开题报告书-以iphone说明书为例探讨科技英语中的旧词新义
科技英语汉译技巧开题报告
科技英语汉译技巧开题报告1. 研究背景随着全球科技的迅速发展，科技英语已经成为各个领域的重要交流工具。
然而，由于英中两种语言的差异，科技英语翻译在实践中常常面临困难和挑战。
因此，针对科技英语的汉译技巧的研究变得尤为重要。
2. 研究目的本研究旨在探讨科技英语汉译过程中的常见问题和挑战，并提出一些科技英语汉译的技巧和方法，以提高科技英语翻译的质量和准确性。
3. 研究内容本研究将主要包括以下内容：3.1 科技英语的特点在开始研究前，我们将首先分析科技英语的特点，包括其词汇量的特殊性、句子结构的特殊性以及行业术语的特殊性。
通过了解科技英语的特点，我们可以更好地把握其翻译技巧和方法。
3.2 语境解读和语义理解科技英语的翻译需要充分理解原文的语境和语义。
为了做到这一点，我们将研究如何进行准确的语境解读和语义理解。
特别是在涉及到科技领域的特有术语和概念时，我们将提供相应的技巧和方法。
3.3 等效转换在科技英语翻译中，等效转换是一个重要的原则。
我们将通过研究科技英语中常见的等效转换问题，提出转换的技巧和方法。
例如，如何将英文中的被动语态转换为汉语的主动语态，如何处理英文中的省略现象等。
3.4 汉译英的技巧除了以汉语作为目标语言的翻译外，我们还将研究科技英语的汉译英技巧。
通过研究这些技巧，我们可以更好地理解科技英语的词汇和句子结构，进而提高科技英语的汉译能力。
3.5 实践案例分析在研究的最后阶段，我们将分析一些实际的科技英语汉译案例。
通过具体的案例分析，我们可以更好地理解科技英语汉译的难点和挑战，并提供更实用的技巧和方法。
4. 预期成果通过本研究，我们预期可以提出一些科技英语汉译的技巧和方法，以提高科技英语翻译的准确性和质量。
同时，我们也希望能够为科技英语翻译的实践提供一些参考和指导。
5. 研究方法和步骤本研究将采用以文献研究和实证研究相结合的方法。
首先，我们将进行文献回顾，收集并分析相关的科技英语汉译技巧和方法的文献。
手机说明书翻译分析
例2：Note: In an app, to find the device settings, use two fingers and swipe down from the top of the screen. 译文:注意:若要在应用程序中查找设备 设置，请用两根手指从屏幕顶部向下滑 动。 此句有三个成分，若用顺译法译出则不 太符合汉语表达习惯，遵照目的论连贯 性原则，将前两句合并，并适当作了语 序调整，将“in an app”插入到“to find the devicesettings”中。
If you previously used tasks in BBM Groups, you still have access to those tasks in BBM. 译文:如果您以前在BBM群组中使用过任务，那么您仍能在BBM中获取这些 任务。(BBM，即BIackBerry Messenger，为黑莓手机内即时通讯软件，可实现 黑莓手机之间的免费信息、声音、图片以及视频的交流)。 原文中出现了BBM这一缩略语。为使中国用户更好地理解，笔者选择了保留其英 文形式，同时也在其首次出现时对其加注，以解释其含义。
Product specification
01 选题背景与意义
02 研究方法与思路 03 研究成果与应用 04 相关建议与总结
CONTENTS
目录
PART 01
User guide 说明书
A user guide or user's guide, also commonly known as a manual, is a technical communication document intended to give assistance to people using a particular system. It is usually written by a technical writer, although user guides are written by programmers, product or project managers, or other technical staff, particularly in smaller companies. User guides are most commonly associated with electronic goods, computer hardware and software.
英文翻译及开题报告
北京建筑工程学院电气与信息工程学院电气工程系英文资料翻译PLC technique discussion and future development 可编程控制技术的未来发展与探讨指导教师栾茹学生姓名聂沐晗专业电气工程及自动化班级电083学号 2107170813231原文PLC technique discussion and future developmentAlong with the development of the ages, the technique that is nowadays is also gradually perfect, the competition plays more strong; the operation that list depends the artificial has already can't satisfied with the current manufacturing industry foreground, also can't guarantee the request of the higher quantity and high new the image of the technique business enterprise.The people see in produce practice, automate brought the tremendous convenience and the product quantities for people up of assurance, also eased the personnel's labor strength, reduce the establishment on the personnel. The target control of the hard realization in many complicated production lines, whole and excellent turn, the best decision etc., well-trained operation work, technical personnel or expert, governor but can judge and operate easily, can acquire the satisfied result. The research target of the artificial intelligence makes use of the calculator exactly to carry out, imitate these intelligences behavior, moderating the work through person's brain and calculators, with the mode that person's machine combine, for resolve the very complicated problem to look for the best pathWe come in sight of the control that links after the electric appliances in various situation, that is already the that time generation past, now of after use in the mold a perhaps simple equipments of grass-roots control that the electric appliances can do for the low level only; And the PLC emergence also became the epoch-making topic, adding the vivid software control through a very and stable hardware, making the automation head for the new high tide.The PLC biggest characteristics lie in: The electrical engineering teacher already no longer electric hardware up too many calculations of cost, as long as order the importation that the button switch or the importation of the sensors order to link the PLC up can solve problem, pass to output toorder the conjunction contact machine or control the start equipments of the big power after the electric appliances, but the exportation equipments direct conjunction of the small power can.PLC internal containment have the CPU of the CPU, and take to have an I/ O for expand of exterior to connect a people's address and saving machine three big pieces to constitute, CPU core is from an or many is tired to add the machine to constitute, mathematics that they have the logic operation ability, and can read the procedure save the contents of the machine to drive the homologous saving machine and I/ Os to connect after pass the calculation; The I/ O add inner part is tired the input and output system of the machine and exterior link, and deposit the related