynamicsattitudes to the teacher and course materialslearning techniquesGeneral factors:ageaptitudecognitive style field dependence / independencemotivationpersonality29. MotivationIntegrative motivation 融合型动机is present in learners who identify with the target culture, would like to resemble members of the target culture and who would like to participate in the target culture. It is assumed to be based in the personality of the learner.Instrumental orientation⼯具型动机refers to those cases where the learners are interested in learning the language for the possible benefits: professional advancement, study in the target language, business.Resultative motivation:因果性动机Learners’motivation is strongly affected by their achievement.Intrinsic motivation:内在兴趣动机Motivation as intrinsic interest.Motivation as a multi-componential constructMotivation= effort + desire to achieve goal + attitudes★Integrative motivation 融合型动vs. Instrumental orientation⼯具型动机(p94)★30. Definition –interlanguage★Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner construct for use incommunication through the target language.The term“interlanguage” , coined by Selinker(1972), refers to the language system constructed by second language learners on their way to the target language.Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the targetlanguage. (Larry Selinker)Nemser calls it“approximative system”Corder (1971) called learners? language an idiosyncratic dialect .These terms suggest that learners? language is between L1 AND L2 and that it is a continuum along which all learners traverse.错误发⽣的原因：Interlingua interference (语际⼲扰)⒈Positive transfer⒉negative transferIntralingua interference（语内⼲扰）★31. Characteristics of interlanguage systempermeable ;dynamic; systematic; fossilization★32.Definition of fossilizationIt has been observed that somewhere in the L2 learning process, such an IL may reach one or more temporary restricting phases during which the development of the IL appears to be detained (Nemser, 1971; Selinker, 1972; Schumann, 1975).A permanent cessation of progress toward the TL has been referred to as fossilization (Selinker, 1972).33. Classification of fossilizationTemporary fossilization:暂时性⽯化:Temporary fossilization refers to stability of language acquisition or the plateau phenomenon of learning, at the moment language parameter is steady and static, the phenomenon is alterable under certain conditions .Permanent fossilization永久性⽯化：This means the learner?s language stops evolving for ever. Because most of the students? interlanguage is in the temporary and stable stage, no permanent fossilization. Because stable stage is not real fossilization, so there is no real permanent fossilization.Fossilization appears through five central processes:Language transfer; transfer of learning; learning strategies; communication strategies; overgeneralizationInternal Causes of fossilizationMotivationCommunicative needsAcquisition deviceExternal Causes of fossilizationCommunicative pressureLack of learning opportunitiesFeedback:positive cognitive feedbacks cause fossilization ;(e.g. “Oh,I see”)negative feedbacks help to prevent fossilization.