简明语言学整理笔记
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版复习笔记

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版复习笔记引言《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第二版)是一本全面介绍英语语言学的教材。
本文是根据该教材的内容整理出的复习笔记,旨在帮助读者复习和巩固所学知识。
本文将从语音学、形态学、句法学、语用学等方面进行总结和回顾。
一、语音学语音学是语言学的一个重要分支,研究语音的产生、传播和接收。
在英语语音学中,我们学习了音素、音节、音变等概念,以及发音方式和音系结构。
其中,音素是语音的最小单位,音节是由音素组成的单位,音变是音素在特定环境中发生的变化。
在语音学的学习中,我们还学习了国际音标的使用和表示方法。
国际音标是一种标记语音的符号系统,其中每个音素都有一个唯一的符号来表示。
通过学习国际音标,我们可以准确地记录和描述语音。
二、形态学形态学是研究词素和词法规则的学科。
在形态学中,我们学习了词的构成规则和形态变化。
英语中的词缀是词的构成要素,可以分为前缀、后缀和中缀。
词缀的加入或删除可以改变词的意思、词性或词态。
此外,我们还学习了各种词的形态变化规则,如名词的复数形式、动词的时态和语气等。
了解形态学规则对于理解和运用英语词汇是非常重要的。
三、句法学句法学是研究句子结构和句子成分之间关系的学科。
在句法学的学习中,我们学习了句子的基本成分,如主语、谓语、宾语和定语等。
我们还学习了句子的结构、成分之间的语法关系,以及句法规则的应用。
在英语句法学中,我们学习了句子的短语结构分析和句子树的表示方法。
通过短语结构分析和句子树,我们可以准确地分析句子的结构和成分关系。
四、语用学语用学研究的是语言的使用和交际。
在语用学的学习中,我们学习了语言的交际功能、意义和上下文的影响。
我们还学习了言语行为和语用规则,如请求、邀请、命令等。
了解语用学对于理解和运用英语是非常重要的。
结论《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第二版)是一本重要的英语语言学教材,其内容涵盖了语音学、形态学、句法学和语用学等方面的知识。
本文对该教材的内容进行了复习总结,并通过Markdown文本格式进行了输出。
新编简明英语语言学戴炜栋版本u1-u6期末笔记整理

●语言学家:1.F.de Saussure P4Swiss linguist. He distinct the langue and parole in the early 20thcentury <course in general linguistics>写了《普通语言学》强调研究语言(what linguist should do is to abstract langue from parole)2.N ChomskAmerican linguist distinct competence and performance in the late 1950s强调研究语言能力(competence)和索绪尔的相似点●Saussure和chomsky不同之处:索绪尔从社会学角度(sociological view)他的语言概念属于社会习俗范畴(social conventions);乔姆斯基是从心理学角度(Psychological view),认为语言能力是每个个体大脑的特征(property of mind of each individual)3.现代语言学基本上是描述性的(descriptive),传统语法是规定性的(prescriptive)4.现代语言学中共时性研究更重要(synchronic)Phonetics(语音学) Phonology(音位学)●发音器官1.pharyngeal cavity2.oral cavity3.nasal cavity●speech and writing are the two media or substances 言语和文字是自然语言的两种媒介和物质(言语比文字更加基础)●语音学从哪三个角度研究?(1)说话者角度articulatory phonetics 发声语音学(历史最悠久)(2)听话者角度auditory phonetics 听觉语音学(3)研究语音的传播方式acoustic phonetics 声学语音学●主要现在用IPA标音标,但是语言学家会用严式标音(narrowtranscription)书上举了两个字母的例子{l} leap,feel ,health {p} pit,spit (送气,不送气)p h来表送气●语音的分类:元音(voiced sound)和辅音●voiceless●元音的分类:(1)根据舌头哪一个部位最高,分为front、central、back(2)嘴巴的张合度,分为闭元音、半闭元音、半开元音、开元音(3)不圆唇的(所有前和中元音+{a:} )和圆唇的(rounded)后元音●Segment 和syllable 前面数有几个元音辅音;后面数有几个元音●语音学和音位学的区别(1)语音学家关注{l} 的发音,清晰舌边音和模糊舌边音(2)音位学家关注{l}分布模式,即在什么位置发这个音如{l} 在元音后或辅音前,发模糊舌边音feel、quilt{l}放在元音前发清晰的舌边音leap注意:Phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language.(关注某种语言的语音系统)Linguistics is the scientific study of human languages in general.一、区分音素,音位,音位变体●音素:phone(1)在单词feel[fi:ł],leaf[li:f],tar[tha:],star[sta:]中,一共有7个音素,分别是[f],[i:],[ł],[l],[th].[t],[a:].(2)英语共有48个音素,其中元音20个,辅音28个。
戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记-自己整理版(DOC)

Chapter 1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics? 什么是语言学[A] The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language (对语言进行的科学研究)Process of linguistic study:① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.[B] The scope of linguistics General linguistics普通语言学: the study of language as a whole从整体研究1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of useSociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性② Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性与历时性(现代英语多研究共时性)The description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes through time.③ Speech and writing 言语与文字Spoken language is primary, not the written④ Langue and parole 语言和言语Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)。
语言学笔记

《简明英语语言学》笔记Chapter 1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics?●Definition: the scientific study of language.● A discipline that data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation;that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.●The scope of linguistics:✧General linguistics: study language as a whole✧Specific aspects:1)Phonetics: the study of sounds2)Phonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning3)Morphology: how symbols are formed and combined to form word4)Syntax: study the rules of how to form grammatically correct sentence5)Semantics: the study of meaning6)Pragmatics: the study of meaning in the context of language use✧Interdisciplinary branches:1)Sociolinguistics2)Psycholinguistics3)Applied linguistics●Important distinctions✧Prescriptive and descriptive:1)Descriptive: Describe and analyze the language that people actuallyuse2)Prescriptive: Lay down rules for correct and standard behavior inusing language3)Modern language is mostly descriptive. Modern language, which isscientific and objective, describes language people actually use, be itcorrect or not.✧Synchronic and diachronic1)Synchronic: describe language at some point of time in history, al-ways in its current existence.2)Diachronic: the description of language as it changes through time; itstudies the historical development of language over a period of time.3)In modern linguistics, synchronic approach enjoys priority.✧Speech and writingSpeech is prior to writing in linguistics, for it is more natural and revealsmore true feature of language.✧Langue and parole1)Langue: abstract system shared by all members of language com-munity; it is the set of conventions and rules that language users haveabide by2)Parole: Concrete use of language.3)Saussure: 1) parole is simply a mass of linguistic language facts; 2)linguist should abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regu-larities governing the actual use of language✧Competence and Performance-American linguist Chomsky1)Competence: knowledge of rules of language2)Performance: the realization of this knowledge in linguistic commu-nication3)The imperfect performance is caused by social and psychologicalfactors.✧Traditional grammar and modern linguistics1)Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.2)Modern linguistics regard spoken language as primary.3)Modern linguistics does not force languages into Latin-basedframework.What is language?●Definition of language✧Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human com-munication.1)Language is a system, which means elements of language are com-bined according to rules.2)Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connectionbetween a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.3)Language is vocal because the primary medium for all language issound.4)Language is human-specific.●Design feature1)Arbitrariness: logical connection between meaning and sounds.While some words are motivated: the first are onomatopoeic words,such as rumble, crash, bang; the second are compound words, e.g.photocopy. This kind of words only make up small percentage ofvocabulary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistica-tion of language and make it possible for language to have an unlim-ited source of expressions.2)Productivity: language is productive or creative in that it makespossible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its us-ers.3)Duality: basic level: a structure of soundsHigher level: sounds of language can be rearranged intomorphemes and words4)Displacement: 不受时空限制的5)Cultural transmission: human have to be learned and taught beacquire language.●Functions of language✧Descriptive function: convey factual informationExpressive function: supplies informationSocial function: maintain social relations between people✧Structural linguist Roman JakobsonAddresser---emotive: addresser express his attitude towards thetopic or situationAddressee---conative: the addresser aims to influence addressee’sactionContext---referential: addresser conveys a message or informationMessage---poetic: use language to display the beauty of languageContact---phatic communication: it tries to establish or maintain in-terpersonal relationsCode---metalinguistic: make clear the meaning of language itself✧In early 1970 British linguist M.A.K. Halliday7 function in children.3 in adults:Ideational function: organize one’s experience, attitude, evaluation,feeling, and emotionsInterpersonal function: establish and maintain interpersonal rela-tionsTextual function: organize written or spoken English in such amanner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particularsituation in which they are usedChapter 2 PhonologyThe phonic medium of language✧Limited range of sounds constitute the phonic medium of language.