data into the procedure saving machine or data saving machine; The saving machine can deposit the data that the I/ O input in the saving machine, and in work adjusting to become tired to add the machine and I/ Os to connect, saving machine separately saving machine RAM of the procedure saving machine ROM and dates, the ROM can do deposit of the data permanence in the saving machine, but RAM only for the CPU computes the temporary calculation usage of hour of buffer space.The PLC anti- interference is very and excellent, our root need not concern its service life and the work situation bad, these all problems have already no longer become the topic that we fail, but stay to our is a concern to come to internal resources of make use of the PLC to strengthen the control ability of the equipments for us, make our equipments more gentle.PLC language is not we imagine of edit collected materials the language or language of Cs to carry on weaving the distance, but the trapezoid diagram that the adoption is original after the electric appliances to control, make the electrical engineering teacher while weaving to write the procedure very easy comprehended the PLC language, and a lot of non- electricity professional also very quickly know and go deep into to the PLC.Is PLC one of the advantage above and only, this is also one part thatthe people comprehend more and easily, in a lot of equipments, the people have already no longer hoped to see too many control buttons, they damage not only and easily and produce the artificial error easiest, small is not a main error perhaps you can still accept; But lead even is a fatal error greatly is what we can't is tolerant of. New technique always for bringing more safe and convenient operation for us, make we a lot of problems for face on sweep but light, do you understand the HMI? Says the HMI here you basically not clear what it is, also have no interest understanding, change one inside text explains it into the touch to hold or man-machine interface you knew, and it combines with the PLC to our larger space.HMI the control not only is reduced the control press button, increase the vivid of the control, more main of it is can sequence of, and at can the change data input to output the feedback with data, control in the temperature curve of imitate but also can keep the manifestation of view to come out. And can write the function help procedure through a plait to provide the help of various what lies in one's power, the one who make operate reduces the otiose error. Currently the HMI factory is also more and more, the function is also more and more strong, the price is also more and more low, and the noodles of the usage are wide more and more. The HMI foreground can say that think ° to be good very.At a lot of situations, the list is a smooth movement that can't guarantee the equipments by the control of the single machine, but pass the information exchanges of the equipments and equipments to attain the result that we want. For example fore pack and the examination of the empress work preface, we will arrive wrapping information feedback to examine the place, and examine the information of the place to also want the feedback to packing. Pass the information share thus to make both the chain connect, becoming a total body, the match of your that thus make is more close, at each other attain to reflect the result that mutually flick.The PLC correspondence has already come more body now its value, at the PLC and correspondence between PLCs, can pass the communication of the information and the share of the dates to guarantee that of the equipments moderates mutually, the result that arrive already to repair with each other. Data conversion the adoption RS232 between PLC connect to come to the transmission data, but the RS232 pick up a people and can guarantee 10 meters only of deliver the distance, if in the distance of 1000 meters we can pass the RS485 to carry on the correspondence, the longer distance can pass the MODEL only to carry on deliver.The PLC data transmission is just to be called a form to it in a piece of and continuous address that the data of the inner part delivers the other party, we, the PLC of the other party passes to read data in the watch to carry on the operation. If the data that data in the watch is a to establish generally, that is just the general data transmission, for example today of oil price rise, I want to deliver the price of the oil price to lose the oil ally on board, that is the share of the data; But take data in the watch for an instruction procedure that controls the PLC, that had the difficulty very much, for example you have to control one pedestal robot to press the action work that you imagine, you will draw up for it the form that a procedure combine with the data sends