(e.g. “I don?t understand you” )34. Linguistic basis for SLAContrastive analysis (pre-Chomskyan structuralism)Universals and contrastive analysisUniversals and SLA★35. Definition of UGUG is a term used by Chomsky to refer to the abstract knowledge of language which children bring to the task of learning their native language, and which constrains the shape of the particular grammar they are trying to learn. It consists of various principles which govern the form grammatical rules can take. Some of these principles are parameterized ( i.e. are specified as consisting of two or more options).DefinitionCook(1985) summarizing the Chomskyan position, defines …universal grammar? as …the properties inherent in the human mind?. Un iversal grammar consists of a set of general principles that apply to all language rather than a set of particular rules.Definitiona set of highly abstract principles that provide parameters which are given particular settings in different languages36. Principles refers to highly abstract properties of grammar which apply to language in general and which, therefore, underlie the grammatical rules of all specific languages.Parameters refers to principles that vary in certain restricted ways from one language to another. That is, they take the form ofa finite set of options which individual languages draw on and which define the variation possible between language36. UG also provides a basis for determining markedness. The degree of markedness depends on whether a feature is part of the …core? or the …periphery?.Core grammar: unmarked, that is, they accord with the general tendencies of language. Periphery rules: marked, that is they are exceptional in some way.core rules (UG) are unmarkedMarkednessperiphery rules are markedUniversals and contrastive analysisMarkedness: refers to the idea that some linguistic structures are …special? or …less natural? or …less basic? than others. Markedness differential condition: marked features are more difficult to learn than unmarked.37.The role of universals in L1 acquisition1. Grammar construction is constrained by the operation of Universal Grammar, which regulates the options the child has to choose from. That is, hypothesis formation is constrained by innate principles.2. Regularities in the order of development can be explained only by considering both Universal Grammar and channel capacity.A distinction can be made between …development' actual progress) and …acquisition' the idealized learning that results from universal Grammar)3. Universal grammar may unfold as a maturational schedule, as suggested by Felix (1984), or it may be activated piecemeal in accordance with the data that the child perceive at different developmental stages, as suggested by White (1981).4. The child is likely to learn unmarked rules before marked rules; he constructs a core grammar before a peripheral grammar.5. The child possesses a projective capacity. This enables one rule to trigger off other rules withwhich it is implicationally linked, and also enables rules to be acquired when no direct evidence for them has been supplied by the input.38. Access to UG1. Complete access2. No access3. Partial access4. Dual access39 Linguistic universals and L1 transferThe transfer of L1 unmarked formsUnmarked setting of parameters will occur in interlanguage before marked settings, even if the L2 provides evidence of a marked setting.The non-transfer of L1 marked forms40.Krashen?s Input Hy pothesis ModelKnown by various names--Monitor hypothesis--Input model--Comprehensible input model--Natural modelAll these names refer to the one and the same model★Five hypotheses1. Acquisition – learning distinction hypothesis2. Natural sequence/order