✧The individual sounds within the range are the speech sounds.Phonetics●What is phonetics?✧Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it isconcerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s languages.✧Articu latory phonetics: studies the sounds form speaker’s point ofView, i.e. how the speaker uses his speech organs to articulate thesoundsAuditory phonetics: studies from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. howthe sounds are perceived by the hearerAcoustic phonetics: the way sounds travel by looking at the soundswaves.Chapter 4 SyntaxWhat is it?●Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules the govern the formation of sen-tences.Words categories●In traditional grammar, there are 8 categories (called parts of speech). Non-traditionalcategories as determiner (Det), degree words (Deg), and qualifier (Qua).●Two division✧Major lexical categories: the heads around which phases are built. Noun, verb, ad-jective, preposition.✧Minor lexical categories: determiner限定词, degree words, qualifier限定语, aux-iliary, conjunction.●Criteria:✧Meaning: 1) nouns often designate its entity; verbs often designate action, sensation,and states. 2) the property or attribute of a noun can be elaborated by adjectives,those of verbs, adverbs.Deficiencies: 1) some words do not have entity such as dilemma, friendship.2) some words belong to more than one categories3) words with same or similar meaning belongs to different catego-ries, e.g. be aware of a nd know✧Inflection: 1) noun → -s or –es indicating plural2)adjectives→-er or –est indicating comparative degree and superla-tive degree3)verb→-ing and –ed indicating progressive and past tenseDeficiency: some words do not take inflections✧Distribution: it is reliable, which indicates what type of elements can co-occur withcertain words.Noun co-appear with determiner, e.g. a girl, the penVerbs with auxiliary, e.g. should openAdjectives with degree words, e.g. very coolPhrase categories and their structure●XP ruleXP→Specifier ——head—— complementNP→(Det) N (PP) …VP→(Qual) V (NP) …AP→(Deg) A (PP) …PP→(Deg) P (NP) …●Coordination rule✧No limit on the number of coordinated categories prior to the conjunction.✧ A category at any level (head or XP) can be coordinated.✧Coordinated categories must be of the same type.✧The category type of coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of elementsbeing conjoined.✧Structure: X→X, X, X…Con XPhrase elements:●Specifiers✧Role:1) semantically, make more precise the meaning of head; 2) syntactically,mark the phrase boundary.●✧Provide information and location, attached to right of the head✧Monotransitive: open the doorDitransitive: send me the mailComlex transitive verbs: put it on the wall✧Complement clauseMiss Herbert believes that she will win.Matrix clause complementizer complement clause✧CP complement●Modifiers✧To modifier nouns →adj. phrases✧To modifier verbs →adv. Phrases and prepositional phrasesPosition of modifiersModifiers Positions ExamplesAP PP AdvP Precedes the headFollow the headPrecedes or followA very careful girlOpen with careRead carefully; carefully readSentences (the S rule)Inflp= (s)NP Inlf VP。
新编简明英语语言学教程(重点笔记 赶考秘籍)

1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it (a) is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data. It (b) discovers the nature and rules of the underlying language system. It (c) collects language facts that display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them.The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics.phonetics(语音学): the study of soundsphonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaningmorphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form wordssyntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammaticallypermissible sentencessemantics(语义学): the study of meaningpragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language useinterdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学)Important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptive(规定性old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性modern linguistics)synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性): most linguistic studies are of synchronic descriptions,which is prior in modern linguisticsspeech and writing: speech is prior to writing in modern linguisticslangue(语言系统abstract linguistic system) and parole(话语/言语realization of langue in actualuse): Swiss linguist F. de Saussure----forefather of modern linguisticscompetence(语言能力ideal user’s knowledge of rules of his language) and performance(语言运用actual realization of this knowledge): American linguist N. Chomskytraditional grammar and modern linguistics: Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics”marked the beginning of modern linguistics1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.LAD: Language Acquisition Device -----ChomskyArbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced.Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)---higher level(words)Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned.2.1 Speech and writing are the two media for communication, of which speech ismore basic/primary.The sounds which are produced by humans through their speech organs and meaningful in communication constitute the phonic medium of language. The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, which concerned with all the sounds thatoccur in the world’s languages.articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phoneticsSpeech organs:pharyngeal; cavity---throat; oral cavity---mouth; nasal cavity---noseIPA: 国际音标diacritics: 变音符broad transcription: 宽式标音(used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)narrow transcription: 严式标音(used by phoneticians in their study)vowels(the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed)stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音)close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness)unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips)long/tense vowels----short/lax vowelsmonophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus.phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaningconcerned with sound system of a particular languagephonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech soundsA phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment.(speech sounds are all phones)a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaningA phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit.(an abstract unit of distinctive value)not particular sound, but is realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones(音位变体) of that phoneme.Rules in phonology:Sequential rules(序列规则)---rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.Assimilation rule(同化规则)---assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. for ease of articulation(清晰发音)e.g. green, screamDeletion rule(省略规则)---e.g. desi g nationSuprasegmental features(超切分特征): the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black birdtone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall toneE.g. That’s not the book he wants.3.1 Morphology: study of the internal structure of words, and rules by which words are formed3.2 open class words(开放类): new words can be added—nouns, verbs, adjective and adverbsclosed class words(封闭类): “grammatical” or “functional” words3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language.Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning.Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix)3.4 V----teachN Af----er3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素)Free morphemes Bound morphemesRoot Root Affixdog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffixgrammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional …-mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er3.6 Morphological rules determine how morphemes combine to form words. E.g. un-accept-able3.8 Another way to form words is compounding. E.g. bittersweetWord Formations: compounding, blending, backformation, shortening4.1 Syntax studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2 Category is a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular languagesuch as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories—word-level categories:major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built)---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P)minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con)Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布)A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria.Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP)phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elementsthat make up a phraseNP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complementVP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complementAP→(Deg) A (PP) ……PP→(Deg) P (NP) ……XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con XEither an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con.4.4 Phrase elements: specifiers, complements, modifiersspecifiers determiner qualifier degree wordheads N V A / Pcomplementizers (Cs)—words introducing the sentence complementcomplement clause—sentence introduced by the complementizer complement phrase(CP)matrix clause—construction in which the CP embeded嵌入As, Ns, Ps can all take CP. Adjectives: (heads) afraid, certain, awareNouns: (heads) fact, claim, belief Prepositions: (heads)over, aboutmodifiers: all lexical categories can have modifiers.AP(+Ns): precedes the head e.g. a very careful girl PP(+Vs): follows the head e.g. open with care AdvP(+Vs): precedes or follows the head e.g. read carefully/carefully readThe Expanded XP rule: XP→(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)4.5 The S rule: S→NP VP ------ Inflp (=S)→NP Infl VP ------Infl can be taken by an abstract category encodedin a verb indicating tense or an auxiliary(助动词)4.6 Transformation a special rule that can move an element from one position to anotherauxiliary movement(助动词移位) inversion: move Infl to the left of the subject NP.within larger CPs (embedded or not): inversion: move Infl to C. P53 Figure 4-8 do insertion(插入): insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position, than move Infl to C.deep and surface structure: e.g. Will the train arrive?Deep: S Surface:NP VPDet Infl Vthe train will arriveThe XP rule→D structure→transformations→S structurewh movement: move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence/the specifier position under CPP57 Figure 4-16 P58 Figure 4-18move αand constraints on transformationsmove α: general rule for all the movement rules α: any element that can be movedlimits: inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C positionno element may be removed from a coordinate structure5.1 Semantics is the study of meaning (from a linguistic point of view.)5.2 The naming theory: The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.The limitations of this theory are obvious. There’s verbs, adjectives, etc. and also abstract nouns.The conceptualist view: Words and things are related through the mediation of concepts in the mind.Contextualism: The meaning of a word is its use in the language.Behaviorism: The meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning, which are relatedbut different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features described Reference: “dog”---A said to B:” The dog’s barking.”refer to a certain dog known to both A&BMajor sense relations:synonymy---words that are close in meaningdialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall in AE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father),syn. that differ in emotive or evaluative meaning(same meaning, different emotions)collocational syn.(different usage), semantically different syn.(differ slightly in meaning) polysemy(one word may have more than one meaning)homonymy (homophones--- two words same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)hyponymy(relation between a general word—superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms)antonymy(words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. femalerelational ant.---e.g. husband vs. wife5.4 Sense relations between sentences:X is synonymous with Y. E.g. He was a bachelor all his life. / He never married….X, True—Y, True; X, False---Y FalseX is inconsistent with Y. E.g. John’s married. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F—Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false.X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALEpredication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT)6.1 Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication(meaning in a certain context).Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningUtterance is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or context, it is context-dependent.6.2 Speech act theory: aim to answer “What do we do when using language?”----John Austin in late 1950slocutionary act(言内行为—字面意思), illocutionary act(言外行为—目的), perlocutionary act(言后行为—结果) John Searle: classification of illocutionary acts---five general types of things we do with languageSpecific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point1. representatives/assertive: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be trueE.g. The earth is a globe.2. directives: trying to get the hearer to do something E.g. Close the door. / Will you close the door?3. commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g. I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4. expressive: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing stateE.g. It’s kind of you to ... / I’m sorry for the mess I’ve made.5. declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingE.g. I now declare the meeting open. / I appoint you chairman of the committee.Indirect speech act--primary speech act (goal of communication) + secondary speech act (means by which he achieves the goal) ----Searle6.3 Conventional implicature(暗示) & nonconventional implicature-----GriceCon. imp. E.g. He is rich but he is not greedy. imp. Rich people are usually greedy.The participants must first of all be willing to cooperate to converse with each other. The general principle is called the Cooperative Principle. (CP)Four maxims(准则) under CP: The maxim of quantity (informative but no more than required), quality (don’t say what you believe to be false or what you lack adequate evidence), relation (be relevant), manner (avoid obscurity or ambiguity & be brief and orderly)These maxims can be violated. (when misleading, lying, etc.)Chap. 7 Language change (diachronic 历时的) Historical linguisticsphonological changes: vowels---the most dramatic changemorphological and syntactic change:morphological: Addition of affixes (Fusion 融合word word---base +suffix /prefix +base)Loss of affixes---some are via sound changessyntactic: change of word order Old English: subject-object-verbchange in negation rule Old English: I love thee not.lexical and semantic change:lexical: Addition of new words---takes place obviously and quicklyCoinage (coin for new things and objects), Clipped words (缩略构词),Blending (combine parts of other words, e.g. brunch),Acronyms (首字构词e.g. WTO),Back-formation (subtract affixes from old words, e.g. donate---from “donation”)Functional shift /Conversion (shift without adding affixes, e.g. to knee/cool; a reject)Borrowing (borrow from other languages, e.g. bonus from Latin, cycle from Greek…)Loss of words---takes place gradually over several generationsSome words are short-lived because of the discontinuation of the object they name.semantic: three processes of semantic change---semantic broadening: e.g. holiday = holy day in the past, but any rest day todaysemantic narrowing: e.g. girl = young person of either sex in the pastsemantic shift: e.g. nice = ignorant a thousand years agorecent trends: moving towards greater informality, influence of American English,influence of science and technology (space travel, computer and internet lang. etc.) causes of language change: development of science &tech., social & political changes and needs,the way children acquire language, grammar simplification, elaboration &complication, etc. No single causeChap. 