英语语言学2已做.
英语语言学 第二章 Phonetics and Phonology
scope of phonetics
articulatory phonetics
auditory phonetics
acoustic phonetics
articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 From the speaker’s point of view： studying how a speaker uses his or her speech organ to articulate sounds （ 研究语音的产生）
当声带分离时，气流容易通过，由此产生的语 音叫清音（voiceless），如 [p, s, t]。 当声带贴近时，气流使其产生震动 （vibration），形成的声音成为浊音 （voicing），如[ b, z, d]。 当声带完全紧贴时，气流无法通过，不发出声 音。
pharyngeal cavity: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.
2.1 the phonic medium of language
two media of language : speech and writing Sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language.
2.2.2 speech
organs (发音器官)
英语二学历 语言学的课件02 Language
Shakespeare); Onomatopoeic words seem to be exceptions, but not really. 音义结合的任意性
2019/1/4 张旭红
rose By any other name would smell as sweet. (From Romeo and Juliet by
Language
--- Chapter Two
2019/1/4
张旭红
1
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
Contents
I. Definition of Language; II. Defining Features of Language;
III. Language: Unique to Humans;
IV. Two Languages in One Brain; V. Language Acquisition: VI. Functions of Language; VII. Origin of Language;
Also called speech error, it is an involuntary and inadvertent deviation from an intended utterance that often results in ungrammaticality, nonsense words, or anomaly, etc.张旭红 （口误） 2019/1/4 7
2019/1/4 张旭红 8
Term citations
Langue Vs. Parole F. De. Saussure (1916) “Course in General Linguistics” “Research of speech activity includes two parts, one is
新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案
新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案Study Guide for New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition AnswersIntroductionThe New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition is a comprehensive guide to the study of the English language. This study guide provides answers to the exercises and questions found in the textbook, helping students to better understand the concepts and theories discussed in each chapter.Chapter 1: Introduction to Linguistics1.1 What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure, including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.1.2 What are the subfields of Linguistics?The subfields of linguistics include phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.1.3 What is the difference between prescriptive and descriptive grammar?Prescriptive grammar is concerned with rules for what is considered "correct" language use, while descriptive grammar describes how language is actually used by speakers.Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, including their production, transmission, and reception.2.2 What is phonology?Phonology is the study of the sound system of a language, including the patterns and rules that govern the pronunciation of words.2.3 What is the difference between consonants and vowels?Consonants are speech sounds that are produced with some degree of obstruction in the vocal tract, while vowels are speech sounds that are produced without obstruction.Chapter 3: Morphology3.1 What is morphology?Morphology is the study of the structure of words and how words are formed from smaller units called morphemes.3.2 What are free and bound morphemes?Free morphemes can stand alone as words, while bound morphemes must be attached to other morphemes to form a complete word.3.3 What is the difference between inflectional and derivational morphemes?Inflectional morphemes modify the grammatical function of a word (e.g., tense, number), while derivational morphemes create new words or change the meaning of existing words.Chapter 4: Syntax4.1 What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences and how words are combined to create meaningful phrases and sentences.4.2 What is the difference between phrases and clauses?Phrases are groups of words that function as a single unit within a sentence, while clauses are larger structures that contain a subject and a predicate.4.3 What is the difference between syntax and semantics?Syntax deals with the structure of language, while semantics is concerned with the meaning of language.Chapter 5: Semantics and Pragmatics5.1 What is semantics?Semantics is the study of meaning in language, including how words and sentences convey meaning.5.2 What is pragmatics?Pragmatics is the study of how context influences the interpretation of language, including the social and cultural factors that affect communication.5.3 What are speech acts?Speech acts are actions that are performed through speech, such as making a request or giving an order.ConclusionThis study guide provides answers to the exercises and questions found in the New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition, helping students to deepen their understanding of the core concepts and theories in the study of English linguistics. By using this guide, students can enhance their knowledge andskills in the field of linguistics and improve their overall comprehension of the English language.。
英语语言学教程Chapter 2 精品PPT课件
Its main principles were that
there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and
that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.
The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.
These principles continue to be followed today.
Questions for the students:
Do you know that human beings are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system?
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
Teaching aims: Let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.