hypothesis3. Monitor hypothesis4. Comprehensible input hypothesis5. Affective filter hypothesis. (1) Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: there are two kinds of ways of learning a second language ,i.e., acquisition and learning.Acquisition refers to the unconscious processes that also takes place in first language acquisition. Learning is a conscious process which is responsible for the construction of grammar rules or knowledge about the second language through teaching or error correction.. Acquisition LearningSubconscious – implicit learningA distinct process – can never become learningThe way children learn the languageMeaning focusedInductiveNaturalistic settingsConscious – explicit learningA distinct process –can neverbecome acquisitionThe way adults learn the languageGrammar (form) focusedDeductiveFormal settingsImplications of Acquisition-Learning Distinction HypothesisContent based language teaching – total immersion is preferable.Provide meaningful contexts for understanding languageProvide meaningful communication activities such as information gap activities.(2) Natural Order Hypothesis: SLA follows a universal route that is not influenced by factors such as the learners? first language, age, and the context (classroom or natural setting). Implications of natural order hypothesisErrors are developmental and are a natural byproduct of learning – tolerate them.Allow learners to make errors and do not correct them(3) The Input Hypothesis claims a move along the developmental continuum byreceiving comprehensible input.Comprehensible input is defined as L2 input just beyond the Learne r?s current L2 competence, in terms of its syntactic complexity. If a learner?s current competence is i then comprehensible input is i+1. Input which is either too simple (i) or too complex (i+2/3/4…) will not be useful for acquisition.“i+1”We acquire, only when we understand the structure that is “a little beyond” where we are now Implications of input hypothesisEmploy teacher talk along motherese or foreigner talk(4) The affective filter modelAffect refers to:Motivation: Performers with high motivation generally do better in L2 acquisition.Self-confidence:Performers with self-confidence and a good self-image tend to do better in L2 Acquisition.Anxiety:Low anxiety appears to be conducive to L2 acquisition.Affective filter hypothesisLearners who suffer from anxiety or lack of motivation or negative attitude somehow switch off their comprehension mechanisms and so even if they are provided comprehensible input, they will not be able to process the input. Therefore a low affective filter is important.The significance of affective filter hypothesisAccounts for individual variationAccounts for the differences between adult and child language acquisition processesImplications of affective filter hypothesisCreate a non-threatening teaching/learning atmosphere in the classroom.Provide a risk-safe environment.Students should not worry about being criticized.Capitalize on what students already know.Create teaching/learning environment in such a way that students encounter success rather than failure.Provide positive and constructive feedback.Analyze your classroom behavior for any hidden agenda(5) Monitor hypothesisThree conditions:Knowledge of grammarFocus on grammarAvailability of timeGrammar focused learning leads to grammar focused productionChildren do not monitor so why should adults?Learning language is different from learning about language.