out to pass by.The form that information transport contain single work, the half a work and the difference of a workers .The meaning of the single work also is to say both, a can send out only, but a can receive only, for example a spy he can receive the designation of the superior only, but can't give the superior reply; A work of half is also 2 and can send out similar to accept the data, but can't send out and accept at the same time, for example when you make a phone call is to can't answer the phone, the other party also; But whole pair works is both can send out and accept the data, and can send out and accept at the same time. Be like the Internet is a typical example.The process that information transport also has synchronous and different step cent: The data line and the clock lines are synchronous when synchronous meaning lie in sending out the data, is also the data signal and the clock signals to be carry on by the CPU to send out at the same time, this needs to all want the specialized clock signal each other to carry on the transmission and connect to send, and is constrained, the characteristics of this kind of method lies in its speed very quick, but correspond work time of take up the CPU and also want to be long oppositely, at the same time the technique difficulty also very big. Its request lies in canting have an error margins in a dates deliver, otherwise the whole piece according to compare the occurrence mistake, this on the hardware is a bigger difficulty. Applied more and more extensive in some appropriative equipments, be like the appropriative medical treatment equipments, the numerical signal equipments...etc., in compare the one data deliver, its result is very good.And the different step is an application the most extensive, this receive benefit in it of technique difficulty is opposite and want to be small, at the same time not need to prepare the specialized clock signal, its characteristics to lie in, its data is partition, the long-lost send out and accept, be the CPU is too busy of time can grind to a stop sex to work, also reduced the difficulty on the hardware, the data throw to lose at the same time opposite want to be little, we can pass the examination of the data to observe whether the data that we send out has the mistake or not, be like strange accidentally the method, tired addition and eight efficacies method etc., can use to helps whether the data that we examine to send out have or not the mistake occurrence, pass the feedback to carry on the discriminator.A line of transmission of the information contains a string of and combine the cent of: The usual PLC is 8 machines, certainly also having 16 machines. We can be an at the time of sending out the data a send out to the other party, also can be 88 send out the data to the other party, an and 8 differentiations are also the as that we say to send out the data and combine sends out thedata. A speed is more and slowly, but as long as 2 or three lines can solve problem, and can use the telephone line to carry on the long range control. But combine the ocular transmission speed is very quick of, it is a string of ocular of 25600%, occupy the advantage in the short distance, the in view of the fact TTL electricity is even, being limited by the scope of one meter generally, it combine unwell used for the data transmission of the long pull, thus the cost is too expensive.Under a lot of circumstances we are total to like to adopt the string to combine the conversion chip to carry on deliver, under this kind of circumstance not need us to carry on to deposited the machine to establish too and complicatedly, but carry on the data exchanges through the data transmission instruction directly, but is not a very viable way in the correspondence, because the PLC of the other party must has been wait for your data exportation at the time of sending out the data, it can't do other works.When you are reading the book, you hear someone knock on door, you stop to start up of affair, open the door and combine to continue with the one who knock on door a dialogue, the telephone of this time rang, you signal hint to connect a telephone, after connecting the telephone through, return overdo come together knock on door to have a conversation, after dialogue complete, you continue again to see your book, this kind of circumstance we are called the interruption to it, it has the authority, also having sex of have the initiative, the PLC had such function .Its characteristics lie in us and may meet the urgently abrupt affairs in the operation process of the equipments, we want to stop to start immediately up of work, the whereabouts manages the more important affair, this kind of circumstance is we usually meet of, PLC while carry out urgent mission, total will keep the current