8 Language and societySociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of languagelive. (社会语言学) Halliday & HudsonLanguage is used to communicate meaning, and to establish and maintain social relationships.Social background determines the kind of language one uses, and language reflects one’s info.speech community---the social group that is singled out for any special studyVarious social groups exist within a speech community. A social group may distinguish itself fromthe rest of the community by the educational background, the occupation, the gender, the age ,of the ethnic affiliation of its members.speech variety(变体)---any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakersthree types of speech variety of special interest: regional dialects, sociolects, registersTwo approaches to sociolinguistic studies: macro-sociolinguistics & micro-sociolinguisticsThe varieties of language are related to the users and the use to which the language is put.Dialectal varieties: regional dialect (linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region---geographical barrier), sociolect (characteristic of a particular socialclass---different social conditions), language and gender (female speech is less assertive andthus sounds more polite), language and age (old people are more conservative and like usingold words more), idiolect (personal dialect), ethnic dialect (social dialect of a languagecutting across regional differences e.g. Black English)Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation linguistic repertoire---the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individualthree social variables that determine the register(the features appropriate to the situation): field of discourse (语场purpose and subject-matter of communication non-technical or technical, determines the vocabulary used and the phono. & gramm. features), tenor of discourse (语旨who the participants are and the relationship between them determines the formality and the level of technicality),mode of discourse(语式the means of communication)E.g. a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField: scientific (biological) Tenor: teacher—student (formal, polite) Mode: oral (lecturing) Degree of formality: intimate—casual—consultative—formal—frozenStandard dialects (employed by government, used by mass media, taught in edu. institutions, based on a selected variety of lang., usually local speech of political or commercial centers,for official purposes or any formal occasions)Pidgin (a variety that mixes or blends languages) and Creole (a pidgin becoming the primary lang.of a speech community of which the children acquire the pidgin as native lang.)Chap. 9 Language and culture are interdependent on each other and have evolved together.Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, & behavior. (material & spiritual cult.) Relationship between lang. &cult. : Language symbolizes cultural reality, plays a major role in perpetuating of a culture, is related to what the culture is and affects a culture’s way ofthinking. Language is to culture what part is to whole.discourse communities--- members of the social group use similar lang. to meet their needsdiscourse accents---unique uses of each group’s language, the ways and the style of their talking Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH): Language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences.Language reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.Context is important in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Any linguistic sign has a denotative (指示意义—内含), connotative (暗涵意义—外延), or iconic(图像意义) kind of meaning. All these types of meanings are bound with cultural encodings orassociations.some cultural differences in language use: greeting and terms of address, gratitude and compliments, color words, privacy and taboos(禁忌), rounding off numbers, words andcultural specific connotations, cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphors Culture contact--- acculturation(文化移入political conquests and expansions), assimilation (吸收immigration), amalgamation (合并ethnical mix / synthesis rather than the elimination orabsorption)Cultural overlap (文化重叠owe to similarities in natural environ. and human psychology)Cultural diffusion (文化扩展e.g. loan words gradually and unceasingly)cultural imperialism (文化帝国主义)---owe to linguistic imperialismspecial language policy protecting the purity of their languages---linguistic nationalism Chap. 10 Language acquisition---child’s acquisition of his mother tongueThree theories: the behaviorist (行为主义语言习得观), the innatist(语法天生…),the interactionist (互动主义…)Behaviorist: language is a kind of behavior, language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. Children imitate words selectively and according to their ownunderstanding of the sounds or patterns, which is based on what the children have alreadyknown instead of what is “available” in the environment. This theory fails to explain howthey acquire more complex grammatical structures of the languageInnatist: LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” existing somewhere in the human brain.It is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages.Universal Grammar: innate knowledge of basic grammatical systemChildren ‘s acquisition of grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate UG.Interactionist: language is a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.child directed speech (CDS)(slow rate, high pitch音高, rich intonation抑扬, shorter andsimpler sentence structure)The cognitive development relates to language acquisition mainly in two ways:First, as children’s conceptual development leads to their language development, theirlanguage development also helps in the formation and enhancement of the concept.Second, the cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic systemhimself instead of what meanings the child perceives (理解) and expresses.Two factors remarkably relevant to children’s language developmentLanguage environment is essential in providing input for language acquisition:Behaviorist: language environment plays a major roleInnatist: environment is a stimulus that triggers the pre-equipped LADInteractionist: call for the quality of the language samples available in the ling. environmentAge they start to learn the language:Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH): LAD works successfully only when it’s stimulated at the righttime—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition (Eric Lenneberg)Two versions of CPH: strong one—children must acquire their first language by pubertyweak one—language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty ----consensus: there’s a critical period for first language acquisitionStages in child language development:Phonological development—children must pass one stage before proceeding to the nextVocabulary development—under-extension, over-extensionVocabulary development goes together with the child’s knowledge of the environment.Children may under-extend or overextend it when learning a new word.under-extension: e.g. child gets confused hearing the color of white used for paper when he first thought it as the word for snowover-extension: a child takes a property of an object and generalizes it. likely to occur later Grammatical developmentPragmatic developmentAtypical development (非典型发展)hearing impairment (听力损伤), mental retardation (智力缺陷), autism (孤独症), stuttering(口吃), aphasia (失语症), dyslexia (诵读困难), dysgraphia (书写困难)Chap. 11 Second language acquisition (SLA) is the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language (NL/L1).Whether the target language (TL) to be learnt is called a second language (SL/L2) or a foreignlanguage (FL) depends on its status as a second language or foreign language in the country.Contrastive Analysis (CA)--1960s :positive/negative transfer: the former facilitate target language learning, the latter interfereCA compares the forms and meanings across two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so as to predict the possible learning difficulty.It was soon found problematic: uninformative, inaccurateError Analysis (EA): independently describe the