paragraph

•A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic.•A paragraph is a group of sentences or a single sentence that forms a unit.▪八股文也称“时文”、“时艺”、“制艺”、“制义”、“八比文”、“四书文”。

▪八股文是明朝考试制度所规定的一种特殊文体。

▪分为破题、承题、起讲、入手、起股、中股、后股、束股等组成部分。

▪破题是用两句话将题目的意义破开，承题是承接破题的意义而说明之。

起讲为议论的开始，首二字用“意谓”、“若曰”、“以为”、“且夫”、“尝思”等开端。

“入手”为起讲后入手之处。

起股、中股、后股、束股才是正式议论，以中股为全篇重心。

在这四股中，每股又都有两股排比对偶的文字，合共八股，故名八股文。

题目主要摘自四书、五经，所论内容主要据宋朱熹《四书章句集注》，不得自由发挥、越雷池一步。

一篇八股文的字数，清顺治时定为550字，康熙时增为650字，后又改为700字。

八股文注意章法与格调，本来是说理的古体散文，而能与骈体辞赋合流，构成一种新的文体，在文学史上自有其地位。

[题目]学习“与时俱进”1.[破题]“与时俱进”四字中，“时”和“进”二字是关键词。

“时”者时代也、历史也。

“进”者进步也、改革也。

2.[承题]21世纪属于什么时代?属于全球化时代。

我们将怎样取得进步?按照全球化时代的发展规律行事，就是进步。

“与时”，不墨守历史成规。

“俱进”，改革开放，进人先进国家行列、实行先进的经济和政治制度。

3.[起讲]世界各国都在进步，我国岂能例外?经济从工业化进步到信息化。

政治从专制制度进步到民主制度。

文化从知识禁锢进步到知识解放。

这是全球化时代的脉搏。

4. [入手]全球化时代的主要特点是信息化。

信息技术迅猛发展。

电视、电脑、手机，以出不穷、功能奇特的信息产品，成为主导资源。

由此，劳动力从农业和工业转向流通和服务产业，劳动密集产业转向知识密集产业，白领工人多于蓝领工人。

知识成为主要资本。

美国的农民只占人口的百分之一点几，工人只占人口的百分之十几。

工农阶级在人口比例中变成少数。

如果不是亲自在美国和日本看到“没有农民的农场”“没有工人的工厂”，我将继续高呼“耕者有其田”和“世界无产者联合起来”。

5. [起股1信息化不神秘。

说话、写信、打电话、看电视、用电脑，都是信息化。

能讲普通话，走遍中国，不要翻译，信息化。

能讲英语，走遍世界，不要翻译，信息化。

在电脑上输入拼音，自动变为汉字，跟网友互通电子邮件，信息化。

在电脑上查找美国国会图书馆的书目和资料，信息化。

电脑和手机结合，进行通信、通话、传递图片和摄像，跟国内外学术同行作学术交流，信息化。

信息化在你身边。

信息化使你得到新消息和新知识。

6.[中股」今天，任何国家都一方面继承和改进本国的传统文化，一方面利用和创造国际的现代文化，这叫做双文化时代。

双文化促进文化的发展，也引起文化的冲突。

在先进与落后的冲突中，在复古与创新的矛盾中，“与时供进”是历史导航的方向盘。

追求先进生产力要先学习模仿进而能发明创造，前提条件是开辟自由创造的环境。

追求先进文化要摆脱思想的束缚，先进文化是自由土壤中萌发出来的鲜花。

广播、电视、电脑等信息工具，要充分运用，不要限制运用。

信息化时代限制信息，何以自解?时代更易、容易券生社会动荡。

鸡犬相闻、老死不相往来，相安无事。

十八只螃蟹放在一个竹篓里，哪能不我挟你、你挟我?文化冲突实际是文化差距的摩擦。

7.[后股]“与时俱进”不是自愿选择、而是客观规律，不是特殊策略、而是一般公式，只能一时背离，不能长期背离。

社会进步有层次程序，倒退是偶然，超越也是偶然，循序前进是常规。

社会发展有四次飞跃:从部落社会到奴隶社会是第一次飞跃，从奴隶社会到封建社会是第二次飞跃。

从封建社会到资本社会是第三次飞跃。

从资本社会到社会主义社会是第四次飞跃。

“与时俱进”提醒人们不要犯时代错误。

8.[束股]真理也“与时俱进”，不是一成不变。

实践是检验真理的惟一标准。

真理不怕批评，批评是真理的营养品。

怕批评的不是真理，而是未能适应时代的宗教和教条。

迷信时代要过去了，盲从时代要过去了，现在是独立思考、择善而从、不拘一格、奋力求进的“与时俱进”时代了。

Unity—oneness•Unified—The sentences should all refer to the main idea, or thesis, of the paper.•Singleness of purpose•Fullness—be fully substantiated by factual details, the more the better.•Brevity•Topic sentenceTopic Sentence•Topic Sentences - A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main idea of a paragraph. It tells the reader what to expect about the information that will follow. Without the use of a topic sentence, developing a paragraph can be extremely difficult. Topic sentences can appear at several points in a paragraph:•the beginning of the paragraph•the middle of the paragraph•the end of the paragraph•the beginning and the end of the paragraph•not statedCoherence—well-connectedness of words and sentences•Arranged in a clear, logical order•Transitions are smooth and natural.•As the reader is being led along he is aware of where he is going.Transitional devices•Parallel construction•The repetition of words or phrases•The restatement of an idea in different words •Pronouns that refer to nouns in preceding sentences.•The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead people’s bodies by making mummies of them. Basically, mummificationconsisted of removing the internal organs, applying natural preservatives inside and out, and then wrapping the body in layers of bandages. And the process was remarkably effective. Indeed, mummies several thopusand years old have been discovered nearly intact. Their skin, hair, teeth, finger—and toenails, and facial features are still evident. Their diseases in life, such as smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies, are still diagnosable. Even their fatal afflictions are still apparent: a middle-aged king died from a blow on the head; a child king died from polio.Opening paragraphs•Motivate readers to take an interest in what we are going to write about.•Set the tone.•Give the outline•With an anecdote•With a narration•An appropriate quotation•A controversial question•With an observation•Some broader remark about your topic•A thesis statement•A vivid contrastAvoid•Apology•Self-evident statement•Platitude•Restatement of the assignment•The dictionary definition that is not necessary•There is an old American folk tale about a wooden bowl. It seems that Grandmother, with her trembling hands, was guilty ofoccasionally breaking a dish. Her daughter angrily gave her a wooden bowl, and told her that she must eat out of it from now on. The young granddaughter, observing this, asked her mother why Grandmother must eat from a wooden bowl when the rest of the family were given china plates. “Because she is old!” answered her mother. The child thought for a moment and then told her mother, “You must save the wooden bowl when Grandma dies.” Her mother asked why, and the child replied, “For when you are old.”