appearance first, for example the address of the procedure, CPU of tired add the machine data etc., be like to stick down which the book that we see is when we open the door the page or simply make a mark, because we treat and would still need to continue immediately after book of see the behind. The CPU always does theaffair that should do according to our will, but your mistake of give it an affair, it also would be same to do, this we must notice.The interruption is not only a, sometimes existing jointly with the hour several inside break, break off to have the preferred Class, they will carry out the interruption of the higher Class according to person's request. This kind of breaks off the medium interruption to also became to break off the set. The Class that certainly break off is relevant according to various resources of CPU with internal PLC, also following a heap of capacity size of also relevant fasten.The contents that break off has a lot of kinds, for example the exterior break off, correspondence in of send out and accept the interruption and settle and the clock that count break off, still have the WDT to reset the interruption etc., they enriched the CPU to respond to the category while handle various business. Speak thus perhaps you can't comprehend the internal structure and operation orders of the interruption completely also, we do a very small example to explain.Each equipment always will not forget a button, it also is at we meet the urgent circumstance use of, which is nasty to stop the button. When we meet the Human body trouble and surprised circumstances we as long as press it, the machine stops all operations immediately, and wait for processing the over surprised empress recover the operation again. Nasty stop the internal I/ O of the internal CPU of the button conjunction PLC to connect up, be to press button an exterior to trigger signal for CPU, the CPU carries on to the I/ O to examine again, being to confirm to have the exterior to trigger the signal, CPU protection the spot breaks off procedure counts the machine turn the homologous exterior I/ O automatically in the procedure to go to also, be exterior interruption procedure processing complete, the procedure counts the machine to return the main procedure to continue to work. Have 1:00 can what to explain is we generally would nasty stop the button of exterior break offto rise to the tallest Class, thus guarantee the safety.When we are work a work piece, giving the PLC a signal, counting PLC inner part the machine add 1 to compute us for a day of workload, a count the machine and can solve problem in brief, certainly they also can keep the data under the condition of dropping the electricity, urging the data not to throw to lose, this is also what we hope earnestly.The PLC still has the function that the high class counts the machine, being us while accept some dates of high speed, the high speed that here say is the data of the in all aspects tiny second class, for example the bar code scanner is scanning the data continuously, calculating high-speed signal of the data processor DSP etc., we will adopt the high class to count the machine to help we carry on count. It at the PLC carries out the procedure once discover that the high class counts the machine to should of interruption, will let go of the work on the hand immediately. The trapezoid diagram procedure that passes by to weave the distance again explains the high class for us to carry out procedure to count machine would automatic performance to should of work, thus rise the Class that the high class counts the machine to high one Class.You heard too many this phrases perhaps:" crash", the meaning that is mostly is a workload of CPU to lead greatly, the internal resources shortage etc. the circumstance can't result in procedure circulate. The PLC also has the similar circumstance, there is a watchdog WDT in the inner part of PLC, we can establish time that a procedure of WDT circulate, being to appear the procedure to jump to turn the mistake in the procedure movement process or the procedure is busy, movement time of the procedure exceeds WDT constitution time, the CPU turn but the WDT reset the appearance. The procedure restarts the movement, but will not carry on the breakage to the interruption.The PLC development has already entered for network ages of correspondence from the mode of the one, and together other works control the net plank and I/ O card planks to carry on the share easily. A state software can pass allse hardwires link, more animation picture of keep the view to carries on the control, and cans pass the Internet to carry on the control in the foreign land, the blast-off that is like the absolute being boat No.5 is to adopt this kind of way to make airship go up the sky.The development