learners’ interlanguage (their version of the target language and the target language itself), and compare the two forms to locate mismatches.It gives less consideration to learner s’ native language than CA. reach heyday in 1970sTwo main sorts of errors: interlingual errors (语际错误result from cross-linguistic interferenceat different levels—phonological, lexical…), intralingual errors (语内错误result from faultyor partial learning of the TL, independent of the NL e.g. learning strategies-based error)Overgeneralization—the use of previously available strategies in new situationsCross-association—interference of two words similar in meaning, spelling and pronunciationEA was criticized for its neglect of learners’ role as active participants in learning. (mid-1970s)Interlanguage: Three important characteristics—systematicity (系统性), permeability (渗透性), fossilization (石化a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become apermanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. fossilized pronunciation leads to accent) Input Hypothesis---Krashen: two independent means or routes of second language learning: acquisition: subconscious process learning: conscious effortsLearners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensible input”. ”i+1”It received criticism later, for he mistook “input” as “intake”.Individual differences: language aptitude (天资), age of acquisition, personalitymotivation----instrumental motivation (for external goal), integrative motivation (for the wish toidentify with the target culture), resultative motivation (for external purposes), intrinsicmotivation (for pleasure),learning strategies (motivation plays an important role in use of learning strategies)----cognitive strategies (认知策略involved in analyzing, synthesizing(合成) and internalizing(内在化) what has been learned), metacognitive strategies (元认知策略the techniques inplanning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning), affect/social strategies (deal with theways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native)Chap. 12 Language and the brainneurolinguistics (神经语言学): study of language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. lateralization (侧化)—cognitive functions controlled by either side of the brainThe brain is divided into two sections:the lower section—brain stem(脑干shared by all animals to keep the body alive by maintaining the essential functions)the higher section—cerebrum(大脑differs in different species, not essential for life)cerebellum—at the rear of the brain , beneath the cerebrum, behind the brainstemneuron神经元Neurons form the cortex(脑皮层the surface of the brain)The cortex has many wrinkles: a ridge (hills) called sulcus, a deep and prominent sulcus called fissure The cortex is the decision-making organ of the body and “storehouse” of “memory”, it makes human distinctive in the animal world—animals have no cortex.The cortex is separated by the longitudinal fissure into the left and right cerebral hemispheres, the。
简明语言学笔记

XI Second Language Acquisition1.Second language acqusition (SLA), formally established itself as a discipline around the 1970s, refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.Target language is called a second language or a foreign language.2.What are the connections between first language acquisition & second language acquisition?The studies on the first language acquisition have influenced greatly those on the second language acquisition at both theoretical and practical levels. The first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning.---- Littlewood( 1986:4).However,second language learners generally fail to attain native-like competence. The language they produced, called interlanguage ( IL) or learner language, tends to become fossilized at certain level.3.What is contrastive analysis (CA对比分析)?It refers to the comparison of the linguistic systems of two language, for example the sound system or the grammatical system. Contrastive analysis was developed and practiced in the 1950s and 1960s, as an application of structural linguistics to language teaching, and is based on the following assumptions: a)The main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the first language; b)These difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis; c)Teaching materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects of interference.4.Transfer(迁移). In learning theory the carrying over of learned behavior from one situation to another. Positive transfe r is learning in one situation which helps or facilitates learning in another later situation. Negative transfer is learning in one situation which interferes with learning in another later situation.5. Error analysis may carried out in order to (1)identify strategies which learners use in language learning;(2)try to identify the causes of learner errors;(3) Obtain information on common difficulties in language learning, as an aid to teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials.A basic distinction was drawn between interlingual (语际) and intralingual(语内)errors.Intralingual errors(语内错误)a.Overgeneralization (概括过度)is defined as the use of previously available strategies in new situation.b.Cross-association(互相联想)6.While errors, defined as unintentional deviants from the target language and not self corrigible by the learner, suggest failure in competence, mistakes, defined as either intentional or unintentional deviant forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.7.What is interlanguage? Proposed by S. Pit Corder and Larry Selinker, the concept of interlanguage was established as learners‟independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language.The three important characteristics of interlanguage——Systematicity; permeability; fossilization8.What is fossilization?Fossilization: the learners‟ independent system of the second language which is neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language.A process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. Aspects of pronunciation, vocabulary usage, and grammar may become fixed or fossilized in second or foreign language learning. Fossilized features of pronunciation contribute to a person‟s foreign accent.9.What are the causes of fossilization?Causes: fossilization may occur at any time and at any level. 1)Lack of acculturation;2)Will to maintain identity;3)Inappropriate extrinsic feedback; 4)Cognitive maturation; 5)Satisfaction of communicative needs;6)Lack of control;7)Quality of input;8)Lack of input; 9)native language influence and instruction10.Recent studies have discovered that there are three interacting factors in determining language transfer in second language learning: a) a learner‟s psychology, how a learner organizes his or her native language, b) a learner‟s perception of native-target language distance, c) a learner‟s actual knowledge of the target language.11. What are the second language learning models ?1)The behaviourism model: emphasize the role of imitation and positivereinforcement.2)The mentalist/ innativis t model: stress that human beings, equipped innately with language acquisition device(LAD), are capable of language learning provided with adequate input.3)The social interactionist model: language and social interaction cannot be separated.12.What is Input Hypothesis (语言输入假设)?A hypothesis proposed by Krashen (克拉申), which states that in second or foreign language learning, for language acquisition to occur, it is necessary for the learner to understand Input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learners‟ present linguistic competence. Learners understand such language using cues in the situation. Eventually the abilit y to produce language is said to emerge naturally, and need not be taught directly.13. What are the the individual difference s?(1). Language aptitude: a natural ability for learning a second language (学习第二语言的天生能力). It includes: phonetic coding ability; grammatical sensitivity; inductive language learning ability; rote learning ability;(2). Motivation: the learner‟s attitudes and affective state or learning drive. Four types of motivation: a. instrumental motivation; b. integrative motivation; c. resultative motivation; d. intrinsic motivation.