监控假设图⽰(p57)Implications of monitor hypothesisModel language and do not teach grammar explicitly.Krashen?s VariablesFor Krashen, there are only two variables for language acquisition to take place:Abundant comprehensible inputLow affective filterKrashen – An evaluationMajor strength – intuitively appealingAble to be translated into pedagogical modelsHybrid model and so draws strengths from various theoriesFor the first time, somebody was able to say that grammar teaching was not goodHumanistic in its approachImpreciseNot verifiableKrashen?s dogmatic adherence to his hypotheses is the major weakness★41. language transferLanguage transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously( and perhaps imperfectly ) acquired.Negative transferPositive transferAvoidanceOveruse★/doc/11a403d433d4b14e85246836.html D(language acquisition device)The LAD is a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn structures, and the mistakes they make as they learn.★43.critical age period(p100)★44.field independent vs. field independent(p77)★45.distinction between qualitative and quantitative research(p143)★46.input vs. output(p32-33)★47.intellence vs. aptitude(p85-88)。
第二语言习得复习整理
一、名词解释1、母语：“母语”通常是指学习者家庭或者所属种族、社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”。
一般情况下，母语通常是幼儿出生后最先接触、习得的语言。
也被称作“第一语言”。
2、目标语：“目标语”，也称“目的语”，指学习者正在学习的语言。
这种语言可能是他的第二语言、第三语言甚或第四语言。
它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言，与学习者的语言习得环境无关。
美国学生无论在美国学习汉语，还是在中国学习汉语，其目的语都是汉语。
如果他们同时在学习法语，那么法语也是他们的目的语。
对第二语言学习者而言，母语对其目的语的习得具有重要的影响。
3、第二语言：相对于第一语言而言，指在母语之后再学习另一种语言。
第二语言习得可能发生在自然环境，也可能在正规的课堂环境中。
在课堂环境下学习的第二语言被称为外语。
Ellis (1994)“第二语言”是相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言的。
因此，“第二语言”自然包含第三、第四或更多的其他语言。
4、对比分析：对比分析是把两种语言进行对比，从而确定其中的相同点和不同点。
对比分析的最终目的是为了预测母语对第二语言学习可能会造成的影响，即第二语言学习者受母语干扰可能会出现的错误，从而确定教学的重点和难点，采取相应的预防性措施。
5、第二语言习得：人们在自然的语言环境中或者课堂环境中潜意识地或者有意识地获得母语之外的另一种语言。
6、中介语：“中介语”（interlanguage）这一概念是由语言学家塞林克（）于1969年提出来的。
中介语是指在第二语言习得过程中，学习者通过一定的学习策略，在目的语输入的基础上所形成的一种既不同于其第一语言也不同于目的语、随着学习的进展向目的语逐渐过渡的动态的语言系统。
7、偏误：偏误是对正确语言的偏离，也就是离开了轨道。
这种错误是系统的，有规律的，它反映说话者的语言能力。
8、偏误分析：系统分析学习者偏误，研究来源，揭示学习者中介语体系。
对学生学习第二语言过程中所犯的偏误进行分析，从而发现第二语言学习者产生偏误的规律，包括偏误的类型，偏误产生的原因，某种偏误产生的阶段性，等等。
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一、名词解释1、母语：“母语”通常是指学习者家庭或者所属种族、社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”。
一般情况下，母语通常是幼儿出生后最先接触、习得的语言。
也被称作“第一语言”。
2、目标语：“目标语”，也称“目的语”，指学习者正在学习的语言。
这种语言可能是他的第二语言、第三语言甚或第四语言。
它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言，与学习者的语言习得环境无关。
美国学生无论在美国学习汉语，还是在中国学习汉语，其目的语都是汉语。
如果他们同时在学习法语，那么法语也是他们的目的语。
对第二语言学习者而言，母语对其目的语的习得具有重要的影响。
3、第二语言：相对于第一语言而言，指在母语之后再学习另一种语言。
第二语言习得可能发生在自然环境，也可能在正规的课堂环境中。
在课堂环境下学习的第二语言被称为外语。
Ellis (1994)“第二语言”是相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言的。
因此，“第二语言”自然包含第三、第四或更多的其他语言。
4、对比分析：对比分析是把两种语言进行对比，从而确定其中的相同点和不同点。
对比分析的最终目的是为了预测母语对第二语言学习可能会造成的影响，即第二语言学习者受母语干扰可能会出现的错误，从而确定教学的重点和难点，采取相应的预防性措施。
5、第二语言习得：人们在自然的语言环境中或者课堂环境中潜意识地或者有意识地获得母语之外的另一种语言。
6、中介语：“中介语”（interlanguage）这一概念是由语言学家塞林克（L.Selinker）于1969年提出来的。
中介语是指在第二语言习得过程中，学习者通过一定的学习策略，在目的语输入的基础上所形成的一种既不同于其第一语言也不同于目的语、随着学习的进展向目的语逐渐过渡的动态的语言系统。
7、偏误：偏误是对正确语言的偏离，也就是离开了轨道。
这种错误是系统的，有规律的，它反映说话者的语言能力。
8、偏误分析：系统分析学习者偏误，研究来源，揭示学习者中介语体系。
对学生学习第二语言过程中所犯的偏误进行分析，从而发现第二语言学习者产生偏误的规律，包括偏误的类型，偏误产生的原因，某种偏误产生的阶段性，等等。
偏误分析的最终目的是了解第二语言学习的过程，使第二语言教学更有针对性。
9、语言变异：指语言表达系统由于社会因素（社会等级、职业等）社会心理因素、心理语言因素而产生的语言形式变化。
学习者用两种以上的语言形式表达目的语中一种形式表达的意义和功能。