of the higher layer needs our continuous effort to obtain. The PLC emergence has already affected a few persons fully, we also obtained more knowledge and precepts from the top one experience of the generation, coming to the continuous development PLC technique, push it toward higher wave tide.Knowing the available PLC network options and their best applications will ensure an efficient and flexible control system design.The programmable logic controller's (PLC's) ability to support a range of communication methods makes it an ideal control and data acquisition device for a wide variety of industrial automation and facility control applications. However, there is some confusion because so many possibilities exist. To help eliminate this confusion, let's list what communications are available and when they would be best applied.To understand the PLC's communications versatility, let's first define the terms used in describing the various systems.ASCII: This stands for "American Standard Code for Information Interchange." As shown in Fig. 1, when the letter "A" is transmitted, for instance, it's automatically coded as "65" by the sending equipment. The receiving equipment translates the "65" back to the letter "A." Thus, different devices can communicate with each other as long as both use ASCII code.ASCII module: This intelligent PLC module is used for connecting PLCs to other devices also capable of communicating using ASCII code as a vehicle.Bus topology: This is a linear local area network (LAN) arrangement, as shown in Fig. 2A, in which individual nodes are tapped into a main communications cable at a single point and broadcast messages. These messages travel in both directions on the bus from the point of connection until they are dissipated by terminators at each end of the bus.CPU: This stands for "central processing unit," which actually is that part of a computer, PLC, or other intelligent device where arithmetic and logical operations are performed and instructions are decoded and executed.Daisy chain: This is a description of the connection of individual devices in a PLC network, where, as shown in Fig. 3, each device is connected to the next and communications signals pass from one unit to the next in a sequential fashion.Distributed control: This is an automation concept in which portions of an automated system are controlled by separate controllers, which are located in close proximity to their area of direct control (control is decentralized and spread out over the system).Host computer: This is a computer that's used to transfer data to, or receive data from, a PLC in a PLC/computer network.Intelligent device: This term describes any device equipped with its own CPU.I/O: This stands for "inputs and outputs," which are modules that handle data to the PLC (inputs) or signals from the PLC (outputs) to an external device.Kbps: This stands for "thousand bits per second," which is a rate of measure for electronic data transfer.Mbps: This stands for "million bits per second."Node: This term is applied to any one of the positions or stations in a network. Each node incorporates a device that can communicate with all other devices on the network.Protocol: The definition of how data is arranged and coded for transmission on a network.Ring topology. This is a LAN arrangement, as shown in Fig. 2C, in which each node is connected to two other nodes, resulting in a continuous, closed, circular path or loop for messages to circulate, usually in one direction. Some ring topologies have a special "loop back" feature that allows them to continue functioning even if the main cable is severed.RS232. This is an IEEE standard for serial communications that describes specific wiring connections, voltage levels, and other operating parameters for electronic data communications. There also are several other RS standards defined.Serial: This is an electronic data transfer scheme in which information is transmitted one bit at a time.Serial port: This the communications access point on a device that is set up for serial communications.Star topology. This is a LAN arrangement in which, as shown in Fig. 2B, nodes are connected to one another through a central hub, which can be active or passive. An active hub performs network duties such as message routing and maintenance. A passive central hub simply passes the message along to all the nodes connected to it.Topology: This relates to a specific arrangement of nodes in a LAN inrelation to one another.Transparent: This term describes automatic events or processes built into a system that require no special programming or prompting from an operator.Now that we're familiar with these terms, let's see how they are used in describing the available PLC network options.PLC network optionsPLC networks provide you with a