Ethical Decision Making Model
管理决策英文考试题库
管理决策英文考试题库# 管理决策英文考试题库一、单选题（每题2分，共20分）1. The process of selecting a course of action among several alternatives is known as:A. PlanningB. OrganizingC. Decision MakingD. Controlling2. Which of the following is not a characteristic of effective decision making?A. RationalityB. TimelinessC. FlexibilityD. Inflexibility3. A decision-making approach that considers all possible outcomes is known as:A. Intuitive decision makingB. Analytical decision makingC. Incremental decision makingD. Contingent decision making4. The concept of "bounded rationality" was introduced by:A. Henri FayolB. Max WeberC. Herbert SimonD. Peter Drucker5. In decision making, the "sunk cost fallacy" refers to the tendency to:A. Continue an endeavor based on the initial investmentB. Avoid making decisions that involve lossesC. Make decisions based on future benefits onlyD. Ignore past costs when making current decisions6. Which of the following is not a type of decision-making model?A. Classical modelB. Behavioral modelC. Economic modelD. Political model7. The "Garbage Can Model" of organizational decision making is associated with:A. James MarchB. Chester BarnardC. Henri FayolB. Peter Drucker8. A decision is considered to be a "programmed decision" when it is:A. Made by a computerB. Made frequently and follows a standard operating procedureC. Made by top managementD. Made under conditions of uncertainty9. Which of the following is not a factor that affects the decision-making process?A. The availability of informationB. The decision maker's personalityC. The organizational cultureD. The decision maker's age10. The "Prospect Theory" was developed to explain how people make decisions involving:A. Risk and uncertaintyB. Cost and benefit analysisC. Group dynamicsD. Time management二、多选题（每题3分，共15分）1. The following are steps in the rational decision-making process except:A. Identifying the problemB. Generating alternativesC. Selecting the best alternativeD. Implementing the decisionE. Reviewing the decision2. Factors that contribute to decision-making biases include:A. OverconfidenceB. GroupthinkC. Lack of informationD. Availability of resourcesE. Anchoring3. The following are types of heuristics that can affect decision making except:A. Availability heuristicB. Representative heuristicC. Sunk cost fallacyD. Confirmation biasE. Regression to the mean4. Decision-making under uncertainty can involve:A. Decision treesB. Payoff matricesC. IntuitionD. Past experienceE. Risk analysis5. The following are advantages of group decision making except:A. Diverse perspectivesB. Shared responsibilityC. Increased conformityD. Reduced risk of errorE. Greater acceptance of the decision三、简答题（每题10分，共30分）1. Explain the difference between a programmed decision and a non-programmed decision.2. What is the significance of the "bounded rationality" concept in decision making?3. Describe the "Garbage Can Model" of organizationaldecision making and its implications for management.四、案例分析题（每题15分，共30分）1. Case Study: A company is facing a decision on whether to invest in a new technology that could potentially revolutionize its industry. The technology is unproven, and the investment is substantial. Discuss the factors the company should consider when making this decision.2. Case Study: A manager is dealing with a team that consistently misses deadlines. The manager has identified several possible solutions but is unsure which one to implement. Analyze the decision-making process the manager should follow to address this issue.五、论述题（15分）Discuss the role of ethics in decision making and provide examples of how ethical considerations can influence the outcomes of business decisions.请注意，这只是一个示例题库，实际的考试内容和格式可能会有所不同。
文化维度“普遍主义及特殊主义”对营销伦理决策影响——中美营销专业本科..
摘要营销是商业中直接与消费者打交道的一个功能性领域伦理问题广泛地存在于营销领域中营销人员潜在的非伦理行为最容易受到消费者密切的关注乃至争议随着越来越多的企业步出国门将业务全球化营销人员遇到的伦理问题由于文化冲突的影响而变得日趋复杂因此理解文化差异对伦理决策的影响对于避免潜在的商业陷阱和制定有效的国际营销管理项目显得愈加重要特龙彭纳斯和汉普登在他们的研究中指出美国属于高度普遍主义国家而中国属于高度特殊主义国家本论文尝试着通过比较中美两国营销专业的本科生探讨性地研究文化维度普遍主义与特殊主义对营销伦理决策的影响本论文分析了普遍主义与特殊主义这一文化维度对伦理决策三个阶段的影响这三个阶段是伦理知觉伦理判断伦理行为意图研究的结果表明文化维度普遍主义与特殊主义对营销伦理决策有很大的影响在伦理知觉方面美国人比中国人更有可能认识到营销中涉及到特惠待遇的伦理问题在伦理判断方面营销中道义论评价对美国人作出的伦理判断的影响比对中国人作出的伦理判断的影响更显著而目的论评价对中国人作出的伦理判断的影响比对美国人的影响更显著在伦理行为意图方面目的论评价对中国人形成的行为意图的影响比对美国人形成的行为意图的影响更显著虽然本论文的研究在某些方面尤其在受试方面存在着局限性但作为一个探讨性研究其结果仍然可以证明整个伦理决策的过程的确受到文化维度普遍主义与特殊主义的影响关键词普遍主义特殊主义伦理决策营销文化差异AbstractAs a functional area within business that interfaces with the consumer, marketing tends to come under the greatest scrutiny, generate the most controversy and receive the most criticism with respect to potentially unethical business practices.As more and more firms operate globally, the ethical problems faced by marketing practitioners have become more and more complicated as different culture clashes. Therefore, an understanding of the effects of cultural differences on ethical decision-making becomes increasingly important for avoiding potential business pitfalls and for designing effective international marketing management programs.According to Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, the U.S.A. is ranked as a highly universalistic culture and China a highly particularistic culture. This dissertation attempts to make an exploratory study on the impact of the cultural dimension “universalism versus particularism” on ethical decision-making in marketing by comparing Chinese and American marketing undergraduate students.The dissertation analyzes the impact of the cultural dimension “universalism versus particularism” on the three stages of ethical decision-making including ethical perception, ethical judgment and ethical intention. The results show that the cultural dimension “universalism versus particularism” has a great influence on ethical decision-making in marketing. On ethical perception, Americans are more likely than their Chinese counterparts to recognize ethical problems involving preferential treatment of one over another in marketing context. On ethical judgment, deontological evaluation has a greater impact for Americans than for their Chinese counterparts in marketing context and teleological evaluation has a greater impact for Chinese than for their American counterparts in the marketing context. On ethical intention, teleological evaluation has a greater impact for Chinese than for their American counterparts in the marketing context.Though this dissertation has several limitations especially in the aspect of subject, as an exploratory study, the results, in a sense, still prove the whole ethical decision-making process is influenced by the cultural dimension “universalism versus particularism”.Key words: universalism, particularism, ethical decision-making, marketing,cultural differencesChapter One Introduction1.1 Statement of the ProblemToday, it is difficult to pick up a newspaper or magazine that does not contain stories about questionable business behaviors, especially about the questionable marketing practices. Vitell, Lumpkin and Rawwas (1991)state, “Since marketing is the functional area within business that interfaces with the consumer, it tends to come under the greatest scrutiny, generates the most controversy and receives the most criticism with respect to potentially unethical business practices. Advertising, personal selling, marketing research and international marketing are all the subjects of the most frequent ethical controversy.”(p.366)Concurrently, research examining ethical issues of the marketing has increased dramatically in the last decade. Within this general stream of research on marketing ethics, ethical decision-making (EDM) has been identified as one of the major topics of interest. In a review article of the EDM literature, Ford and Richardson (1994) cited 62 articles investigating variables which have been hypothesized to influence ethical beliefs and behaviors. These variables are categorized into individual and situational factors. Variables that are related to the individual factors include nationality (i.e., culture), religion, sex, age, education, employment, and personality. Situational variables include referent groups, rewards and sanctions, codes of conduct, type of ethical conflict, organizational effects, industry, and business competitiveness. However, as more and more firms operate globally, an understanding of the effects of cultural differences on ethical decision-making becomes increasingly important for avoiding potential business pitfalls and for designing effective international marketing management programs.The concept of culture recognizes that individuals from different backgrounds are exposed to different traditions, heritages, rituals, customs, and religions. All of these factors establish and provide human beings with various learning environments and histories, which in turn cause significant variations in moral standards, beliefs, and behaviors across cultures (Vitell, Nwachukwu, & Barnes, 1993). In other words, culture not only influences learning, but also impacts what is perceived as right/wrong,acceptable/unacceptable, and ethical/unethical. For example, individuals with different cultural backgrounds may view the following terms dramatically differently, such as bribes, sexual harassment, sexual orientation, abortion, individual espionage, and religious beliefs. Failure to recognize these differences across cultures may result in conflicts and negative business consequences.While there are a number of conceptual frameworks for understanding cultural differences, such as the ones proposed by Hofstede (1980), Hall (Samovar, Porter & Stefani, 2000), Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (ibid) and Trompennars and Hampden-Turner (1998),arguably the two most influential and widely known cultural perspectives that have been applied to business management and organization are the one of Hofstede and the one of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (Dahl, 2004). Both of them have studied people in multinational companies, collected huge databases and then classified nationalities in idealized, typical dimensions of culture.Although there is no dearth of cross-cultural studies of marketing ethics, almost all these ethical studies (both empirical and theoretical) have almost exclusively incorporated Hofstede’s cultural dimensions in defining or describing national culture to the exclusion of other contributions from the literature (Gopalan &Thomson, 2003). Contributions made by Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) that addressed the impact of cultural dynamic on human relationships have been virtually ignored by the scholars who have investigated the effect of national culture on ethics. This triggers the author of this dissertation to utilize Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s cultural dimension to explore the effect of national culture on ethics.1.2 Purpose and Significance of the StudyBased on the above discussion, this study attempts to fill a significant gap by extending the research scope of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s cultural dimensions to the study of ethical decision-making. The emphasis of this study is placed on the impact of the dimension “universalism versus particularism” (or universalism/particularism) on the ethical decision-making process and criteria. More specifically, the primary purposes of this study are: (1) to utilize one of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s cultural dimensions, i.e., “universalism versus particularism”, to explain the cross-cultural differences in ethical perception; (2) to test how “universalism versus particularism” dynamic influences the relative weight given to deontological and teleological evaluations when making ethical judgments and forming ethical intentions.Some argue that ethical issues cannot be the concern of business because business occupies a special place and that it will be impossible to fulfill its functions if it focuses on ethical issues. However, no business can operate purely on the basis of self-interest over the long run. As part of a larger social system, marketers feel the pressure of society’s concerns for truth, honesty, altruism, and respect for human beings. Trust, fairness, honesty, and respect for others are critical values that are essential to business success. The free market system, with its allocation of scarce resources, can and does drive out those who serve less well the needs of customers and the society. If the marketplace’s expectations are not met, the product and the company may go out of existence. To put it bluntly, those individuals who serve only themselves will be replaced by others who serve the needs of the marketplace better. To survive in the long term, business and marketing must operate on ethical grounds.Ethical problems faced by marketing practitioners stem from conflicts and disagreements and they are relationship problems (Chonko, 1995).Each party in a marketing transaction brings a set of expectations regarding how the business relationship should exist and how transactions should be conducted. For example, when you, as a consumer, want to purchase something from a retailer, you bring the following expectations about the transaction: you want to be treated fairly by the retail salesperson; you want to pay a reasonable price; and you want the product to be available as advertising says it will be and in the indicated condition. Unfortunately, your expectations might not be in agreement with those of the retailer. The retail salesperson may not have time for you; or the retailer’s perception of a reasonable price may differ from yours; or the advertising of the product may be misleading. In such situations, ethical conflict occurs as one individual believes that his or her duties and responsibilities to one group (e.g., the retail salesperson’s responsibility to the store) are inconsistent with his or her duties and responsibilities to another group (e.g., the retail salesperson’s responsibilities to the customer) or to himself or herself. Simply put, people will often disagree about which action is best in a given situation.Internationally, these ethical problems will become more complicated as different cultures clash. The significance of ethics and its impact on successful marketing should be amplified in the international context, particularly when the parties involved hold different sets of cultural values. Moreover, a firm expanding its operation to other countries by direct investment or joint venture will inevitably face ethical dilemmas that may not be encountered in familiar, domestic markets. Thus MultinationalCorporations’ ethical capability—organization’s capability to identify and respond effectively to ethical issues in a global context—is a sustainable source of competitive advantage (Buller & McEvoy, 1999). As we know, with the accelerated race of globalization, economic interdependence and interaction between countries are becoming ever stronger. In this massive tide of economic globalization, no country can develop and prosper in isolation. Therefore, it would seem important to understand the ethical decision-making processes and criteria of individuals from different cultures, and how differences in cultural values may affect decision-making processes and criteria.This study extends the research scope of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s cultural dimensions to ethical decision-making and also shows some distinct patterns in ethical judgment and ethical intention to match universalism and particularism with the relative weight given to deontological and teleological evaluations. Findings from this study will allow international firms to better identify the inherent cultural differences which lead to different perceptions of ethical dilemmas of employees and to adopt effective sales management practices appropriate for those differences. Considering that individuals with different cultural backgrounds possess different ethical standards, some marketing practices might be perceived as ethical by some marketing practitioners and unethical by others. Therefore, a greater understanding of how cultural differences affect EDM across employees in different countries will allow international firms to formulate and adopt appropriate management practices that better safeguard against potential unethical behaviors.In addition, the present situation of China indicates that it is necessary to compare the differences in ethical decision-making between China and the U.S. China has learnt from her long history that isolation leads to backwardness. Development, progress and prosperity could only be achieved through opening to and integrating with the outside world, through stepping up exchanges and cooperation with other countries and through absorbing all fine results of human civilization. According to China Statistical Yearbook 2004, China’s share of world trade increased from about 1% to almost 6% between 1979 (when China started to open up) and 2003; China’s share of global inflows of foreign direct investment was almost 10% in 2003 (US $53 billion of a world total of US $560 billion) and China had 200,000 firms that were either foreign affiliates or funded from foreign sources, which made China the world’s largest recipient of FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) in 2003. And the USA is the top source countries forChina’s FDI. In fact, China’s economic interactions with the other nations not only lie in FDI inflows but also outward FDI flows. China is now increasingly visible as a foreign investor and the USA’s share of China’s outward FDI becomes greater and greater. In 2003, China overtook the US and became the 6th largest outward investor among developing countries. Given the country’s rapid economic development and the government’s interest in encouraging outward FDI, China might emerge as a large source of FID in the near future. UNCTAD’s (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development) Global Investment Prospects Assessment Survey found that a number of Investment Promotion Agencies (IPAs) ranked China as a possible top source of FDI during 2004-2007 (/TEMPLATES/webflyer.asp).1.3 OutlineThere are five chapters in this dissertation. The first chapter is introduction, which covers the purpose and significance of the study as well as the outline of this dissertation. Chapter Two is a review of relevant literatures; both theoretical and empirical perspectives are considered. In this chapter, the author firstly describes the definitions of three key terms in this study, i.e., culture, ethics, and ethical decision-making in marketing, and then states the relationship between culture and ethical decision-making. Secondly, a number of studies related to cultural differences are briefly reviewed. After that, the dissertation gives a general description of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s seven cultural dimensions. Thirdly, the three major stages of ethical decision-making, i.e., ethical perception, ethical judgment, and ethical intention, are introduced. Finally, the relevant theoretical and empirical studies are reviewed. In Chapter Three Research Methodology, the author first advances the research hypotheses based on the literature review. And then the methodological procedures which will be used to test the hypotheses are presented. Chapter Four contains the results of the research and a comprehensive discussion of the results. Chapter Five is a conclusion chapter that will present the major findings, limitations of the study, implications for future studies and marketing practitioners.Chapter Two Literature Review2.1 Culture and Ethical Decision-Making2.1.1 CultureCulture is an umbrella word that encompasses a whole set of implicit, widely shared beliefs, traditions, values and expectations that characterize a particular group of people. Giving a definition to “culture” is not as easy as it sounds. “Culture is ubiquitous, multidimensional, complex and all-pervasive.” (Samovar, Porter & Stefani, 2000, p.36) Anthropologist, sociologist, psychologist, philologist, and so on—all kinds of experts or scholars have attempted to give a definition to culture.Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952), in their extensive literature review, listed over one hundred definitions of culture in an effort to develop one that would be acceptable to a range of social scientists. They defined culture as “…patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups…the essential (i.e., historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values” (p.357).Hofstede (1984)refers to culture as “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes one human group from another…the interactive aggregate of common characteristics that influence a human group’s response to the environment” (p.21). Besides, Hofstede (1994) proposes a set of four layers of culture, each of which encompasses the lower level, as it depends on the lower level, or is a result of the lower level. At the core of Hofstede’s model of culture are values, or in his words, “broad tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others”(Hofstede, 1994, p. 8). These values form the most hidden layer of culture. Values as such represent the ideas that people have about how things ought to be. In this way, Hofstede (1994) emphasizes the assumption that “values are strongly influencing behaviors” (p.9).Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1998) state that “culture is the shared ways in which groups of people understand and interpret the world…culture has three layers: (1) explicit products; (2) norms and values; (3) assumptions about existence” (p.20). Among these three layers, values determine the definition of “good and bad”, andtherefore are closely related to the ideals shared by a group and the basic assumptions in the third layers are somewhat similar to values in Hofstede’s model, a lower level of values, i.e. basic assumptions are the absolute core values that influence the more visible values in the layer above (Dahl, 2004).In the book International Business Culture, the author Mitchell (2000)gives us a formal definition “Culture is a set of learned core values, beliefs, standards, knowledge, morals, laws, and behaviors shared by individuals and societies that determines how an individual acts, feels, and views oneself and others” (p.4). Mitchell (2000) defines culture in terms of its components, he believed that “to view a country’s culture from the outside can be intimidating, but breaking it down into its components and understanding how each component is related to the whole can help to unwrap the enigma and provide some logic and motivation behind behaviors, including business behaviors”(p.5).The common thread throughout the above various definitions is the acknowledgment of differences in values and behaviors across different cultures. From these definitions we can see that culture has both physical and nonphysical components. The physical aspects of culture are tangible and functional, such as music, crafts, artistic objects, poetry and arts. The nonphysical aspects of culture constitute the mental values which people use to characterize their environment and view their relationships with nature. These cultural characteristics differentiate one group of people from another.In addition, we should also be aware that there is a significant debate about what level of analysis is desirable for the concept of culture to be a viable tool (Dahl, 2004).In more practical terms, national boundaries have been the preferred level of resolution, and therefore countries or nations are considered as the preferred unit of analysis. Just as Adler (1997) observes, “national boundaries are implicitly accepted as operational definitions of culturally distinct units in cross-cultural management research” (p.31).There are several good arguments for this: Firstly, the nationality of a person can easily be established, whereas membership of a sub-culture is more difficult to establish, particularly in cases where individuals may declare themselves members of various sub-cultures at the same time. The use of nationality is therefore avoiding unnecessary duplication and removes ambiguity in the research process, as the nationality of a person can usually be established easily. Secondly, there is considerable support for the notion that people coming from one country will be shaped by largely the same valuesand norms as their co-patriots (Hofstede, 1991). In fact, nearly all the empirical cross-cultural studies on ethics (e.g., Singhapakdi, Vitell, & Leelakulthanit, 1994; Armstrong & Sweeney, 1994; Karande, Shankarmahesh, Rao, & Rashid, 2000) have utilized nationality as a proxy of culture. Therefore, this dissertation was no exception and used two countries (i.e., China and the U.S.A.) as the surrogates of the cultural dimension universalism/particularism.2.1.2 Ethical Decision Making in Marketing2.1.2.1 Definition of Ethics“Unethical” acts were committed throughout history: Christianity has Adam eating the forbidden fruit, Cain murdering his brother. The majority of the ancient Greek philosophers devoted much of their time to developing theories of ethics. The early theories studied ethics from a normative perspective, meaning that they were concerned with “constructing and justifying the moral standards and codes that one ought to follow” (Vitell, 1986, p.4). On the other side, a positive perspective of ethics attempted to describe and explain how individuals actually behave in ethical situations.One of the major preoccupations of ethical theorists was to create a definition of ethics. As with the majority of concepts, ethics was defined differently by different theorists.Runes states that “ethical behavior refers to ‘just’ or ‘right’ standards of behavior between parties in a situation” (qtd. in Beu & Buckley, 2001, p.59). On the same line, Barry defines ethics as “the study of what constitutes good and bad human conduct, including related actions and values” (ibid).According to DeGeorge(1982), ethics is the study of morality. He argues: Morality is a term used to cover those practices and activities that areconsidered importantly right and wrong, the rules which govern thoseactivities and the values that are imbedded, fostered, or pursued by thoseactivities and practices. The morality of a society is related to its mores or thecustoms accepted by a society or group as being the right and wrong ways toact as well as to the laws of a society which add legal prohibitions andsanctions to many activities considered to be immoral (pp. 13-15).Similarly, Taylor defines ethics as “…inquiry into the nature and grounds of morality where the term morality is taken to mean moral judgments, standards, and rules of conduct” (qtd. in Akaah, 1996, p.606). Ferrell and Fraedrich(1991) describe it as “the study and philosophy of human conduct with an emphasis on determination ofright and wrong” (p.4).In the book Ethical Marketing Decisions, Laczniak and Murphy (1993) wrote, “ethics is one of those subjects where people cannot say anything of substance without revealing quite a bit about their own values and it has two dimensions” (p.10). First, ethics, via its foundation in moral philosophy, provides various models and frameworks for handling ethical situations (Laczniak & Murphy, 1993). That is, there are various approaches to ethical reasoning. For instance, ethics leads us to consider whether we should judge the moral appropriateness of business decisions based on the consequences for various stakeholders or on the basis of the intentions held by the decision-maker when a particular action is selected. Differing approaches may lead us to similar conclusions or divergent conclusions about the “ethicalness” of a particular action. The second dimension of ethics refers to ethics as the right thing to do (ibid). When people say that someone is acting ethically, they usually mean individuals are doing what is morally correct.From the above definitions, we can see the underpinning for having a feeling about what one ought to do comes mostly from our values. Carroll (1996) points out that “ethics is a set of moral principles that drives behavior… Values are the individual’s concepts of the relative worth, utility or importance of certain ideas. ...One’s values, therefore, shape one’s ethics.” (pp. 133-134)2.1.2.2 Ethical Decision Making in MarketingVitell (1986) applied Taylor’s definition of ethics to define marketing ethics as “an inquiry into the nature and grounds of moral judgments, standards, and the rules of conduct relating to marketing decisions and marketing situations.” (p.4) Marketing ethics examines systematically marketing and marketing morality related to 4P-issues, such as unsafe products, deceptive pricing, deceptive advertising, bribery, or discrimination in distribution (Smith & Quelch, 1993).Research on marketing ethics can be divided into six categories: causes of unethical behavior; the relationship between ethical behavior and profitability; social marketing ethics; surveys of various publics; development of normative ethical theories; and ethical decision-making. Within this stream of research on marketing ethics, ethical decision-making has been identified as one of the major topics of interest(Lu, Rose & Blodgett, 1999).Ethical decision-making is a subset of business decision-making because not all the business decisions have ethical ramifications. It is actually the business decision-makingwhen ethical considerations are involved. According to Holt (1990), decision-making is the process of identifying problems and opportunities, developing alternative solutions, choosing a preferred alternative, and then implementing it. When making a decision, the decision maker reaches a conclusion based on the evaluation of options or alternatives. Therefore, ethical decision-making can be defined as a process of choosing a course of action based on what is right and fair in and of itself, or for the common good.For the purpose here, ethical decision-making refers to discretionary decision-making behavior, which “determines how conflicts in human interests are to be settled and …optimizes mutual benefit…for people living together in groups” (Rest, 1986, p.1). Ethical decision-making in marketing refers to the process of making marketing decisions when ethical dilemmas are involved. In business firms, marketing is the most visible functional area because of its frequent interfaces with the customers. Most marketing decisions have ethical ramifications whether business executives realize it or not. When the actions are taken properly, the ethical dimensions go unnoticed and attention centers upon the economic efficiencies and managerial astuteness of the decisions. But such is not always the case. When a marketing decision is ethically troublesome, its highly visible outcomes can be a public embarrassment or even worse.Just as the process of business decision-making, the ethical decision-making process begins when an individual recognizes an ethical dilemma. Subsequently, the individual makes judgments and forms behavioral intentions that are thought to be predictive of actual behavior.2.1.3 Relationship between Culture and Ethical Decision-Making in MarketingFrom the above definition of ethical decision-making in marketing, we know that to explore the relationship between culture and ethical decision-making in marketing is actually to explore the relationship between culture and ethical decision-making.Matthew wrote “What good will it be...[to gain] the whole world, yet [forfeit one’s] soul? Or what can [one] give in exchange for [one’s] soul?” (qtd. in Chonko, 1995, p.4) This statement is at the heart of ethical decision-making, as is the following verse from Taoism: “[One] who stands on tiptoe doesn’t stand firm. [One] who rushes ahead doesn’t go far. [One] who tries to shine dims [one’s] own light” (ibid). These two statements imply gains and losses from actions. Actions imply a choice between alternative courses of action. Evaluating those alternative courses of action implies weighing the pros and cons of each alternative as seen by the individual and as seen by others with whom the individual interacts. These choices form the heart of the problems。
a framework for ethical decision-making -回复
a framework for ethical decision-making -回复什么是伦理决策框架？为什么我们需要它？它是如何工作的？下面，我将一步一步解答这些问题。
伦理决策框架可以被理解为一种指导性的工具，用于帮助我们做出道德正确的决策。
在面对复杂的伦理问题时，我们需要对各种因素进行权衡，并选择最符合伦理原则的决策。
伦理决策框架提供了一种结构化的方法，以确保我们在作出决策时考虑到各种伦理考量。
伦理决策框架之所以重要，是因为我们生活在一个相互关联的社会中。
我们的行为和决策可能会对他人产生直接或间接的影响。
在这种情况下，我们需要确保我们的决策是道德的，并尽量减少负面影响，最大化正面影响。
伦理决策框架为我们提供了一个指导，使我们能够更好地理解我们的行为后果，并相应地做出决策。
伦理决策框架的工作原理是将我们所面临的伦理问题分解为几个关键要素，并对它们进行思考和评估。
以下是一个常用的五步伦理决策框架：第一步是定义问题。
在这一步中，我们需要确定我们所面临的具体伦理问题是什么。
这可以是一个个人决策，也可以是一个组织或社会层面的决策。
例如，我们可能需要决定是否在利润和道德原则之间进行取舍。
第二步是确定利害相关方。
在决策过程中，我们需要考虑受到我们决策影响的各方。
这些人或群体可能是员工、股东、客户、社区等。
我们需要考虑他们的权益和利益，并在决策中尽力兼顾他们的需求。
第三步是评估权衡。
在这一步中，我们需要对伦理决策的各种因素进行权衡。
这些因素可能包括道德原则、法律法规、社会期望、个人价值观等。
我们需要评估这些因素之间的相对重要性，并确定最合适的权衡方案。
第四步是选择决策。
在这一步中，我们需要根据之前的评估，选择最符合伦理原则的决策。
这可能是一个权衡过程，需要考虑各种因素的平衡和取舍。
我们还需要确保我们的决策是可行的，并能够在实践中执行。
第五步是评估后果。
一旦我们做出了决策，并付诸行动，我们需要对决策后果进行评估。
道理论证型英语作文