Teaching difficulties: Manner of articulation ; (发音方法） Place of articulation ; （发音部位） The criteria of vowel description （元音的描述 ）; Broad and narrow transcription （宽式 / ; 窄式标音） allophone（音位变体）; minimal pairs（最小对立位）; assimilation（同化）
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理
Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of timein hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes throughtime3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abideby. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA isusing one letter selected from major European languages to represent onespeech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with lettersymbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letterssymbols and the diacritics.Aspirated and unaspirated1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication areall phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, somedon’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it isrepresented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme/p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in aparticular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another bycopying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in acertain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather thanto the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to anotherone.5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morphemeChapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word categorycomplementizers words which introduce the sentence complementcomplement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ssubcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.1）The naming theory(命名论)Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refersto. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation-occurrence or collocation.③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the s ituation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”．②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It isthe collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; itdeals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lilyAntonymy（反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate formsbetween the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short … 2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member ofthe pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of therelationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below … 2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by ruleseg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G.Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.s is whether the What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmaticcontext of use is considered in the study of meaningIf it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.⑴Austin’s new model of speech actsUtterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simplyin a context.Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。
英语语言学二(2.3)
• Crystal: „Phonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not‟.（音系分析所依赖的原则是；某些
上近似）
• Free variants and free variation（自由变体
和自由变体现象）
Free variation
• Sometimes a phoneme may also have FREE VARIANTS. For example, the final consonant of cup may not be released by some speakers so there is no audible sound at the end of this word. In this case, it is the same word pronounced in two different ways: [jç Uoç ] and [jç Uo´], with the 14 diacritic “ ´ ” indicating “no audible release” in IPA symbols, i.e. the sound is not actually heard. • The difference may be caused by dialect or personal habit, instead of by any distribution rule. Such a phenomenon is called FREE VARIATION. Free variation is often found in regional differences. For example, most Americans pronounce the word either as [h9C?_] whereas most British people say [`HC?]. Individual differences may also determine the use of [cHqDjRm] or [c`HqDjRm] for the word direction.
简明英语语言学教程第二版课后参考答案
《新编简洁英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参照答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. Howdo you interpret the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order todiscover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has tocollect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities,and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypothesesabout the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checkedrepeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as inany other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is,a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3)morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbolsrepresenting sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4)syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined toform grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5)semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6)pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as“ traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybeover-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of itspermanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does notforce languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over adiachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than towriting?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary mediumof human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution,speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented ”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount ofinformation conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every nativespeaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later whenhe goes to school.For modern linguists,spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the“revised ” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6.How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar toChomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least inthat Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue isa matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychologicalpoint of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答： First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combinedaccording to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connectionbetween a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third,language is vocal because the primary mediumfor all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from thecommunication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of humanlanguage that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答： The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary.This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used torefer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the constructionand interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce andunderstand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they havenever heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower orthe basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediatesituations of the speaker. This is what“displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile humancapacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system arenot genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9.What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examplesfor illustration.答： Three main functions are often recognized of language:the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which canbe asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example:“China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences,prejudices,and values.For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her. ”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations betweenpeople. . For example:“We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, whichone is primary and why?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, pleaserefer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and someconsonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription.This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.The latter,. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription.This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of thediacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it isnecessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the fourwords leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l]in[li:f],occurring before a vowel,is called a dear [l],and no diacritic is needed to indicate it;the[1] in[fi:l]and [bild],occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1]as in“leaf”. Itis called dark[?]and in narrow transcription the diacritic[?]is used to indicate it.Then in the sound combination[hel θ],the sound [l]is followed by the English dental sound [ θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it.It is thus called a dental[l],and in narrow transcription the diacritic [ 、 ] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounceddifferently in the two words pit and spit.In the word pit,the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent.In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit,the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription,but in narrow transcription, a small raised“h” is used to show aspiration, thuspit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of mannerof articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place ofarticulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental,dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to whichpart of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group,we need to apply another criterion, . the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, weclassify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-openvowels,and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classificationof vowels is the shape of the lips.In English,all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels,i. e.,without rounding the lips,and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowelscan be pronounced with rounded lips.6.A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1)voiced palatal affricate2)voiceless labiodental fricative3)voiced alveolar stop4)front, close, short5)back, semi-open, long6)voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?]6) [?]答： A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop(2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate(4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short(6) front, open7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do youthink will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p],a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the sameaspect of language–– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, theydiffer in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, howthey differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can beclassified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speechsounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to conveymeaning in linguistic communication.(2)A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasksof the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and[?], [ph] and [p].8.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophonesrelated to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produceduring linguistic communication are all phones. A phonemeis not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phoneticcontext. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phoneticenvironments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme/l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophonesof the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word beginswith a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi]are impossible combinations in English.They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying ” a featureof a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation ofneighbouring sounds is, for the most part,caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This“sloppy ” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, ., itdoes not distinguish meaning. But this does not meanthat vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phoneticcontexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green,team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of thealveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, thenasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it.Weknow that in English the prefix in- can be added to maadjective to makethe meaning of the word negative, . discreet–indiscreet, correct–incorrect. But the [n]sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so inthe word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, . [d], is an alveolarstop,but the [n]sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, . [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop.So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are“copying ” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.Wehave noticed that in the p ronunciation of such words as sign,design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by theletter g. But in their corresponding forms signature,designation,and paradigmatic, the [g]represented by the letter g is pronounced.The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign– signature, resign– resignation, phlegm–phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will bedeleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features ofEnglish function in conveying meaning?答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress,intonation,and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift ofstress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although itsspelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones,the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a“+”between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答： a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2.Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the typesof stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc. ” translator, “one who translates ”答： (1) suffix:-ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples:acceptable,respectable,“can be accepted “can be respected””(2) suffix:-lymeaning: functionalstem type:added to adjectivesexamples: freely.“adverbial form of‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick'”.(3) suffix:-eemeaning:the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee,“one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed ”3.Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the typesof stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not ”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric,“lacking symmetry ” asexual, “without sex or sex organs ”答： (1) prefix:dis-meaning:showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove,“do not approve ”dishonesty, “lack of honesty ”.(2) prefix:anti-meaning:against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples :antinuclear,“opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial,“opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community.”(3) prefix:counter-meaning:the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples:counterproductive,“prod ucing results opposite to thoseintended ”(sth.) ”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答： (1) the third person singular(2)the past tense(3)the present perfect(4)the present progressive5.Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related toone another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d)democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：( 略)6.The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes.Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer ’s cows escaped.b)It was raining.c)Those socks are inexpensive.d)Jim needs the newer copy.e)The strongest rower continued.f)She quickly closed the book.g)The alphabetization went well.答：( 略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined toform sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrasestructure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP→ (Det) N (PP) ...VP→ (Qual) V (NP) ...AP→ (Deg) A (PP) ...PP→ (Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which Xstands for the head N, V, A or P.The XP rule: XP→ (specifier)X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the sameor similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namelymeaning, inflection and distribution.若详尽回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property orattribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. Forexample, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property‘pretty’to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly,the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted byadverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words ofdifferent categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix - ing . And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix - er and superlative affix - est . Although inflection is very helpful in determininga word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections.For example, nouns like moisture , fog , do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent , intelligent do not take comparative and superlativeaffixes - er and - est .The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. Forexample, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type withthe help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear priorto the conjunction.2)A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3)Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4)The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category typeof the elements being conjoined.5.What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier andcomplement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, ithelps to makemore precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks aphrase boundary.Complement:Complementsare themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rulein accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of thesentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure ).（以下几题只作初步的的成分区分，未画树形图,仅供参照）7.Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd)This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier.Drawthe appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A +complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) → specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) → specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) → specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window)NPd) The apple might hit the man.S → NP(The apple) + Infl (might) +VP(hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S → NP(He) + VP(often reads detective stories)9.The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence,first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）extreme caution.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane withmoon hung in the sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A woodenhut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a treestructure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范围）a)Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b)Helen put on her clothes and went out.c)Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function ascomplements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure foreach sentence.a)You know that I hate war.b)Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c)Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d)The children argued over whether bats had wings.12.Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw thedeep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a)The essay that he wrote was excellent.b)Herbert bought a house that she lovedc)The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.（斜体的为深层构造，一般字体的为表层构造）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrowb) What did Helen bring to the party?Helen brought what to the partyc) Who broke the window?who broke the windowChapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答： (1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. Accordingto this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used ina language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2)The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguisticform and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms ofsituation, use, context––elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was . Firth, famous British linguist.。
英语语言学笔记（2）
⼆、⾳系学 语⾔的声⾳媒介 什么是语⾳学 发⾳器官 ⾳标……宽式和严式标⾳法 英语语⾳的分类 ⾳系学和语⾳学 语⾳、⾳位、⾳位变体 ⾳位对⽴、互补分部、最⼩对⽴ ⼏条⾳系规则 超切分特征 Two major media of communication: speech and writing The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. ⽤于⼈类语⾔交际的声⾳称为语⾳，这些数⽬有限的⼀组语⾳构成了语⾔的声⾳媒介。
Phonetics语⾳学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language. Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发⾳语⾳学（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 听觉语⾳学and acoustic phonetics 声学语⾳学 Organs of speech 发⾳器官 The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities: The pharyngeal cavity咽腔——the throat The oral cavity⼝腔——the mouth The nasal cavity ⿐腔——the nose Vibration of the vocal cords （声带） results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing" 浊⾳，which is a feature of all vowels 元⾳ and some consonants 辅⾳。
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一、单选题（共 20 道试题，共 60 分。
）V1. _____ is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication throughA. MetalanguageB. InterlanguageC. SignD. Esperanto满分：3 分2. The term ______ is used for less drastic difference which is restricted to variation in pronunciation.A. sociolectB. dialectC. geographical dialectD. accent满分：3 分3. The road was （enlarged）last year. （为括号部分的单词选择相对应的构词法）A. ConversionB. DerivationC. BlendingD. Backformation满分：3 分4. _________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to use.”A. fieldB. modeC. tenorD. register满分：3 分5. Smog is a ___________ word.A. derivedB. clippedC. blendedD. compound满分：3 分6. edits （为下列单词选择相对应的构词法）A. ConversionB. BackformationC. BlendingD. Compounding满分：3 分7. _____ is a variety of a language used by people living in an area.A. A social dialectB. A regional dialectC. The standard varietyD. A functional variety满分：3 分8. The motivation that the learners have a sense of achievement as long as they learn if of vital importanceA. instrumentalB. integrativeC. cognitiveD. none of them满分：3 分9. The study of language in general is often termed ____.A. modern linguisticsB. general linguisticsC. functional linguisticsD. pragmatics满分：3 分10. The following dialogue flout ________ maxis of the cooperative principle.A: Do you know the great writeA. QualityB. QuantityC. RelationD. Manner满分：3 分11. A(n)________ is the minimal or the smallest distinctive linguistic unit in a language.A. phonetic symbolB. alphabetC. phonemeD. allophone满分：3 分12. I like to have （brunch）quite often. （为括号部分的单词选择相对应的构词法）A. ConversionB. BackformationC. BlendingD. Compounding满分：3 分13. ______ is a variety of a language spoken by people living in an area.A. A social dialectB. A regional dialectC. The standard varietyD. A functional variety满分：3 分14. （EEC ）is an important organization in the world. （为括号部分的单词选择相对应的构词法）A. DerivationB. BlendingC. BackformationD. Acronym满分：3 分15. He is （watering ）flowers. （为括号部分的单词选择相对应的构词法）A. ConversionB. DerivationC. BlendingD. Backformation满分：3 分16. The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is generalized by Grice (1975) as ______A. the principle of relevanceB. cooperative principleC. the politeness principleD. the theory of prototypes满分：3 分17. ________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to use”, in contrast withA. fieldB. modeC. tenorD. register满分：3 分18. ____ is the study of sound systems and patterns.A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. MorphologyD. Syntax满分：3 分19. _______ is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words .A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. LexiconD. Morpheme满分：3 分20. ______ are the features found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called.A. distinctive featuresB. non-distinctive featuresC. suprasegmental featuresD. free variation满分：3 分V1. Sodium Chloride and salt, which denote the same substance, differ in register ofcommunication.满分：2. “He sat alone by himself” is a statement of tautology.3. Linguists attempt to discover the universals of human language.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分4. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the Subject and the Predicate.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分5. Words like dragon, phoenix, unicorn, and mermaid, are meaningful but they identifyno entities in the real world.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分6. Tone is a distinctive feature.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分7. Prototype refers to the process by which people use language to classify the worldaround and inside them.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分8. John explained the theory is a material process according to Halliday.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分9. Back-channel signals are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分10. Voiced refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分11. The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or moresegments are called suprasegmental features .A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分12. Dialect is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to varieties according touse.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分13. It is the interpersonal function of language, in a sense, that brings the world into ourmind.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分14. A functional variety is a variety of a language spoken by people living in an area.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分15. The structural syllabus takes the text as the basic teaching unit.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分16. The sentence “The woman can’t bear children” is structurally ambiguous.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分17. Preferred second parts refer to having the right to speak by turns.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分18. Social contexts strongly influence second language acquisition. (T) 20. Field isconcerned with the purpose and subject-matter of communications.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分19. Morphology is defined as the study of meaning.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分20. Minimal pairs can be exemplified by sea/sea.A. 错误B. 正确满分：2 分。