(3). Learning strategies: learners‟ conscious , goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency.cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, affect/ social strategiesCohen(1998):a. language learning strategies;identifying; distinguishing; grouping; committingb. language using strategiesretrieval; rehearsal; cover; communication(4) Age of acquisition. Meanwhile, the opportunity for learning, motivation to learn, individual differences in language aptitude are also important determining factors in both the rate of learning and ultimate achievement in second language learning.(5) Personality: those aspects of an individual‟s behaviour, attitudes, beliefs, thought, actions and feelings which are seen as typical and distinctive of that person and recognized as such by that person and others. Personality factors such as self-esteem, inhibition, anxiety, risk-taking and extroversion, are thought to influence second language learning because they can contribute to motivation and the choice of learning strategies14. What implications do all the research findings give to the language teaching?1) classroom instruction;2) language teaching research,3) material construction,4) evaluation system,5) teacher training and teacher education,6) curriculum design and innovation,7) education managementX. Language Acquisitionnguage acquisition refers to child‟s acquisition o f his mother tongue2.(1).The Behaviourist view: Traditional behaviorists view language as a kind of behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.The chief exponent of the behaviourist view is B.F. Skinners.It can explain children acquire some of the regular and routine aspects , yet how they acquire complex grammatical structure requires a different explanation.(2). Innatist hypothesis:human knowledge develops from structures, processes, ideas which are in the mind at birth( innate) than from environment, and that these are responsible for the basic structure of language.What is LAD( Language Acquisition Device语言习得机制) an imaginary black box existing in human brain. It contains principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate it, which enables them to discover his language’s structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language.The logical problem means the fact that children come to know more about the structure of their language than they could reasonably be expected to learn from the language samples available.(3)The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristicsof the child and the environment in which the child develops.Behaviourists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects, the innatist accounts most plausible in explaining children's acquiring complex system, and the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.3. The congitive development related to language acquisition mainly in two ways. First, language development is dependent on both the concepts children form about the world and what they feel stimulated to communicate at the early and later stages of their language development. Thus, as children‟s conceptual development leads to their language devel opment, their language development also helps in the formation and enhancement of the concept. Second, the cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic system himself instead of what meanings the child perceives and expresses. Children have some “operating principles” for making sense of language data.4.two factors of child language acquisition theories: linguistic environment children are exposed to and the age they start to learn the language.5.Eric Lenneberg, a biologist, argued that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time——a specific and limited time period for language acquisition——which is referred to as the Critical Period Hypothesis(CPH).6.Stages in child language acquisition(1)Phonological development.(2)V ocabulary development: under-extension外延缩小, over-extension过度延伸.(3)Grammatical development(two-word utterances are typically example of telegraphic speech. Cotent words which lack the function words, or function words which tell nothing.) 4) Pragmatic development(these include the greeting forms, the taboo words禁忌词,the polite forms of address and the various styles appropriate to different speech situations of his community.)7.What is atypical development?Atypical language development may occur due to trauma or injury. It includes hearing impairment, mental retardation,autism, stuttering, aphasis,dyslexia and dysgraphia.(包括听力损伤,智力障碍,自闭症,口吃,失语症,阅读障碍和书写障碍.)8.Among the language acqusition therories mentioned in this chapter, which one do you think is more reasonable and convincing? The innatist view of language acquisition is more reasonable and convincing than the other two. It claims that human beings are biologically programmed for language, emphasizes on man‟s internal processing of the language items to be learnt. The innatist accounts most plausible in explaining children‟s acqusition of complex system.IX Language & Culture1. What is culture?In a broad sense, it means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of customs, belief, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. In a narrow sense, it may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs.2. What are the two types of culture? Material culture, Spiritual culture3.What‟s the relationship between language and culture ?Language is a major component and supporter of culture as well as a primary tool for transferring message, which is inextricably bound with culture. The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole. However, language and culture are inextricably intertwined and it is extremely difficult to separate language from culture for language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. A language not only expresses facts, ideas, or events which represent similar world knowledge by its people, but also reflects the people‟s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks etc.4. What do you think of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis(萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说)?According to the strong version of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, there is no real translation and it is impossible to learn the language of a different culture unless the learner abandons his or here own mode of thinking and acquires the thought patterns of the nativespeakers of the target language. But the fact that successful translation between languages can be made suggests that the strong version is not completely true. The weak version shed light on the relationship between language and culture.5. Linguistic evidence of cultural differences.Any linguistc sign may simultaneously have a denotative, connotative, or iconic kind of meanings.任何语言符号都可能同时具有外延意义,暗含意义和图像意义。
笔记_新编简明英语语言学教程_复习资料

Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性(创造性)Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence(抽象)Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance(具体)Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue(抽象)The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole(具体)The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象,而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
简明语言学第二章笔记

4) by the length of the vowels Tense vowels: long vowels Lax vowels: short vowels
2.3 Phonology
2.3.1 Phonology and phonetics 2.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone 2.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 2.3.4 Some rules in phonology 2.3.5 Suprasegmental features — stress, tone, intonation
[ph]
[l] clear /l/
[l] dark
2.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
1) Phonemic contrast(音位对立): if two phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast. eg. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit]
Chapter 2 Phonology
2.1 The phonetic medium of language 2.2 Phonetics 2.3 Phonology
2.1 The phonic medium of language
The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language; and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.