道理论证型英语作文英文回答：In the realm of ethical decision-making, the doctrine of utilitarianism, with its focus on maximizing overall happiness and minimizing suffering, presents a compelling framework for navigating complex moral dilemmas. The utilitarian approach prioritizes the consequences of an action, considering the potential benefits and harms it may inflict on all affected parties. This consequentialist perspective seeks to generate the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of individuals.One of the key strengths of utilitarianism lies in its emphasis on impartiality. The doctrine advocates for decisions that are made without regard to personal biases or self-interest. By considering the well-being of all involved, utilitarianism strives to avoid the pitfalls of favouritism and prejudice. This impartial approach promotes fairness and justice, ensuring that the distribution ofhappiness and suffering is not influenced by arbitrary factors.Furthermore, utilitarianism's focus on consequences aligns well with the practical realities of ethical decision-making. In the face of competing moral values and principles, it offers a clear and tangible metric for evaluating actions. By calculating the potential benefits and harms of different options, individuals can identify the course of action that is likely to produce the most positive outcome for society as a whole. This practical approach provides a valuable tool for navigating complex moral dilemmas and making decisions that are well-informed and ethically sound.However, utilitarianism is not without its limitations. Critics argue that the doctrine can lead to the sacrifice of individual rights in favour of maximizing overall happiness. By prioritizing the well-being of the majority, utilitarianism may justify actions that infringe upon the rights of specific individuals. This tension between individual rights and collective well-being presents asignificant challenge to the utilitarian framework.Another limitation of utilitarianism is its reliance on predicting the consequences of actions. In reality, it can be difficult to accurately foresee the long-term effects of our choices. This uncertainty introduces an element of subjectivity into the utilitarian decision-making process, as individuals may have different expectations about the outcomes of their actions. The challenge of predicting consequences can make it difficult to apply the utilitarian doctrine in a consistent and reliable manner.Despite these limitations, utilitarianism remains a widely influential ethical theory. Its focus on maximizing happiness and minimizing suffering provides a compelling framework for making moral decisions. By emphasizing impartiality and considering the consequences of actions, utilitarianism offers a practical and coherent approach to ethical dilemmas. While it is important to be aware of its limitations, the doctrine of utilitarianism continues to offer valuable insights into the complexities of ethical decision-making.中文回答：功利主义是一种伦理决策理论，注重最大化整体幸福，最小化痛苦。
管理学基础精品教学（清华大学）essentialsofcontemporarymanagement
To dear IE91ersEssentials of Contemporary management—made by yiwen 关于这份总结：这份总结是根据于瑞峰最后一节课所画的考试范围整理的，不考的内容一点没有涵盖^_^。
06、07年三套考题中简答、案例题出现过的重点内容结合答案的给分点详细整理在内，笑脸是最好背下来的，实在记不住至少加阴影的得理解性背下，毕竟作答大题时出现了关键词分数也就到手了。
最重要的三个提醒：一是最好的资料就是三份考题（不解释），二是考试时小简答题写两行就足够了（总得留点时间给案例题啊），三是祝考试顺利！奕雯Chapter 1.The Management Process Achieving High Performance【efficiency】A measure of how well or productively resources are used to achieve a goal. 【effectiveness】A measure of the appropriateness of the goals an organization is pursuing andManagerial FunctionsPlanning】Identifying and selecting appropriate goals【Organizing】Structuring working relationships in a way that allows organizational members to work together to achieve organizational goals.【Leading】Articulating a clear vision and energizing and enabling organizational members so that they understand the part they play in achieving organizational goals.【Controlling】Evaluating how well an organization is achieving its goals and taking action to maintain or improve performance.3.Levels of management【first-line manager】A manager who is responsible for the daily supervision of non managerial employees【Middle manager】A manager who supervises first-line managers and is responsible for finding the best way to use the resources to achieve organizational goals.【first-line manager】Identifying and selecting appropriate goals【top managers】A manager who establishes organizational goals, decides how departments should interact, and monitors the performanceof middle managers.4.Managerial Roles and skills(1) Managerial Roles Identified by Mintzberg【Decisional】→Entrepreneur(commit resources, decide expansion) →Disturbance Handler(deal with unexpected problems) →Resource Allocator → Negotiator交涉者(work with suppliers, distributors, labor unions, other organization)【Informational】→Monitor(evaluate managers,watch environment) →Disseminator传播者→Spokesperson代言人【Interpersonal】→Figurehead (直译是傀儡，意会下)→leader →liaison(establish alliances between different departments or different organizations)(2) Managerial Skills【conceptual skills】The ability to analyze and diagnose a situation and to distinguish between cause and effect. 【human skills】The ability to understand, alter, lead, and control the behavior of other individuals and groups. 【technical skills】Job specific knowledge and techniques that are required to perform an organizational roles.5.Management in a Global Environment(1) Building a Competitive AdvantageIncreasing efficiency →Increasing quality →Increasing speed, flexibility, and innovation→Increasing responsiveness to customers(2)Maintaining Ethical Standards(3)Managing a Diverse Workforce(4)Utilizing Information Technology and E-commerceChapter 3.Maintaining Ethical Standards1.Factors Influencing Behaviors:→External pressures from stockholders for increased organizational financial performance.→Internal pressures from top management on lower-level managers to increase the organization’s competitive performance and profitability.→Societal, cultural, and environment demands on the organization.2. Ethics and Stakeholders【stakeholders】Shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers, and others who have an interest, claim, or stake in an organization and in what it does.→Each group of stakeholders wants a different outcome and managers must work to satisfy as many as possible.→Managers have the responsibility to decide which goals an organization should pursue to most benefit stakeholders—decisions that benefit some stakeholder groups at the expense of others.【Ethics】Moral principles or beliefs about what is right or wrong.→Ethics guide managers in their dealings with stakeholders and others when the best course of action is unclear.→Managers often experience an ethical dilemma in choosing between theconflicting interests of stakeholders.3. Ethical Decision Models【Utilitarian Model】produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people.【Moral Rights Model】best maintains and protects the fundamental rights and privileges of the people affected by it.【Justice Model】distributes benefits and harms among stakeholders in a fair, equitable, or impartial way.Chapter 4.Managing in a global environment 【organizational environment】A set of forces and conditions that operate beyond an organization’s boundaries but affect a manager’s ability to acquire and utilize resources1. The task environment【suppliers】Individuals and organizations that provide an organization with the input resources that it needs to produce goods and services. (eg. Raw materials, component parts, labor) 【distributors】Organizations that help other organizations sell their goods or services to customers. 【customers】Individuals and groups that buy goods and services that an organization produces. 【competitors】Organizations that produce goods and services that are similar to a particular organization’s goods and services. Barriers to Entry —Government regulations, Brand loyalty, Economies of scale2. The general environment【Economic Forces】Interest rates, inflation, unemployment, economic growth, and other factors that affect the general health and well-being of a nation or the regional economy of an organization【Technological Forces】Outcomes of changes in the technology that managers use to design, produce, or distribute goods and services.【Sociocultural Forces】Pressures emanating from the social structure of a country or society or from the national culture.【Demographic Forces】Outcomes of change in, or changing attitudes toward, the characteristics of a population, such as age, gender, ethnic origin, race, sexual orientation, and social class.【Political and legal Forces】Outcomes of changes in laws and regulations, such as the deregulation of industries, the privatization of organizations, and increased emphasis on environmental protection.【Global Forces】Outcomes of changes in international relationships3. The changing global environment(1)The role of national culture【Values】Ideas about what a society believes to be good, desirable and beautiful【Norms】Unwritten rules and codes of conduct that prescribe how people should act in particular situations.【Hofstede’s Model of National Culture】【Individualism versus Collectivism】Individualism values individual freedom and self-expression and holds a strong belief in personal rights and the need for persons to be judged by their achievements rather their social background. Collectivism values subordination of the individual to the goals of the group.(Japan )【Power Distance】A society’s acceptance of differences in the well bei ng of citizens due to differences in heritage, and physical and intellectual capabilities (individualism).In high power distance societies, the gap between rich and poor becomes very wide (e.g., Panama and Malaysia).In the low power distance societies of western cultures (e.g., United States and Germany), the gap between rich and poor is reduced by taxation and welfare programs.【Achievement versus Nurturing Orientation】Achievement-oriented societies value assertiveness, performance, and success and are results-oriented. (United States and Japan)Nurturing-oriented cultures value quality of life, personal relationships, and service.( Sweden and Denmark)【Uncertainty Avoidance】Societies and people differ in their tolerance for uncertainty and risk. Low uncertainty avoidance cultures (e.g., U.S. and Hong Kong) value diversity and tolerate a wide range of opinions and beliefs.High uncertainty avoidance societies (e.g., Japan and France) are more rigid and expect high conformity in their citizens’ beliefs and norms of behavior.【Long Term Outlook】Cultures (e.g., Taiwan and Hong Kong) with a long-term in outlook are based on the values of saving, and persistence.Short-term outlook societies (e.g., France and the United States) seek the maintenance of personal stability or happiness in the present.【National Culture and Global Management】Management practices that areeffective in one culture often will not work as well in another culture.(2)Declining barriers of distance and culture(3)Declining barriers to trade and investment(4)Effects of free trade on managersChapter 5.Decision Making, Learning, Creativity, and Innovation1. The Nature of Managerial Decision Making【Decision Making】The process by which managers respond to opportunities and threats byanalyzing options and making determinations about specific organizational goals and courses of action.