variety of networking options to meet specific control and communications requirements. Typical options include remote I/O, peer-to-peer, and host computer communications, as well as LANs. These networks can provide reliable and cost-effective communications between as few as two or as many as several hundred PLCs, computers, and other intelligent devices.Many PLC vendors offer proprietary networking systems that are unique and will not communicate with another make of PLC. This is because of the different communications protocols, command sequences, error-checking schemes, and communications media used by each manufacturer.However, it is possible to make different PLCs "talk" to one another; what's required is an ASCII interface for the connection(s), along with considerable work with software.Remote I/0 systemsA remote I/O configuration, as shown in Fig. 4A, has the actual inputs and outputs at some distance from the controller and CPU. This type of system, which can be described as a "master-and-slave" configuration, allows many distant digital and analog points to be controlled by a single PLC. Typically, remote I/Os are connected to the CPU via twisted pair or fiber optic cables.Remote I/O configurations can be extremely cost-effective control solutions where only a few I/O points are needed in widely separated areas. In this situation, it's not always necessary, or practical for that matter, to have a controller at each site. Nor is it practical to individually hard wire each I/O point over long distances back to the CPU. For example, remote I/O systems can be used in acquiring data from remote plant or facility locations. Information such as cycle times, counts, duration or events, etc. then can be sent back to the PLC for maintenance and management reporting.In a remote I/O configuration, the master controller polls the slaved I/O for its current I/O status. The remote I/O system responds, and the master PLC then signals the remote I/O to change the state of outputs as dictated by the control program in the PLC's memory. This entire cycle occurs hundreds of times per second.Peer-to-peer networksPeer-to-peer networks, as shown in Fig. 4B, enhance reliability by decentralizing the control functions without sacrificing coordinated control. In this type of network, numerous PLCs are connected to one another in a daisy-chain fashion, and a common memory table is duplicated in the memory of each. In this way, when any PLC writes data to this memory area, the information is automatically transferred to all other PLCs in the network. They then can use this information in their own operating programs.With peer-to-peer networks, each PLC in the network is responsible for its own control site and only needs to be programmed for its own area of responsibility. This aspect of the network significantly reduces programming and debugging complexity; because all communications occur transparently to the user, communications programming is reduced to simple read-and-write statements.In a peer-to-peer system, there's no master PLC. However, it's possibleto designate one of the PLCs as a master for use as a type of group controller. This PLC then can be used to accept input information from an operator input terminal, for example, sending all the necessary parameters to other PLCs and coordinating the sequencing of various events.Host computer linksPLCs also can be connected with computers or other intelligent devices. In fact, most PLCs, from the small to the very large, can be directly connected to a computer or part of a multi drop host computer network via RS232C or RS422 ports. This combination of computer and controller maximizes the capabilities of the PLC, for control and data acquisition, as well as the computer, for data processing, documentation, and operator interface.In a PLC/computer network, as shown in Fig. 4C, all communications are initiated by the host computer, which is connected to all the PLCs in a daisy-chain fashion. This computer individually addresses each of its networked PLCs and asks for specific information. The addressed PLC then sends this information to the computer for storage and further analysis. This cycle occurs hundreds of times per second.Host computers also can aid in programming PLCs; powerful programming and documentation software is available for program development. Programs then can be written on the computer in relay ladder logic and downloaded into the PLC. In this way, you can create, modify, debug, and monitor PLC programs via a computer terminal.In addition to host computers, PLCs often must interface with other devices, such as operator interface terminals for large security and building management systems. Although many intelligent devices can communicate directly with PLCs via conventional RS232C ports and