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精品文档第一章1.linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2.The scope of linguisticsPhonetics-语音学phonology-音系学morphology-形态学syntax-句法学semantics-语义学pragmatics-语用学从语言形式划分:Sociolinguistics社会语言学,psycholinguistics心理语言学,applied linguistics应用语言学3. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive &> prescriptive 规定性&描写性Synchronic & >diachronic 共时性&历时性Speech&> writing 口语&书写Langue & <parole 语言&言语Competence &< performance 语言能力&语言运用(Saussure and Chomsky think rule>language fact )Traditional grammer & modern linguistics4.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication5.Design features of language 语言的识别特征Charles Hockett①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to theirmeaning. (sounds and meanings)②Productivity/creativity(能产性):Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users③Duality(双重性):The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has itsown principles of organization..④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.⑤ Cultural transmission(文化传承性)人独有。
动物为基因传承6.Functions of languageMain function:Descreptive function 描述功能,expressive function表达功能,social function社会功能6 basic function (Roman Jakobson)①addresser-Emotive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker②addressee-Conative(意动功能)③Context-referential(指称功能)④.message-poetic(诗性功能).⑤contact-Phatic communion(寒暄交流)⑥Metalingual function(元语言功能):Halliday –child language:the ideational 概念功能,the interpersonal交际功能,the textual语篇功能第二章Phology语音学Three branches:articulatory phonetics 发音语言学,auditory phonetics 听觉语音学,acoustic phonetics声学语音学。
精品文档.精品文档Organs of speech:pharyngeal cavity咽腔:voiced浊辅音,voiceless清辅音oral cavity口腔,nasal cavity鼻腔。
Broad&narrow transcriptionclassification of english speech sound:phonology音系学名词解释Phonetics语音学is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classifiedPhonology 音系学aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns, and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.A phone音素---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme音位---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in peak and speak.Allophones音位变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. (complementary distribution互补分布)e.g. the phoneme [l] in English can be realized as dark [l], clear [l], which are allophones of the phoneme [l].Phonemic contrast音位对立----two different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast,e.g./b/ and /p/ in [ bIt ] and [pIt].Complementary distribution互补分布----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g.dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].Minimal pair最小对立体--- when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g.Some rules in phonelogySequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则Suprasegmental features超音段特征stress ,tone,intonation第三章Morphology(形态学): refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with formation and word structure.Closed class words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the “grammatical”or “functional”words.Words --- the smallest free form found in language.Morpheme --- the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. Phoneme音位: the smallest meaningful unit of sound: /p, b/Morpheme词素: the smallest meaningful unit in grammar: -s, a-, -less un-Free morpheme自由词素----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itselfBound morpheme黏着词素----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can精品文档.精品文档not stand by themselvesAllomorph词素变体--- morphemes may have different forms. (:a and an.) The variant forms of a morpheme are said to be the allomorphs of the morphemeRoot --- the core of the words that carries the major components of meaning.Affix --- bound morphemes.Prefix ---- morphemes that occur only before othersSuffix ---- morphemes that occur only after othersRoot---A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removedStem---A stem is part of a word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed,Base---A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means any stem androot can be termed as a base.Derivational morphemes派生词素---- the morphemes which can change the category, or grammatical class of wordsInflectional morphemes屈折词素---- the bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on, (tables, talked,John's)morphological rules--- the ways words are formed.能产性词法规则productive morphological rulesDerivation(派生法) --- an affixation process that forms a word with a meaning and/ or categoryfrom that of its bases.Compounds(合成法)第四章Syntax(句法)----the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Category(范畴)--- refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular languagesyntactic categories ---A fundamental fact about words in human languages is that they can be grouped into a relative small number. The most central categories to the syntactic study are theword-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)Major lexical categories主要词法范畴: n., v., adj., Prep.Minor Lexical categories次要词法范畴: det.(a,the,), deg.(修饰介词,形容词so,very), Qual.(修饰动词often,almost), Aux(must, should), Conj.(and, but ,or )Three criteria on which categories are determined: meaning, inflection and distribution.Phrase --- the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category.The structure of phrases: specifier标志语+ head 中心词+ complement 补语Head---- the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier---- the words on the left side of the headsComplement---- the words on the right side of the headsA phrase structure rule短语结构规则---- The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase1) The XP rule XP规则(specifier )X( complement)2) Coordination rule 并列规则--- the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements精品文档.精品文档of the same type with the help of a conjunction.XP →(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod) Modifiers 修饰语S ? NP VPInfl is an abstract category inflection (dubbed ‘Infl') as their heads, which indicates the sentence's tense(时态)and agreement(一致).( Infl. --will, Pst).Auxiliary movement (inversion) ---A transformation, a special type of rule that can move anelement from one position to another, which is known as inversion倒置.The auxililary moves from the head Infl position in Infl P into the head C position in CP. Suchtype of inversion operation involving the movement of a word from the head position in onephrase into the head position in another is known as head movement中心词移位.Do insertion (do插入)---- Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.