(1) Programmed and Non-programmed Decision Making【Programmed Decision Making】Routine, nearly automatic decision making that follows established rules or guidelines.【Non-programmed Decision Making】Non-routine decision making that occurs in response to unusual, unpredictable opportunities and threats.Faced with non-programmed decision making, managers must search for information about alternative courses of action and rely on intuition and judgment to choose wisely among alternatives. →Intuition直觉Ability to make sound decisions based on one’s past experience and immediate feelings about the information at hand. →Judgment(better than intuition)Ability to develop a sound opinion based on one’s evaluation of the importance of the information at hand.(2) Classical Decision Making Model【Classical Decision Making Model】A prescriptive approach to decision making based on the assumption that the decision maker can identify and evaluate all possible alternatives and their consequences and rationally choose the most appropriate course of action. 【Optimum Decision】The most appropriate decision in light of what managers believe to be the most desirable future consequences for their organization.【Administrative Model】An approach to decision making that explains why decision making is inherently uncertain and risky and why managers usually make satisfactory rather than optimum decisions. The administrative model is based on three important concepts: bounded rationality, incomplete information, and satisficing. 【Bounded Rationality】Cognitive认知的limitations that constrain束缚one’s ability to interpret, process, and act on information. 【Incomplete Information】Information is incomplete because of risk and uncertainty, ambiguity, and time constraints. → Risk : The degree of probability that the possible outcomes of a particular course of action will occur. (有明确的数据表示)→Uncertainty : Unpredictability. (Future is unknown and probabilities cannot be determined) →Ambiguous Information : Information that can be interpreted in multiple and often conflicting ways. →Time Constraints and Information Costs. (记得少女老妇人的画不)【Satisficing】Searching for and choosing an acceptable, or satisfactory, response to problems and opportunities, rather than trying to make the best decision.2. Steps in the Decision-making Process(1)Recognize the Need for a Decision(2)Generate Alternatives(3)Assess alternativesLegality →Ethicalness →Economic Feasibility(与钱有关的) →Practicality(have the ability and resources, not threaten other organizational goals)(4)Choose Among Alternatives(5)Implement the Chosen Alternative(6)Learn from Feedback3. Group Decision Making→【Groupthink】A pattern of faulty and biased decision making that occurs in groups whose members strive for agreement among themselves at the expense of accurately assessing information relevant to a decision. Solutions to groupthink: (i)【Devil’s Advocacy唱反调】Critical analysis of a preferred alternative, made in response to challenges raised by a group member who, playing the role of devil’s advocate, defen ds unpopular or opposing alternatives for the sake of argument. (ii)【Diversity Among Decision Makers】(决策者构成的多样性)4. Organizational Learning and Creativity【Organizational Learning】The process through which managers seek to improve employees’ desire and ability to understand and manage the organization and its task environment. 【Learning Organization】An organization in which managers try to maximize the ability of individuals and groups to think and behave creatively and thus maximize the potential for organizational learning to take place. The heart of the organizational learning is creativity. 【Creativity】A decision maker’s ability to discover original and novel (adj.新奇的) ideas that lead to feasible alternative courses of action. 【Innovation】(创新) The implementation of creative ideas in an organization.Creating a Learning Organization (Senge)(1)Develop personal mastery.(2)Build complex, challenging mental models.(3)Promote team learning.(4)Build shared vision.(5)Encourage systems thinking.Promoting Individual CreativityPromoting Group Creativity【Brainstorming】Brainstorming is a group problem-solving technique in which managers meet face-to-face to generate and debate a wide variety of alternatives from which to make a decision. →Production Blocking: A loss of production in brainstorming sessions due to the unstructured nature of brainstorming.【Nominal Group Technique】民意群体法Nominal Group Technique is a decision-making technique in which group members write down ideas and solutions, read their suggestions to the whole group, and discuss and then rank the alternatives. Nominal Group Technique is especiallyuseful when an issue is controversial有争议的and when different managers might be expected to champion different courses of action. The main improvement of nominal group technique: It provides a more structured way of generating alternatives in writing and gives each manager more time and opportunities to generate alternative solutions.Promoting Creativity at the Global LevelChapter 6.Planning, Strategy, and Change 【Strategy】A cluster of decisions about what goals to pursue, what actions to take, and how to use resources to achieve goals. 【Mission】A broad declaration of an organization’s purpose that identifies the organization’s products and customers and distinguishes the organization from its competitors. Overview: Planning process includes three major steps:(1) Determining an organization’s mission and major goals;(2) Choosing strategies to realize the mission and goals;(3) Selecting the appropriate way of organizing resources to implement the strategies.1. Planning【Planning】Identifying and selecting appropriate goals and courses of action; one of the four principle functions of management. Planning is a three-step activity:(1) Determining the organization’s mission and goals;(2) Formulating strategy;(3) Implementing strategy and changing the organization.In large organizations planning usually takes place at three levels of management: corporate, business or division, and department or functional. 【Division】A business unit that has its own set of managers and functions or departments and competes in a distinct industry. 【Divisional Managers】Managers who control the various divisions of an organization. 【Corporate-level plan】Top management’s decisions pertaining to the organization’s missi on, overall strategy, and structure. 【Corporate-level strategy】A plan that indicates in which industries and national markets an organization intends to compete. 【Business-level plan】Divisional managers’ decisions pertaining to division’s long-term goals, overall strategy, and structure.【Business-level strategy】A plan that indicates how a division intends to compete against its rivals in an industry. 【Functional-level plan】Functional managers’ decisions pertaining to the goals that they propose to pursue to help the division attain its business-level goals. 【Functional-level strategy】A plan that indicates how a function intends to achieve its goals. 【Function】A unit of department in which people have the same skills or use the same resources to perform their jobs. 【Functional Manager】Managers who supervise the various functions, such as manufacturing, accounting, and sales, within a division. Functional goals and strategies should be consistent with divisional goals and strategies, which in turn should be consistent withdivisional goals and strategies, which in turn should be consistent with corporate goals and strategies. Although ultimate responsibility for planning may lie with certain select managers within an organization, all managers and many non-managerial employees typically participate in the planning process.Time Horizons of Plans【Time Horizon周期】The intended duration of a plan. 【Long-term Plan】five years or more. 【Immediate-term Plan】between one and five years. 【Short-term Plan】one year or less. 【Rolling Plan】A plan that is updated and amended every year to take account of changing conditions in the external environment.Standing Plans and Single-use Plans【Standing Plans】Used in situations in which programmed decision making is appropriate.(1) Policy: A general guide to action;(2) Rule: A formal, written guide to action;(3) Standing Operating Procedure (SOP): A written instruction describing the exact series of actions that should be followed in a specific situation.【Single-use Plans】Developed to handle non-programmed decision making in unusual orone-of-a-kind situations.Planning’s Importance(1) Planning is a useful way of getting managers to participate in decision making about the appropriate goals and strategies for an organization.(2) Planning is necessary to give the organization a sense of direction and purpose.(3) A plan helps coordinate managers of the different functions and divisions of an organizationto ensure that they all pull in the same direction.(4) A plan can be used as a device for controlling managers within an organization.Effective plans should have four qualities ( By Henri Fayol ):(1) Unity (一致性): At any one time only one central, guiding plan is put into operation to achieve an organizational goal.(2) Continuity (持续性): Planning is an ongoing process in which managers build and refine (精炼) previous plans and continually modify plans at all levels.(3) Accuracy (准确性): Managers need to make every attempt to collect and utilize all available information at their disposal in the planning process.(4) Flexibility (灵活性)2. Determining Mission and GoalsDefining the Business(1) Who are our customers?(2) What customer needs are being satisfied?(3) How are we satisfying customer needs?Establishing Major GoalsGoals must be challenging but realistic with a definite period in which they are to be achieved. 3. Formulating Strategy: SWOT Analysis【Strategy Formulation】Analysis of an organization’s current situation followed by the development of strategies to accomplish its mission and achieve its goals.【SWOT Analysis】A planning exercise in which managers identify organizational strengths (S), weaknesses (W), environmental opportunities(O), and threats.4. Formulating Strategy: Corporate-levelConcentration on a Single Business (全力做好一项业务)Can become a strong competitor, but can be risky.Diversification (多角化)【Diversification】Expanding operations into a new business or industry and producing new goods or services. 【Related Diversification】Entering a new business or industry to create a competitive advantage in one or more of an organization’s existing divisions or business.Synergy协同效应Performance gains that result when individuals and departments coordinate their actions. 【Unrelated Diversification】Entering a new industry or buying a company in a new industry that is not related in any way to an organization’s current businesses or industries. The reasons to pursue unrelated diversification: (1) Managers can buy a poorly performing company, transfer their management skills to it, turn around its business, and increase its performance. (2) Portfolio Strategy 投资组合战略There is evidence that too much diversification can cause managers to lose control of their organization’s core business.International Expansion (国际化扩张)【Global Strategy】Selling the same standardized product and using the same basic marketing approach in each national market. 