serial ASCII code, some don't have the software ability to interface with individual PLC models. Instead, they typically send and receive data in fixed formats. It's the PLCprogrammer's responsibility to provide the necessary software interface.The easiest way to provide such an interface to fixed-format intelligent devices is to use an ASCII/BASIC module on the PLC. This module is essentially a small computer that plugs into the bus of the PLC. Equipped with RS232 ports and programmed in BASIC, the module easily can handle ASCII communications with peripheral devices, data acquisition functions, programming sequences, "number crunching," report and display generation, and other requirements.Access, protocol, and modulation functions of LANsBy using standard interfaces and protocols, LANs allow a mix of devices (PLCs, PCs, mainframe computers, operator interface terminals, etc.) from many different vendors to communicate with others on the network.Access: A LAN's access method prevents the occurrence of more than one message on the network at a time. There are two common access methods.Collision detection is where the nodes "listen" to the network and transmit only if there are no other messages on the network. If two nodes transmit simultaneously, the collision is detected and both nodes retransmit until their messages get through properly.Token passing allows each node to transmit only if it's in possession of a special electronic message called a token. The token is passed from node to node, allowing each an opportunity to transmit without interference. Tokens usually have a time limit to prevent a single node from tying up the token for a long period of time.Protocol: Network protocols define the way messages are arranged and coded for transmission on the LAN. The following are two common types.Proprietary protocols are unique message arrangements and coding。
07416522_翻译译文
学号：07416522常州大学毕业设计（论文）外文翻译（2011届）外文题目Introduction to the iPhone译文题目iPhone 说明书外文出处学生高海亮学院信息科学与工程学院专业班级计算机073 校内指导教师苏兵闫玉宝专业技术职务副研究员教授校外指导老师赖芳东专业技术职务高级项目经理二○一一年三月iPhone说明书iPhone 是目前最有个性的游戏平台之一。
她的触屏设计，iTunes影音播放器 ,用c++编程，低的开发成本，和发布模式都个她的游戏开发成为一个很有前途的机会。
作为移动通讯行业的新人，iPhone 占有者引人注意的市场份额，也引起了Motorola, Samsung, 和 LG等其它品牌的争相模仿.作为一个程序员，你可能对她的售价或者所占的市场份额不太感兴趣，但是你应该对iPhone生存能力有个大致的了解，如果没有人用iPhone 就没有人下载你开发的程序。
有个好的消息就是在经济低迷的2009 年，iPhone 的销售依然火爆。
要开发iPhone 应用程序，你必须要先获得一个免费的 Apple 开发账号。
接着就是下载一个iPhone SDK 在你的装好Xcode IDE 和 Interface Builder tool 的 Mac 上（Apple 不提供在Windows 或者非Mac机器机器上的开发环境）。
因为 iPhone API 要求用C++开发，如果你不懂C++你需要先找一些入门的书籍看一下。
下面教你一步一步地掌握 iPhone 应用程序开发。
Apple 开发账号和开发环境的下载装iPhone 开发环境首先要注册一个 Apple 账号。
注册Appple账号是免费的，账号可以让你进入苹果在线文件系统，辅导视屏，下载开发环境。
1.在地址栏输入网址/iphone/.2.点击注册链接，接着点击 start now. 选择 create a new AppleID ,，或者用来自 iTune或 App Store 的账号。
近30年来的旧词新义研究的开题报告
近30年来的旧词新义研究的开题报告
题目：近30年来的旧词新义研究
背景：语言是一个不断进化的系统，在不同的时代和背景下，一些词语可能会产生新的意义或引申义。
这些新意义或引申义通过人们的使用而得以传承和加深，成为当前社会中常用的词汇。
因此，研究旧词新义有助于我们更好地理解现代社会和语言的演变。
研究内容：本研究将通过文献分析和实证研究的方法，探讨近30年来部分旧词新义的产生和传播。
具体研究内容包括：
1. 旧词新义的定义和分类。
详细介绍旧词新义的定义和分类，以便更好地理解研究对象。
2. 个案分析。
选取部分旧词，分析它们在近30年来产生的新意义或引申义的具体情况，探讨其产生的原因、传播的途径和影响。
3. 调查研究。
通过问卷、访谈等方式，收集社会上对于某些旧词新义的使用情况和态度，对社会上对于旧词新义的接受程度和影响进行分析。
研究意义：本研究将有助于我们更好地理解语言的演化和变革，探讨词语在语言和社会发展中的作用和影响。
同时，研究结果可为相关方面提供参考，如编辑出版、语言规范和汉语教学等方面。
关键词：旧词新义、语言演化、文化传承、词汇意义、语言规范。
从目的论的角度分析英文产品说明书的翻译的开题报告
从目的论的角度分析英文产品说明书的翻译的开题报告开题报告：一、研究背景目前，随着全球化的加速，各行各业都涉及到国际合作和交流。
而英语作为国际通用语言，在全球范围内具有广泛的应用场景。
在商品贸易领域，英文产品说明书已经成为提供产品信息的重要方式，而这些英文产品说明书也需要翻译成其他语言，以便更好地在全球范围内销售商品。
因此，就需对英文产品说明书的翻译进行探讨。
二、研究目的本研究旨在对英文产品说明书的翻译进行分析和探讨，探究如何从目的论的角度进行翻译，以便提高翻译的质量和准确性，并为产品销售提供更好的支持和服务。
具体研究目的如下：1.探讨英文产品说明书的翻译特点和难点，并阐释目的论与翻译技巧之间的关系；2.探讨英文产品说明书翻译中的目的转换和信息丢失问题，并分析解决方法；3.分析英文产品说明书翻译中的实用性和可读性要求，提出相应的翻译策略；4.提高英文产品说明书的翻译质量和准确性，为产品销售提供更好的支持和服务。
三、研究方法本研究采用文献研究法和实证研究法相结合的方法，研究过程中将重点关注以下几个方面：1.收集和梳理相关文献资料，包括目的论和翻译技巧方面的研究成果，以及英文产品说明书的相关信息和实例；2.从目的论的角度分析英文产品说明书的翻译特点和难点，研究英文产品说明书翻译中的目的转换和信息丢失问题，并尝试提出相应的解决方法；3.研究英文产品说明书翻译中的实用性和可读性要求，以及对应的翻译策略；4.根据研究结果，提高英文产品说明书翻译质量和准确性，为产品销售提供更好的支持和服务。
四、研究意义本研究对于提高英文产品说明书的翻译质量和准确性，为产品的销售和推广提供更好的支持和服务，具有重要的理论和应用意义。
此外，本研究还可以拓展和深化目的论和翻译技巧方面的研究成果，为相关领域的研究和实践提供参考和借鉴。
科技英语——说明书的语篇分析及翻译的开题报告
科技英语——说明书的语篇分析及翻译的开题报告
一、选题背景
随着科技的不断升级和普及，科技产品的说明书越来越重要。
说明书通常是将产品的功能、使用方法、维护方法等信息系统地介绍给消费者的一本书。
一份清晰的说明书可以帮助消费者更好地了解产品，避免使用中的困惑和误解，同时也可以提高产品的使用体验。
因此，科技说明书的编写和翻译越来越受到重视。
二、研究目的
本文旨在对科技说明书的语篇进行分析，帮助翻译者更好地理解科技说明书的特点和翻译技巧，提高翻译质量和专业水平。
三、研究内容和方法
1.语篇分析：通过对科技说明书文本的事实描述、命令语气、具体化信息、图表配合、语篇连贯等方面进行分析，探讨科技说明书的语篇特点和翻译技巧。
2.样例研究：选取若干科技说明书样例，分析其语篇结构、专业术语等特点，探讨翻译中可能遇到的问题和解决方法。
3.问卷调查：通过制定调查问卷，采集翻译者对科技说明书翻译的技巧和难点的看法和体会，为研究提供一定的数据支持。
四、预期成果
通过研究科技说明书的语篇特点和翻译技巧，本文将为翻译工作者提供更详细和实用的翻译指导。
同时，本文可以促进科技说明书翻译研究的进一步深入。
科技英语翻译毕业论文开题报告
科技英语翻译毕业论文开题报告毕业设计(论文)开题报告(由学生填写)xxx 专业英语班级 08(3)班学生姓名Chinese Translation of Attributive Clauses for Science and Technology 拟选题目 English选题依据及研究意义科学是关于自然的知识体系, 它以客观的方式直接揭示自然界活动的规律, 所以科技英语的结构严密, 以保证叙事明白、说理准确, 因而科技英语在词汇、语法、文风等方面与普通英语有着明显的不同。