第五章 semantics语义学Semantics----the study of language meaning.What is meaning? Meaning is central to the study of communication.Some views:Naming theory (Plato)--- Words are names or labels for things.The conceptualist view(Ogden and Richards: semantic triangle)The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.Contextualism (JR Firth)1.Situational context场景语境: spatiotemporal 时空的situation2. Linguistic context: co-text互文,the probability of a word's co-occurrence or collocation.Behaviorism(Bloomfield)Lexical meaning:名词解释Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of allthe features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.Major sense relations1) Synonymy同义关系:Dialectal synonyms方言同义词,Stylistic synonyms-文体同义词,differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning: the same meaning but different emotions:,Collocational synonyms搭配同义词,Semantically different synonyms,语义程度不同2) Polysemy一词多义3) Homonymy 同形同音异义关系4) Hyponymy 上下位关系等级反义词,old-young:Gradable antonymsComplementary义关系)5Antonymy 反互补反义词,关系反义词wife-husband male-femaleantonymsRelational oppositesSense relations between sentences同义1) X is synonymous with Y不一致X is inconsistent with Y 2)蕴含X entails Y 3)精品文档.精品文档预设4) X presupposes Y矛盾5) X is a contradiction语义反常6) X is semantically anomalousAnalysis of meaningComponential analysis 成分分析法Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Predication analysis 述谓结构分析法(G-leech)The tree grows well.? TREE (GROW)The kids like apples.? KIDS,APPLE (LIKE)第六章Pragmatics(语用学)---the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning.Whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics(语用,言外之意,考虑语境,具体意义). If not, the study is restricted to the traditionally semantics(语义,言内之音).Context(语境) --- generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer(background, relationship). John FirthSentence meaning ---the abstract, decontextualized, intrinsic property of the sentence itself interms of predication.Utterance meaning---based on sentence meaning; it is concrete and context-dependent; the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or in a context.Speech Act Theory was proposed by John Austin and further developed by John Searle.speech acts --- language is not only used to inform or to describe things but to “do things”, to perform acts. Actions performed through utterances .According to Austin, sentences can be subdivided into two categories.a. Constatives (叙事话语) : statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable.(a proposition ,a statement)b. Performatives(行为话语): sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.( a proposition ,a promise)Austin's new model of speech acts----According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act(言内行为,以言指事),illocutionary act(言外行为,以言行事)and perlocutionary act(言后行为,以言成事).The locutionary act----an act of saying somethingThe illocutionary act----an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking).The perlocutionary act----an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doingY, I did Z.This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understandeach other's illocutionary acts:Searle's classification of speech acts (1969)Assertives/representatives(阐述类)---- Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes tobe true精品文档.精品文档Directives(指示类)---- Trying to get the hearer to do somethingCommissives(承诺类)--- Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action Expressives(表达类)---Expressing the speaker's psychological state about something,Declarations(宣告类)---Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a generalprinciple which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by theaccepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. (在言语产生作出表述时,要使该表述符合此阶段话语交流所接受的目的或方向要求)That is, we assume that in a conversation the participants will cooperate with each other when making their contributions.The principle is illustrated with its four maxims:Four maxims of CP(Paul Grice)a)The maxim of quality(足够多信息)b) The maxim of quantity(真假)c) The maxim of relation(联系)d) The maxim of manner(艰涩,歧义)第七章Language changeAddition of new words1.Coinage(创新词)taikonaut2.Clipped words :gym3.Blending:smog:smoke+fog4.Acronyms:CEO5. Back-formation:to beg(begger)6. Functional shift:to knee/ n.—v.7. Borrowing借词Semantic changes(1) Semantic broadening:Holiday(2) Semantic Narrowing:meat(3) Semantic shift:silly第八章Language and societyVarieties of language语言变体Dialectal varieties: Regional /SocialPersonal varieties : registersSituatinal varieties: degree of formalityLanguage and gender:because men control public life in most cultures, men often control the standard language, which then becomes biased towards men.Language and age,Idiolect(个人语言) ethnic dialectRegister语域(Halliday)field of discourse语场, tenor of discourse语旨, and mode of discourse语式.Field of discourse refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is精品文档.精品文档concerned with the purpose and subject-matter of communication. It answers the questions of'why' and 'about what' communication takes place.Tenor of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who theparticipants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other. It answers the question of 'to whom' the speaker is communicating. This dimension to a great extent determines the level of formality and the level of technicality of the language we use.Mode of discourse mainly refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. Fundamental to the mode of discourse is the distinction between speaking and writing. But there are finer distinctions, e.g. spoken language may be spontaneous or prepared beforehand and written language may be intended to be read with the eye or to be spoken.Example:a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField: scientific (biological)事件地点?Tenor: teacher - students (formal, polite)参与者Mode: oral (academic lecturing)方式方法Degree of formality(Martin Joos)Intimate亲密Casual随意Consultative客气: Formal正式Frozen冷淡Pidgin洋泾浜语(不中不西之特别话)&Creole克里奥尔语(殖民地后发展的本地语言,词汇少)Bilingualism and Diglossia 双语现象和双语(殖民/移民/变体)第11章Second Language Acquisition Some basic termsSecond Language Acquisition (SLA)Target language (TL)(目的语): the language which a person is learning, in contrast to a first language or mother tongue.Second language (L2): a language which is not a native language but is widely used as a mediumof communication and is used along with another language or languages.e.g. English used in SingaporeForeign language (FL): a language which is not a native language in a country, and is alwaystaught in schools and not used to communicate within a country. Error analysis错误分析Interlingual语际错误,intralingual语内错误精品文档.精品文档精品文档.精品文档精品文档.。