【Multidomestic Strategy】(本土化战略) Customizing products and marketing strategies to specific national conditions.Vertical Integration (纵向一体化)A strategy that allows an organization to create value by producing its own inputs or distributing its own products. 【Backward Vertical Integration投入方面（原材料等）】a firm seeks to reduce its input costs by producing its own inputs. 【Forward Vertical Integration】产出方面（分销，销售等 a firm distributes its outputs or products to lower distribution costs and ensure the quality service to customers.5. Formulating Strategy: Business-levelLow-cost Strategy (低成本)Driving the organization’s total costs down below the total costs of rivals.Differentiation Strategy (差异化)Distinguishing an organization’s products from the products of compet itors in dimensions such as product design, quality, or after-sales service.Focused Low-cost Strategy (专一低成本)Serving only one market segment and being the lowest-cost organization serving that segment.Focused Differentiation Strategy (专一差异化)Serving only one market segment as the most differentiated organization serving that segment.6. Formulating Strategy: Functional-level7. Implementing Strategy and Changing the OrganizationStrategy Implementing is a five-step process:(1) Allocate implementation responsibility to the appropriate individuals or groups.(2) Draft detailed action plans for implementation.(3) Establish a timetable for implementation.(4) Allocate appropriate resources.(5) Hold specific groups or individuals responsible for the attainment of corporate, divisional, and functional goals.Chapter anizing: Designing Organizational Structure【Organizational Architecture】The organizational structure, control systems, and culture that together determine how efficiently and efficiently and effectively organizational resources are used.1. Designing Organizational Structure【Organizational Structure】A formal system of task and reporting relationships that coordinates and motivates organizational members so that they work together to achieve organizational goals. 【Organizational Design】The process by which managers make specific organizing choices that result in a particular kind of organizational structure. According to contingency theory, managers design organizational structures to fit the factors or circumstances that are affecting the company the most and causing them the most uncertainty. Thus, there is no one best way to design an organization. In some situations stable, mechanistic structures may be most appropriate while in others flexible, organic structures might be the most effective. In some situations flexible, organic structures might be the most effective. Four factors are important determinants of the type of organizational structure of organizing method managers select: (1) The nature of the organizational environment(2) The type of strategy the organization pursues(3) The technology the organization uses(4) The characteristics of the organization’s human resourcesThe Organizational EnvironmentThe more quickly the external environment is changing and the greater the uncertainty within it, a more organic structure is suitable for the situation. If the external environment is stable, resources are readily available, and uncertainty is low, a more formal structure is suitable for the situation.StrategyA differentiation strategy needs a flexible structure, low cost may need a more formal structure. Increased vertical integration or diversification also requires a more flexible structure.TechnologyMore complex technology makes it harder for managers to regulate the organization. 【Technology】The combination of skills, knowledge, tools, equipment, computers and machines used in the organization. 【Small-batch Technology小批量技术】Technology that is used to produce small quantities of customized, one-of-a-kind products and is based on the skills of people who work together in small groups. 【Mass-production Technology大批量生产技术】Technology that is based on the use of automated machines that are programmed to perform the same operations over and over. A structure that decentralizes authority to employees and allows them to respond flexibly is most appropriate with small-batch technology. A formal structure is the preferred choice because it gives managers the most control over the production process.Human ResourcesHighly skilled workers whose jobs require working in teams usually need a more flexible structure. Higher skilled workers (e.g., CPA’s and doctors) often have internalized professional norms.【Job Design】The process by which managers decide how to divide tasks into specific jobs. 【Division of Labor】Splitting the work to be performed into particular tasks and assigning tasks to individual workers. 【Job Simplification】The process of reducing the number of tasks that each worker performs. →Too much simplification may reduce efficiency. Workers may find their jobs boring and monotonous单调的.Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment【Job Enlargement】Increasing the number of tasks for a given job by changing the division of labor. →The intention is to reduce boredom and fatigue疲乏by increasing variety of tasks performed. 【Job Enrichment】Increasing the degree of responsibility a worker has over a job. →The intention is to increase worker involvement. And it requires a flexible organizational structure to allow employees to act flexibly and creatively. →There are four ways to enrich thejob:(1) Empowering workers to experiment to find better ways of doing the certain job.(2) Encouraging workers to develop new skills.(3) Allowing workers to decide how to respond to unexpected situations.(4) Allowing workers to monitor and measure their own performance.The Job Characteristics Model (工作特征模型)By Hackman & Oldham Every job has five characteristics that determine how motivating the job is.(1) Skill Varity: (技能多样性)The extent to which a job requires an employee to use a wide range of different skills, abilities, or knowledge.(2) Task Identity: (任务完整性)The extent to which a job requires a worker to perform all the tasks required to complete the job from the beginning to the end of the production process.(3) Task Significance: (任务重要性)The degree to which a worker feels his or her job is meaningful because of its effect on people inside the organization.(4) Autonomy: (自主性)The degree to which a job gives an employee the freedom and discretion决定权needed to schedule different tasks and decide how to carry them out.(5) Feedback: (反馈)The extent to which actually doing a job provides a worker with clear and direct information about how well he or she has performed the job.The more employees feel that their work is meaningful and that they are responsible for work outcomes and responsible for knowing how those outcomes affect others, the more motivating work becomes and the more likely employees are to be satisfied and to perform at a high level.3. Grouping Jobs into Functions and DivisionsFunctional Structure (职能型结构)【Function】A function is a group of people, working together, who possess similar skills or use the same kind of knowledge, tools, or techniques to perform their jobs. 【Functional Structure】An organizational structure composed of all the departments that an organization requires to produce its goods or services. →Advantages Encourages learning from others doing similar jobs. Easy for managers to monitor and evaluate workers. →Disadvantages Difficult for departments to communicate with others. Preoccupation with own department and losing sight of organizational goals.Divisional Structures (分部型结构)【Divisional Structure】An organizational structure composed of separate business units within which are the functions that work together to produce a specific product for a specific customer. Divisions develop a business-level strategy to compete. And Functional managers report to。
人工智能时代人文学科重要性英语作文
人工智能时代人文学科重要性英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1The Importance of Humanities in the Age of Artificial IntelligenceIntroduction:As we enter the era of artificial intelligence, there has been a growing debate about the role of humanities in atechnology-driven world. While the development of AI promises great advancements in science and technology, some argue that the importance of humanities is being overlooked. In this essay, we will explore why humanities are essential in the age of artificial intelligence and how they can help shape a better future for humanity.Understanding Human Values:One of the key reasons why humanities are crucial in the age of artificial intelligence is that they help us understand human values and ethics. While AI systems can perform complex tasks and make decisions based on data, they lack the ability to understand the nuances of human behavior and emotions. Bystudying disciplines such as philosophy, literature, and art, we can gain a deeper understanding of what it means to be human and how we can ensure that AI technologies align with human values.Critical Thinking and Creativity:Humanities also play a vital role in developing critical thinking and creativity, skills that are essential for innovation and problem-solving. While AI systems can analyze data and identify patterns, they lack the ability to think outside the box and come up with creative solutions to complex problems. By studying disciplines such as history, psychology, and sociology, we can cultivate these skills and ensure that we remain relevant in a world increasingly dominated by technology.Cultural Awareness and Diversity:Another reason why humanities are important in the age of artificial intelligence is that they help us appreciate cultural diversity and understand different perspectives. AI systems are often trained on data sets that reflect biases and prejudices, leading to discriminatory outcomes. By studying disciplines such as anthropology, linguistics, and religious studies, we can gain a better understanding of different cultures and bridge the gap between humans and machines.Ethical Decision-Making:Finally, humanities are essential in the age of artificial intelligence because they help us make ethical decisions about the use of technology. As AI systems become more advanced, they raise complex ethical dilemmas about privacy, autonomy, and equality. By studying disciplines such as ethics, law, and political science, we can develop the critical thinking skills needed to address these challenges and ensure that AI technologies are used for the greater good of humanity.Conclusion:In conclusion, humanities play a crucial role in the age of artificial intelligence by helping us understand human values, develop critical thinking and creativity, appreciate cultural diversity, and make ethical decisions. As we continue to advance in technology, it is essential that we do not neglect the study of humanities and recognize their importance in shaping a better future for humanity. By combining the insights of humanities with the capabilities of AI, we can create a more inclusive, ethical, and innovative society that benefits all of humanity.