•On the 14th of March, at a quarter to three in the afternoon, the greatest living thinker ceased to think. He had been left alone for scarcely two minutes, and when we came back we found him in his armchair, peaceful gone to sleep—but forever.•Egypt is an acquired country, the gift of the river.•Should a man put loyalty to his country above loyalty to a friend? Does loyalty to the government come before loyalty to one’s family? How we answer such a question depends on…•It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.•Only a few politicians have taken a craftsman’s pride in self-expression, and fewer still—Caesar, Lord Alarendon, Winston Churchill, De Gaulle—have been equally successful in politics and authorship. Of these Churchill may be the most interesting, for he was not only among the most voluminous of writers, but also commented freely on the art of writing. He was, infact, a writer before becoming a politician.•The outcome of the Civil War might have been different if the Southern troops had been provided with better supply lines and more practical distribution of foodstuffs at hand. •Dostoevsky faced a firing squad but lived; Camus crashed his automobile into a tree by accident and died. Doesman’s experience with death prove the existentialist point that life has no pattern and no purpose.Closing paragraphs•Concise•Forceful•To the point• A significant quotation which supports the thesis• A forceful restatement of the thesis through the use of balance, emphasis, or other rhetorical devices.• A generalization•An anecdote that reinforce the central idea.•An appropriate final quotation•Stating your final point• A call for actionAvoid•Apology•Platitude•An announcement that you have ended•Raising problems that weaken, or distract the reader from the main point of your paper.•And so we agree with Emerson: “Every great and commanding moment in the annals of the world is the triumph of some enthusiasm.”•…and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.•“All men are created equal” does not mean that all men are the same. What it does mean is that each should be accorded full respect and full right as a unique human being—full respect for humanity and for his differences from other people.•Nothing in the universe has more grandeur than the infinity of the human mind.Even pea-sized computers capable of forecasting the movement of thegalaxies are not more wondrous than the mysterious human creature thatproduced them. The ultimate frontier is not geographical or spatial butintellectual.•Finally, the farmers took their most radical action. They burned their crops instead of shipping them to the market at a transportation cost that would have been higher even than the revenue from their products. This dramatic action was a way of forcing city people into giving the farmers a square deal. It was a shocking act, but it focused on the farmers’ desperate plight and was one of the steps that eventually led our country out of its demoralized state of depression •If we leave our prisons the way they are—caves of corruption where first time offenders mingled with hardened murders and rapists—then we can expect that all offenders will end having their minds forever twisted. Society’s obligations is not only to confine a criminal, but also to return him to society as a rehabilitated human being. Oscar Wilde’s poem “Ballad of Reading gaol” tells a world of truth:The vilest deeds like poison weeds,Bloom well in prison air,It is only what is good in Man,That wastes and withers there.•The Communists disdain to conceal their views and they openly declare that their ends can be attained only by the forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions. Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Working men of all countries, unite!。