因此，比起普通英语, 科技英语的语法关系更加复杂, 其复杂的语法关系是由于在科技英语中有许多重叠的从句, 而这些重叠的从句又大多是定语从句。
据不完全统计, 几乎在所有的科技英语文章中, 每个自然段都有1- 2 个定语从句。
目前科技英语的翻译质量良莠不齐, 时有汉译后的句子读起来不伦不类。
如此，译文令专业人士难理解, 更不用说一般读者了。
其原因主要是翻译人员对科技知识的认识不够，而科技人员又缺乏一定的翻译理论知识, 对英汉两种语言特性的了解知之甚少。
这样便阻碍了本国对国外较为先进科学技术的学习与借鉴。
因此，对科技英语中定语从句汉译方法的研究具有十分重大的现实意义，它不仅有助于解决科技文本阅读难的问题，而且能够为科技进步贡奉一份力量。
本课题的研究意义主要在于，以当前的研究为基石，通过对科技英语定语从句的汉译方法的综合与分析，探讨出更为简易、全面、也更为具体的翻译方法，帮助进一步解决科技英语定语理解难、翻译难的问题，使科技英语文本的阅读难度降低，为中外科学技术成就的交流，科学技术的发展略尽绵薄之力。
1选题研究现状目前，科技英语中定语从句的汉译的主要有以下两个研究方面:一.科技英语中定语从句的分类，二.针对不同类型的定语从句的汉译方法。
一. 定语从句的分类从不同的角度出发，定语从句有两种分类方式。
分类一是张家民，李彦的《科技英语定语从句的类型及其译法研究》(1993)以及刘金龙的《论科技文本与定语从句的翻译》(2006)中均提到的根据关系代词(或关系副词)所修饰的先行词及其在从句中所起的作用所分的类别。
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- - -.. 毕业设计开题报告题目名称以iphone说明书为例探讨科技英语中的旧词新义毕业设计（论文）开题报告The iphone User Guide as an Example to Discuss the New Meaning of the Old Worlds in English for Science and Technology以iphone说明书为例探讨科技英语中的旧词新义一、题目来源结合科研二、研究目的和意义科技英语一般指在自然科学和工程技术方面的科学著作、论文、教科书、科技报告和学术讲演中所使用的英语。
随着科技的发展与全球经济一体化的逐步深入，科技英语越来越彰显出其重要性。
现代科技日新月异，每天都不断有新的发明创造和新思维的涌现。
为了表达这些新出现的物体和概念，旧词赋新义作为一种重要的语言现象和增词手段，在其中扮演着重要的作用。
“一个词获得了新的词义X围，原来的表达形式（expression）分化出一个新的词位（lexeme）从这个意义上说，一个旧词获得一个新词义就是在词汇中增加了一个新‘词位’。
”（汪榕培，2000: 8）以iphone说明书为例，探讨科技英语中的旧词新义。
不仅有助于外语学习者更好地理解和掌握科技英语中的旧词新义，而且在对旧词产生新义的原因和过程的研究中，认识到科技力量的推动、语言结构本身的问题和人的心理作用这三者对旧词赋新义的影响。
以此来把握科技英语为适应现代社会需求的不断变化而演变和进化的趋势。
三、阅读的主要参考文献及资料名称[1] Steve Pinker. The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window into Human Nature[M].Penguin,2008.语言是人类的本质属性[2] Black,Max.ModelsandMetaphor:Studies in Language and Philosophy[M].Itbaca,NY:CornellUniversity Press,1962.“任何一种定义，如果其出发点为隐喻，就是用一个隐喻性的表达替代一个与其相应的‘本义表达’，我在以后都称之为隐喻的替代理论”（Black，1954:61）- - -.. [3]Lackoff,G.Ten Lectures on Cognitive Linguistics[M].Foreign Language Teaching and ResearchPress,2007.人类最初的生存方式是物质的，在人类与自然的互动中，对物体的经验为我们将抽象的概念理解并表达为“实体”提供了物质基础，由此而派生出一类隐喻即实体隐喻。
这类概念隐喻是指人们将抽象的和模糊的思想、感情、心理活动、事件、状态等无形的概念看作是具体的、有形的实体，因而可以对其进行谈论，量化，识别其特征及原因等（Lakoff&，Johnson，1980：25）[4]Richards.A.The Philosophyof Rhetoric[M]. OxfordUniversitypress.P9.“我们日常会话中几乎每三句话中就可能出现一个隐喻”[5].[6][7] 蒋绍愚.词义的发展和变化[J].语文研究，1982(2).创造新词是语言发展适应时代变化的常用方法，但更经济的方法是为旧词增添新义，即在原词义的基础上，通过引申或比喻，赋予其新的意蕴[8] 徐盛桓.常规推理与“格赖斯循环”的消解[J].外语教学与研究，2006b(3). 旧词新义现象是语言遵循“隐喻”或“转喻”工作机制的结果。
[9] 汪榕培. 英语新词的来源及展望[J]. 外语与外语教学，2000(9)：8. “一个词获得了新的词义X围，原来的表达形式（expression）分化出一个新的词位（l e x eme）。
从这个意义上说，一个旧词获得一个新词义就是在词汇中增加了一个新‘词位’。
”[10]章宣华. 信息时代新词的产生与构造理据[J]. 辞书研究，2003(5)：7.“从词汇认知角度来讲，比喻是人们天性使然，是人的一种内部心理机智，比喻的过程就是人类心理图式的一种自然联想。
”（章宣华，2003: 7）.[11] 王桂灵. 英汉新词语产生方式对比[A]. 硕士学位论文[D]. 中国海洋大学，2008：19，21. “感情色彩的变化都与英汉各自的社会文化背景有关，反映了不同时期、不同环境下人们思想观念和价值观念的变化。
在旧词新义产生的过程中，人的主观思维的确发挥着重要的作用。
”（王桂灵，2008: 21）[12]沈光浩. 新时期旧词新义中的隐喻思维[J]. 现代语文，2006(6)：23. “认知语言学中的研究表明，大脑的认知活动是在已记忆知识的基础上以最节约的方式进行的，所以，随着对新事物的认识，大脑总是在记忆中寻找已经存在的概念，根据新认识事物的物理功能等属性将其与认知的事物发生联系，借助已知的事物和已有的语言形式认知来命名新的事物。
”（沈光浩，2006: 23）[13] 曾丹. 流行语中旧词新义的认知研究[J]. 东华大学学报（社会科学版），2007(1)：38，55. “在流行语旧词新义的产生过程中，转喻机制远没有隐喻机制使用得那么频繁，只找到少量有关转喻的用例，这可能是由两者的不同特点所决定的。
隐喻是一个突变的过程，而转喻是一个渐变的过程。
由于所调查的语料时间跨度相对较小，因此，突变比渐变更容易看到。
”（曾丹，2007: 55）[14] 程海燕.从隐喻的认知性探讨科技英语中的隐喻翻译方法[J].XX科技大学学报(社会科学版),2007,(05).现代隐喻学认为，隐喻不仅仅是一种语言现象，更是一种思维方式，是人们认识客观世界的工具，是生存和认知的基本方式之一。
隐喻根植于语言、思维和文化中，利用人们已经熟知的事物类比陌生的事物，把已知事物的形状、功能、性质、特征、过程、状态等映射到陌生的事物中，把一个熟知的概念域映射到一个陌生的概念域中，从而对各种事物产生更加清楚明晰的认识（程海燕，2007：68）[15] (英)简·爱切生著，徐家祯译.语言的变化;进步还是退化?(中文版)序言[Ml.- - -..语文，1997年版.语言变化是社会因素的刺激、语言结构本身的问题和人的心理作用这三者水乳交融的混合物。
[16] 王建坤.科技英语问题功能研究[M].XX:XX人民，2008.科技英语（English for Science and Technology,简称EST）是专门用途英语的一个主要分支（王健坤，2008）[17] 科技英语是20世纪70年代海外流行的专门用途英语引进中国后的一种说法”（李佩，1992）[18][19][20] 董宏乐.科学语篇的隐喻性[M].复旦大学，2005. “在隐喻出现之前，根本没有研究现象可言。
”（董宏乐，1999：13）[21] 袁琼.科技英语词性与隐喻表达分析[J].XX医科大学学报，2008,(9).形容词隐喻，即把用于某一个X畴的形容词用于另外一个看起来并不相关的领域，从而使人产生相关的联想（袁琼，2008：105）。
例如，sour原意指“酸”，但在科技英语中隐喻关系变坏、情形恶化。
[22][23][24][25]四、国内外现状和发展趋势与研究的主攻方向中国五、主要研究内容、需重点研究的关键问题及解决思路（一）主要研究内容Ⅰ序言Ⅱ文献综述ⅢEST简述3.1 EST词汇特点3.2 EST新词产生方式3.3 旧词新义的经济原则ⅣEST中旧词新义的来源4.1 科技力量的推动4.2 语言结构本身的问题4.3 人心理作用的影响ⅤEST中旧词新义的产生方式5.1 词义的扩大和缩小5.2 词义的转移5.3 词类的转换5.4 普通词语转向专业词语Ⅵ科技隐喻浅谈6.1 科技隐喻的定义6.2 科技隐喻对旧词新义的作用Ⅶ结束语（二）重点研究的关键问题- - -..EST中旧词新义产生的原因和方式（三）解决思路本论文分为七个部分。
第一部分是序言，引出研究的目的和意义；第二部分是文献综述对国内外的研究成果进行了归纳总结，并提出不足之处；第三部分主要介绍了科技英语词汇特点以及产生新词的方式，为进一步的研究打下了基础；第四部分从科技力量的推动、语言结构本身的问题以及人心理作用的影响这三个部分的阐述来分析科技英语中旧词新义的来源；第五部分主要分析了科技英语中旧词新义的产生方式；第六部分从科技隐喻的角度来认知科技英语中的旧词新义。
第七部分为结束语。
同时总结出随着科学技术的不断发展，新事物和新概念的出现将“旧词新义”这一增词方式显得越发重要。
在对科技英语中旧词新义的来源，产生方式有一定的了解后，能对英语学习者有更好地认识。
六、完成毕业设计所必须具备的工作条件（如工具书、计算机辅助设计、某类市场调研、实验设备和实验环境条件等）及解决的办法1．所需工作条件：(1) 相关的中英文献资料；(2) 网络资源及计算机辅助设备；(3) 校内中英文图书期刊室；(4) 中英文图书期刊室及数字图书馆。
2．解决方法：(1) 在学校图书馆、阅览室查阅相关的大量文献资料；(2) 充分利用网络资源及文献检索系统，查阅和下载丰富的论文资料；(3) 熟练使用计算机辅助设备。
七、工作的主要阶段、进度与时间安排1．2012年10月中旬确定论文题目；2．2012年10月下旬查阅相关资料，阅读文献，翻译文献资料，撰写文献综述；3．2012年11月上旬完成开题报告，11月15日参加开题答辩会；4．2012年11月30日之前完成论文第一稿；5．2012年12月14日之前完成论文第二稿；6．2012年12月28日之前完成论文第三稿；7．2013年1月6日前论文定稿、装订并交由相关教师评阅；8．2013年6月8日参加论文答辩。
八、指导教师审查意见指导教师签字_______________2011年12月22日。