篇2With the rapid development of artificial intelligence (AI), the relevance of humanistic disciplines in the AI era has become increasingly important. While AI technology continues to advance and reshape various aspects of society, it is crucial for us to recognize the value and significance of humanistic studies in this digital age.First and foremost, humanistic disciplines such as literature, philosophy, history, and art play a key role in shaping our understanding of ethics and morality in the age of AI. As AI systems become more sophisticated and autonomous, they raise complex ethical questions that require careful consideration. For instance, the development of autonomous vehicles raises ethical dilemmas regarding decision-making in life-or-death situations. Humanistic studies provide us with the critical thinking skills and ethical frameworks needed to address such dilemmas and ensure that AI is used responsibly and ethically.In addition, humanistic disciplines help us to understand and critique the social and cultural implications of AI technology. For example, the increasing use of AI in algorithmic decision-making processes has raised concerns about bias and discrimination. By studying history and sociology, we can better understand the historical and cultural contexts that shape the development anddeployment of AI technology. Humanistic studies also help us to recognize and challenge the biases that may be embedded in AI algorithms, ensuring that technology is used in a way that promotes equity and social justice.Furthermore, humanistic disciplines provide us with the skills and knowledge needed to adapt to the rapid changes brought about by AI technology. As AI continues to automate routine tasks and reshape industries, it is essential for individuals to develop skills such as creativity, critical thinking, and communication. These skills are not only valuable in navigating the complexities of the digital age but also in fostering innovation and entrepreneurship. Humanistic studies help us to cultivate these skills and prepare us for the challenges and opportunities presented by AI technology.Moreover, humanistic disciplines enrich our lives and broaden our perspectives in an increasingly tech-driven world. In a society where AI is becoming more prevalent, it is easy to become disconnected from our humanity and lose sight of what it means to be human. Humanistic studies remind us of the importance of empathy, creativity, and imagination in our personal and professional lives. Literature, art, and philosophyoffer us a space for reflection and exploration, allowing us to engage with the profound questions that define our existence.In conclusion, humanistic disciplines are more relevant than ever in the AI era. As AI technology continues to advance and transform our world, it is essential for us to recognize the value of humanistic studies in fostering ethical awareness, critical thinking, cultural literacy, and personal growth. By embracing humanistic disciplines, we can navigate the complexities of the digital age with wisdom and compassion, ensuring that AI technology serves humanity rather than diminishes it.篇3The Importance of Humanities in the Age of Artificial IntelligenceIntroductionAs we enter the age of artificial intelligence, the importance of humanities disciplines such as literature, philosophy, history, and art has become more prominent than ever before. While technology continues to advance at a rapid pace, it is crucial to remember the value of humanistic studies in shaping our future society. In this essay, we will explore the significance of humanities in the age of artificial intelligence, highlighting theirrole in fostering critical thinking, creativity, empathy, and ethical decision-making.Fostering Critical Thinking and CreativityHumanities disciplines are essential in cultivating critical thinking skills and creativity among individuals. Literature, for example, encourages readers to analyze and interpret complex narratives, challenging them to think critically about the human experience. Philosophy prompts individuals to question the underlying assumptions and beliefs that govern society, promoting a deeper understanding of ethical dilemmas and moral reasoning. Artistic expression, on the other hand, fosters creativity by encouraging individuals to explore different perspectives and emotions through various mediums.In the age of artificial intelligence, where algorithms and automation are increasingly prevalent, the ability to think critically and creatively is more valuable than ever. Humanities disciplines provide a foundation for developing these skills, enabling individuals to adapt to changing circumstances and navigate the complexities of a rapidly evolving world.Promoting Empathy and UnderstandingOne of the most significant contributions of humanities disciplines is their role in promoting empathy and understanding among individuals. Literature, for example, allows readers to immerse themselves in different worlds and perspectives, fostering empathy for characters who may be vastly different from themselves. History provides a lens through which to understand the experiences and struggles of past generations, promoting a greater sense of empathy for those who came before us. Art encourages individuals to see the world through different eyes, fostering a deeper appreciation for diversity and inclusion.In a world where artificial intelligence is increasingly being used to automate processes and make decisions, the ability to empathize with others and understand their perspectives is essential. Humanities disciplines play a crucial role in fostering these qualities, enabling individuals to engage with complex issues and make more informed decisions that consider the needs and experiences of others.Encouraging Ethical Decision-MakingEthics and moral reasoning are central to the study of humanities disciplines, such as philosophy and literature. These disciplines challenge individuals to consider the ethicalimplications of their actions and decisions, prompting them to reflect on the consequences of their choices for themselves and others. By engaging with ethical questions and dilemmas, individuals develop a deeper understanding of their values and beliefs, which can guide them in making more ethical decisions in their personal and professional lives.In the age of artificial intelligence, where technology is increasingly being used to automate decision-making processes, the importance of ethical considerations cannot be overstated. Humanities disciplines provide a foundation for grappling with ethical dilemmas and navigating complex moral questions, enabling individuals to make decisions that uphold their values and principles in the face of technological advancements.ConclusionIn conclusion, humanities disciplines play a critical role in the age of artificial intelligence, shaping our future society in profound ways. By fostering critical thinking, creativity, empathy, and ethical decision-making, these disciplines enable individuals to engage with the complexities of the modern world and navigate the challenges posed by technological advancements. As we continue to embrace the promises and possibilities of artificial intelligence, it is essential to recognize the enduringvalue of humanities disciplines in shaping a more compassionate, informed, and ethical society.。
组织行为学词汇
组织行为学 (Organizational Behavior)本部分词汇包含以下内容：1、个体心理与行为2、人际关系与集体行为3、领导行为与领导理论4、激励理论5、组织行为理论6、组织改革与发展affiliated manager关系型管理者affiliation need归属需要action research行为研究action skill行为技巧action training行为培训action learning行为教育activity analysis行为剖析activity chart行为图activity learning行为教育activity teaching行为培训attainment test成就性测试attitude scales态度等级authoritarian theory威望领导理论autocratic control专利控制autonomous work group 独立工作小组abnormal behavior变态行为behavior contrast行为差别behavior objective行为目标bargaining range谈判范围behaviorism 行为主义behavior criterion行为标准behavior determinant重点行为behavior dynamic行为驱动力behavior extrinsic 外显行为behavior field 行为范围behavior genetics 行为遗传学behavior intrinsic 内内行为behavior method 行为方法behavior molar 行为束behavior object 行为分子behavior overt 行为目标behavior pattern 公然行为behavior rating 行为模式behavior repertoires 行为情节behavior sampling 行为抽样behavior segment 行为成分behavior shaping 行为塑造behavior space 行为空间behavior spontaneous 自然行为behavior stream 行为流behavior therapy 行为疗法behavior verbal 语言行为behavior disorders 行为杂乱collective bargaining 集体谈判conformer 听从者consultative management 咨询型管理dissatisfeters 不满意要素expectancy theory 希望理论expectancy chart 希望图group dynamic 集体驱动力group incentive 集体激励group problem-solving 集体商讨group decision-making 集体决议Hezzberg`s theory 赫茨伯格的双要素理论hygiene 保健要素integrated manager 整合型管理者individual psychology 个体心理学individual response 个体反响individual test 个别测试individuality graphic 字迹个性indifferent stimulus 差别性刺激ink plot test 墨迹测试job spoiler 损坏工作者maintenance factor 保健要素Maslow`s theory of needs 马斯洛需求理论motivator 激励要素role conflict 角色矛盾role perception 角色知觉satisfiers 满意要素shared value 共同价值观support leadship 支持型领导sub-culture 亚文化task-based participation 工作参加Aability能力absenteeism 旷工、少勤acceptance theory of authority 威望接受论accommodating肯通融的achievement motivation 成就动机achievement need 成就需要achievement/power theory成就/权益理论action research 行为研究affective component of an attitude 态度的感情成分affiliation need 亲和需要alarm stage 惊慌阶段alienation离异allocative values分派价值arbitrator仲裁者assertive communication style 坚决的交流风格assessment center 评论中心attitude态度attitude survey 态度检查attribution 归因attribution theory of leadership 领导的归因理论attributional bias 归因偏见attributional model 归因模型authority 威望、权益autocratic model 专制型autonomy自主权avoiding 回避Bbehavior modeling 行为模型behavior modification 行为校订behavioral bias 行为误差behavioral component of an attitude 态度的行为成分behavior theories of leadership 领导的行为理论behaviorally anchored rating scales 行为定位评定量表benevolent autocrat 仁爱的专制者bias-free organization 无偏见组织bias-reduction training 降低偏见训练biofeedback 生物反应biographical characteristics 生物特点board representatives 董事会代表body language 体态语言boundary roles 界限角色boundary spanners 跨界限者boundaryless organization 无界限组织brainstorming脑筋风暴法；脑力激荡bureaucracy 科层构造burnout 身心崩溃bystander effect旁观者效应Ccafeteria benefits 自助餐式福利career 职业career anchors 职业定位career stage 职业阶段career success 职业成功centralization 集权chain of command 指挥链chain-reaction effect 连锁反响效应change改革change agent 改革代理人channel 渠道channel richness渠道丰富化charisma 领导魅力；领导者的超常魅力charismatic leadership 拥有超常魅力的领导者chief executive officer(CEO) 首席履行官classical conditioning 经典条件反射cliques 小公司closed-end questions 关闭式问题cluster chain 群族链clusters 群族coalitions 结合体coercive power 强迫权codetermination 共同决定cognitive component of an attitude 态度的认知成分cognitive conflict 认知矛盾cognitive decision style model 认知决议方式模型cognitive dissonance 认知不协调；认知失调cognitive evaluation theory 认知评论理论cognitive resource theory认知资源理论cognitive theories of motivation 激励的认知理论cohesiveness 内聚力；凝集力collaborating 合作collectivism 集体主义collegial model 学院模型command group指挥小组；命令集体committee 委员会communication 交流communication climate交流氛围communication loop交流环communication media 交流媒介communication overload交流超负荷communication process交流过程communication networks交流网络comparable worth 比较价值competence技术complementary transaction 互补的行为交易complete pay program 完好的酬劳方案compromising 妥协conceptual skills看法剖析技术conciliator调解者conflict矛盾conflict