10、文化适应：Brown (1980a)“文化适应”是指学习者逐渐适应新文化的过程。
对于第二语言学习者来说，文化适应就是指对目的语文化及文化环境的适应过程。
Shumann认为学习者学习一种语言与他所处的语言文化环境密切相关。
文化适应被看作第二语言习得的一个重要方面。
11、可理解的语言输入：Krashen（1982）认为第二语言习得有赖于为学习者提供“可理解的语言输入”，即为学习者提供的输入信息应该略微超过一点学习者现有的习得水平，用i+1来表示。
（i表示现有习得水平， 1表示略微超过的部分）二、简答1、第二语言习得研究的发端是以什么为标志的？第二语言习得研究发端可以追溯到20世纪60年代末。
标志性文章：Corder （1967 ）“The significance of learners’errors”；Selinker （1972）“Inter-language”。
2、目前学术界围绕儿童第一语言习得存在着哪些主要理论？a 刺激-反应论（行为主义论）b 生成论（内在论、先天论、认知论）c 语言功能论3、有关第二语言教学法包括哪些？a、语法翻译法Grammar Translation；b、直接法Direct method；c、听说法（视听法）Audiolingual method；d、认知法Cognitive-Code；e、交际法Communicative approachf、自然法（沉浸式）4、儿童母语习得的过程？①喃语阶段：语前阶段，6个月到1岁，牙牙学语，模仿大人的话，能听懂一些词和句子，能用特定的声音来表示一定的意义。
②单词句阶段：1岁至1岁半，真正学话，一个词、单词话语。
③双词句阶段：1岁半，两个词语在一起（一为轴心词，一为开放词）。
④电报句阶段：2岁半左右，实词句阶段，只用实词，不用虚词。
逐渐开始使用代词、介词、连词、动词词尾、助动词等。
⑤成人句阶段：3岁半至5岁，初级阶段基本完成。
能意识到有一个规则体系，并能重复使用。
开始了解并掌握语言的社会功能。
5、儿童习得有什么特点？①有一种内在的语言学习能力②不必专门教，也不必专门给他们纠正错误③用接触语言的方式学习④对语言学规则的掌握是无意识的⑤运用语言交际⑤习得过程由不自觉到自觉⑥儿童习得是一种特殊的过程，使用特殊的方式。
6、对比分析的“强势说”和“弱势说”的基本观点？对比分析的步骤？举例说明对比分析理论的误区？对比分析所面临的理论危机？（1）a、强势说对比分析的最终目的是通过两种语言系统的对比来预测学习者在第二语言学习过程中可能遇到的难点。
Lado认为，通过学习者母语、文化与其目的语、文化系统对比，可以预测造成学习者困难的语言模式。
强势说的其他观点：Banathy, Trager, Waddle (1966) 认为：学习者的难点可以等同于学习者的母语、文化与其目的语、文化之间的差别。
语言学家的任务：鉴别这些差别；编教人员的任务：在差别描写的基础上编写教材；外语教师的任务：把这些差别作为教学重点；学习者的任务：学习这些差别。
b、弱势说弱势说不主张通过差异的对比来预测学习者的难点，而强调对学习者的错误进行解释；主张从学习者的错误分析着手，在母语与目的语差异对比的基础上试图说明学习者产生错误的原因；Selinker and Gass（1994）认为，弱势说的重要贡献：强调学习者自身、学习者的语言形式以及所运用的策略。
（2）对比分析的步骤第一步：描写（description）第二步：选择（selection）第三步：对比（contrast）第四步：预测（prediction）（3）对比分析的理论误区20世纪70年代初，对比分析的理论开始衰落。
对比分析方法受到冷落的基本原因，是因为这种理论假设无论在理论上还是实践中都面临着严重的危机。
对比分析所面临的理论危机主要包括三个方面：1.行为主义学习理论的危机2. 对比分析的两个“虚假命题”命题1：语言的“差异”等于学习的“难点”；命题2：学习的“难点”必然导致语言表达的“错误”。
3. 分类范畴的普遍性问题（4）对比分析假说的评价：肯定：对比分析可以为语言教学提供必要的信息，预测教学中可能产生的困难，有利于教师更有针对性地更有效地制订教学大纲，设计课程，编写教材，改进课堂教学。
批评声浪：①对比分析不研究学生，抛开学习的主体，不通过分析学生对第二语言的实际使用来分析学习中的难点，而是单纯从两种语言本身进行对比。
因而预测就不一定准确，真正的难点不一定能抓到。
事实上很多预测的错误学生并没有出现。
②语言看成封闭的结构系统，采用静态的形式分析，不分析语言的功能和意义。
③简单地将“不同”等同于“困难”。
语言教学的实际表明，并非不同点即是难点。
有时两种语言的相近之处反而是学生最大的难点，另外，学习中的困难也不完全是来自第一语言的干扰。
Selinker（1992）：70年代人们对“对比分析”采取全盘否定的态度是不公正的。
虽然对比分析建立在行为主义学习理论的基础上，但是作为一种分析方法，对比分析仍然是观察和分析学习者的语言系统的一个良好起点。
总之，对比分析假说过于简单地看待第二语言的习得过程和迁移的作用。
弥补这一缺陷的办法并不是抛弃这个假说，而在于详细研究学习者的语言，提供迁移确实存在的证据。
因为学习者的困难和错误确实与第一语言和第二语言的差异有关。
6、语言习得中的U型行为？举例说明语言的发展有时遵循一种U型过程，早期儿童语言习得体现U型行为特征：例1：初始阶段：break— broke foot —feet第二阶段：break —breaked foot— foots最后阶段：break — broke foot — feet例2：习得动词“eat”的过去式“ate”所经历的五个阶段（Ellis,1994）阶段特征描述例1 用原形来代替过去式 eat2 开始使用不规则的过去式形式 ate3 过度概括规则的过去式形式 eated4 有时会使用混合的形式 ated5 正确使用不规则的过去式形式 ate7、根据 Ellis的观点，早期二语习得研究包括哪些方面？早期第二语言习得研究主要是关于学习者的语言系统的描写。
Ellis（1994）：早期的第二语言习得研究包括：a、学习者的偏误研究；b、学习者语言发展模式研究；c、学习者的语言变异研究；d、学习者语言的语用特征研究。
8、偏误分析的步骤？Corder（1974）提出了偏误分析步骤和方法及其评价方法，大大地促进了偏误分析的发展。
偏误分析包括五个步骤：1. 学习者语言样本的收集；2. 学习者偏误的鉴别；3. 学习者偏误的描写；4. 学习者偏误的解释；5. 学习者偏误的评价。
收集——鉴别——描写——解释——评估9、如何区分偏误和失误？偏误是对正确语言的偏离，也就是离开了轨道。
这种错误是系统的，有规律的，它反映说话者的语言能力。
失误是口误或笔误，是偶然现象，是在特殊情况下产生的。
失误不是系统的，不反映说话人的语言能力，操本族语的人也常出这样的错误。
区分二者可以参照：a、出现频率；b、学习者是否能自行改正。
10、判断例句中偏误的类型并加以改正11、中介语的特征系统性；可渗透性；化石化；反复a、中介语是一个语言系统b、独特性：该语言系统是介于母语和目的语之间，区别于母语，也区别于目的语c、是渐进的演化过程d、偏误反复性e、偏误顽固性：洋泾浜与克里奥尔语f、在语音、词汇、语法、文化等方面都有表现是动态的过程，即学生在习得过程中，会不断地调整自己的语言行为，使这种语言行为适合于目的语的表达习惯，由错误逐渐向正确方向转化Ellis认为中介语具有如下特征：（1）可渗透性permeable（2）动态性dynamic（3）系统性systematic12、自然环境中的习得和教学环境的习得有何不同？试举例说明习得顺序的两种含义（1）自然习得环境指习得者在与人的实际交往中习得目的语。
教学环境指人为设计的环境多指学校课堂。
由教师、教材和学习者相互之间所提供目的语语言输入以及学习者用目的语进行的各种操练和交际性的语言活动。
教学环境和自然习得环境很难绝对的划分开。
自然习得环境中比在教育环境中能取得较高的第二语言水平。
自然环境中的习得者并不排除有意地寻找机会练习他们已学过的东西。