management矛盾管理conflict process矛盾过程conflict reaction style矛盾反响方式conflict resolution矛盾的解决conflict stage 矛盾阶段conformity从众consideration体谅constraint克制力；限制consultant as negotiator作为谈判者的顾问consultative management顾问管理content theories of motivation激励的内容理论contingency approach to O.B组织行为学的权变趋势；思路contingency model of leadership领导的权变模型contingency organizational design权变的组织设计contrast effects对照效应controlling控制cooptation归并；兼并core dimensions of jobs工作的中心纬度core values中心价值观corrective discipline 修正性处罚cost-benefit analysis 成本－利润剖析cost-minimization strategy 成本减少战略cost-reward comparison 成本－酬劳比较counseling 咨询credibility gap 信度差距critical incidents 重点事件cross-communication 交错交流cross-cultural communication 跨文化交流cross-function teams 跨部门团队crossed transaction 交错交流cultural distance 文化差别cultural diversity 文化多样性cultural empathy 文化移入cultural separatism 文化隔绝主义cultural shook 文化冲击culture 文化custodial m 管理模型D decentralization 分权decisions 决议decoding 译码；解码defensive behaviors 自卫行为deferred judgement 延缓的判断delegating style 受权方式delegation 受权dephi group 德尔菲小组dephi technique 德尔菲法demands需要departmentalism 部门化dependency附属；依靠dependent variables 因变量development level 发展水平development-oriented leader 以发展为导向的领导dialectic decision method 辨证的决议方法dictionary technique 词典式方法directive counseling 指导性咨询discharge 辞退；开释discipline 处罚；训导discrimination 鄙视distinctive competencies 差别性技术distributive bargaining 分派谈判distributive justice 分派公正dominant culture 主流文化double-loop learning 双环学习downward communication 下行交流downward feedback 下行反应dual-career couples 双员时间妇driving forces 推进力dysfunctional conflict 功能失态性矛盾Eencoding 编码encounter group 交朋友小组encounter stage 正视阶段enriched sociotechnical work system 丰富化的社会技术工作环境environment 环境Equal Employment Opportunity(EEO) 同等工作时机Equal Employment OpportunityCommission(EEOC) 同等工作时机委员会equal employment opportunity laws 同等工作时机法equity sensitivity 公正敏感性equity theory 公正理论ERG theory ERG理论esteem needs 尊敬需要ethical dilemma 道德窘境ethical imperative道德规范ethical leadership道德领导ethnocentrism种族中心主义exchange theory 互换理论exhaustion stage疲倦阶段existence needs生计需要expectancy 希望expert manager 希望理论expert power 专家管理者external locus of control专家权益externals外控者Fface-to-face communication 当面的交流family-friendly organizations 家庭式友善组织feedback 反应feedback loop 反应环feedback-seeking behavior 追求反应行为Fiedler contingency model 费德勒权变模型filtering 过滤first-order change 第一层次改革fixed-interval reinforcement 固定间隔加强fixed-ratio reinforcement 固定比率加强formal group 正式集体formal network 正式网络formalization 正规化formalization stage 正规化阶段forming 形成four-step decision-making process 四步决议过程friendship group 友情集体frustration 挫折full-disclosure information systems 完好开放的信息系统functional action 功能性行为functional conflict 功能性矛盾functionally illiterate半文盲fundamental attribution error 基本的归因错误Ggainshareing 利润分享gainshareing plan 利润分享计划garbage can model 垃圾箱模型gender-biased attribution 性别偏见归因genetic testing 遗传测试geocentric organization 全世界性组织goal 目标goal displacement 改变目标goal setting 目标设置goal-setting theory 目标设置理论goals of organizational behavior 组织行为的目标Good Enough Theory of Promotion 荣膺的足够好理论graphic rating scales 图表评论量表grid OD 组织发展方格图group 集体group decision support system 集体决议支持系统group demography 集体人口统计group dynamics 集体动力group order ranking集体排序groupthink集体思想growth need 成长需要growth phase 成长阶段Hhalo effect晕轮效应hawthorne effect霍桑效应hierarchy of needs theory需要层次理论High Involvement Organizations(HIOs) 高参加组织higher-order needs 高层次需要homeostasis 自动均衡honesty tests 诚实测试horizontal cliques 水平集体horizontal conflict 水平矛盾horizontal distribution of authority 权益的水均分派hot-stove rule 热炉规则human relations 人际关系human relations view of conflict 矛盾的人际关系看法human skills 人际技术humanistic values 人本主义价值观hygiene factors 保健要素Iillegitimate political behavior 非法的政治行为imitation strategy 模拟战略implicit favorite model 隐含、内隐偏好模型implicit personality theory 人品理论impression management 印象管理incentives 刺激；诱因independent variables 自变量individual differences 个体差别individual ranking 个体排序法individualism 个人主义individualization 使具个人特点；个体化industrial psychology 工业心理学industrial subculture 工业亚文化informal group 非正式集体informal leaders 非正式领导informal network 非正式网络informal organization 非正式组织information-based power 信息权information technology 信息技术innovation 创新；改革institutional power 制度化权益institutional team 制度化团队institutionalization 制度化instrumental values 工具性价值观integrative bargaining 综合谈判Integrative Decision Method(IDM) 综合决议法integrity 正直intellectual ability 智能interaction 互相作用interacting groups 互相作用集体interactionist view of conflict 矛盾的互相作用看法interest group 利益集体intergroup conflict 集体间矛盾intergroup development 集体间发展intermittent reinforcement 中断加强internal locus of control 内部控制点internals 内控者interorganizational conflict 组织间矛盾interpersonal conflict 个人间矛盾intersender role conflict 发送者之间的角色矛盾intragroup conflict 集体内矛盾intramanagement communication 管理公司内交流intraorganizational conflict 组织内矛盾intrapersonal conflict 个人内部矛盾intuitive decision making 直觉决议isolates 离异者Llabor union 工会laboratory training 实验室培训laissez-faire leadership 听任自流的领导latent conflict 潜伏矛盾lateral communication 横向交流law of diminishing returns 边沿效益递减规律law of effect 成效律Leadership Effectiveness AndDescription(LEAD) 领导有效性与说明 Leader-Member exchange(LME) theory 领导－员工交流理论leader-member relations 领导－员工关系leader-participation model领导参加模型leader-position power 领导的职位权益leadership 领导leadership style 领导方式leading 领导learning 学习learning organization 学习组织learning theory 学习理论Least-Preferred Co-worker(LPC) questionnaire 最难共事者问卷legitimate political 合法的政治行为legitimate power 合法权益leniency error 宽松错误leveling effect 水平效应liaisons 联系者linking pin 连结点locus of control 控制点loose rate 标准宽松lower-order needs 低层次需要MMachiavellianism 马基雅维里主义 Management ByObjectives(MBO) 目标管理 Management By WalkingAround(MBWA)走动式管理 managerial grid 管理方格图managerial philosophies管理哲学managers管理者；经理manifest conflict matrix organization matrix structure显性矛盾矩阵组织矩阵构造Meclelland`s theory of needs麦克利兰的需求理论mechanistic model机械模型mechanistic organizations机械组织meditation调解mediator 调解者mentor 指导者message信息metamorphosis stage 质变阶段middle management communication 中层管理委员会models of organizational behavior 组织行为模型morale 士气；精神Motivating Potential Score(MPS) 激励的潜伏分数motivation 激励；动机motivation-hygiene theory 激励－保健理论Motivation/Results(M/R) model 激励 / 成就模型motivational factors 激励要素motivational patterns 激励种类multinational corporations 跨文化管理矩阵multiple choice 多项选择multiple management 多层管理multiprofessional employees 多专业员工mutual interest 互利Nnatural work team自然工作组need需要needs theories需求理论negative leadership悲观领导negative performance attribution 悲观绩效归因negative reinforcement 负加强neglect 忽略；大意negotiation谈判；磋商network 网络neurotic organization neurotic personalities 机能不健全组织不健全人品nominal group 名义集体Nominal Group Technique(NGT) 名义集体法nondirective counseling nonverbal communication 非指导性咨询非语言交流norm惯例；规范；定额；均匀数norming 规范化norms of reciprocity objective career success 交流规则客观的职业成功ombudsperson信息收集员one-way communication 单向交流open-end questions开放式问题open self 开放的自我open system 开放系统openness开放operant conditioning 操作性条件反射optimizing model 最优化模型organic organizations 有机组织organization 组织organizational environment model 组织 / 环境模型Organizational Behavior(OB) 组织行为Organizational Behavior Modification(OB Mod) 组织行为校订organization-based influence 组织影响力organizational culture 组织文化organizational citizens 组织公民organizational design 组织设计organizational development 组织发展organizational entry 组织进入Organizational Fairness Questionnaire 组织公正性检盘问卷organizational learning curve for change 组织改革的学习曲线organizational politics 组织政治organizational socialization 组织社会化organizational structure 组织构造organizational life cycle 组织生命周期organizing 组织overparticipation过分参加overt behavior公然行为Ppaired comparison 成对照较法paper-and-pencil tests 纸笔测试participation 参加participative counseling 参加式咨询participative leader 参加式领导者participative management 参加式管理path-goal theory 门路－目标理论perceived conflict 可察觉的矛盾perceived control 可察觉的控制perception 知觉perceptual biases 知觉偏见perceptual error 知觉错误performance appraisal 绩效评估performance feedback 绩效反应performance monitoring 绩效监控performance-outcome expectancies 绩效－产出希望performance-satisfaction-effort loop 绩效－满意－努力环performing 运作personal-based influence 个人影响力personal power 个人权益personality 个性；人品personality-job fit theory 个性－工作适应论personality traits 人品特质philosophy of O.B. 组织行为的哲学physical ability 体能physical withdrawal 身体退却piece rate 计件工价piece-rate pay plans 计件薪资计划piecework system 计件工作系统planned change 有计划的改革polarization 两极分化political behavior 政治行为political power 政治权益politics 政治polygraph 测谎器positive leadership 踊跃的领导positive reinforcement 正加强position power 职位权益power权益power distance 权益距离power need 权益需要power tactics 权益策略prearrival stage 提早进入阶段prejudice 偏见；偏见preventive discipline 预防举措problem-solving teams 问题解决小组procedural justice 程序公正性procedure 程序process consultation 过程咨询process value analysis 过程价值剖析production-oriented leader 以生产导向的领导productivity 生产力profit-sharing plan 利润分享计划projection 投射protected group 被保护集体protege 被保护者psychological career success 心理的职业成功psychological costs 心理成本；精神成本psychological contract 心理契约psychological distance 心理距离psychological reactions 心理反响psychological stress evaluator 心理压力丈量器psychological support 心理支持psychological withdrawal 心理退却punishment power 处罚权Punctuated-Equilibrium model 中断－均衡模型Q quality circles质量环qualify of life生活质量Qualify of Work Life(QWL) qualify of work performance quantity of life生活数目工作生活质量工作绩效质量Rrandom cliques随机集体rationality合理化reactive反响的realistic job previews实质的工作预演reference group参照集体reciprocal interdependence互惠的互相依靠reengineering 再造工程；重整refreezing 从头冻结referent power 参照权reinforcement 加强reinforcement theory 加强理论reinforcement schedule 加强程序relatedness need 互相关系需要reliability 信度research 研究；检查resistance to change 改革阻力restraining force 克制力retraining 再培训reverse cultural shock 反向的文化冲击reward power 奖赏权rights of privacy 隐私权risky shift 冒险的转变rituals 老例robotics 机器人学role 角色role ambiguity 角色不清role conflict 角色矛盾role expectations 角色希望role identity 角色一致role models 角色模型role playing 角色饰演role pressure 角色压力role set 角色群role perceptions 角色知觉role overload 角色超荷Sscalar process 分级过程scanlon plan 史甘农计划second-order change 第二层次的改革selective perception 选择性知觉self-actualization 自我实现self-appraisal 自我评估self-censorship 自我检查self-efficacy 自我效能self-esteem 自尊self-fulfilling prophecy 自我实现预知self-leadership 自我领导self-managing teams 自我管理小组self-monitoring 自我监控self-perception theory 自我知觉理论self-serving bias 利己偏见semantic barriers 语义阻碍semantics 语义学sensitivity training 敏感性训练sensor-type personality 传感器型个性sequential interdependence 次序的互相依靠sexual harassment 性骚扰shaping behavior 行为塑造shared value 共同价值观similarity error 相像形错误simple structure 简单构造simulations 模拟single-loop learning单环学习 situational leadership theory领导的情境理论 skill-based pay 技术薪资skill variety 技术多样化social comparison theory社会比较论 social cues 社会示意social equilibrium 社会均衡social facilitation 社会促使social information-processing model社会信息加工模型 social leader 社会领导者social-learning theory社会学习理论 social network 社会网络social network analysis社会网络剖析 Social Readjustment Rating Scale社会再适应评估计表 social responsibility社会责任 social structure 社会构造social support 社会支持social system 社会系统socialization 社会化socioeconomic model of decision making 决议的社会经济模型 sociogram 社会成员关系图sociometry 社会丈量学sociotechnical systems 社会技术系统 span of control 控制幅度 specification 分工；规范 stages of moral development stages of team development stability phase 稳固阶段 道德发展阶段 团队发展阶段starsstatus 明星人物 地位status deprivation地位剥夺status symbols地位象征stereotyping刻板印象storming 风暴阶段stress 压力stress threshold 压力阀限stressors 施压者substitutes for leadership 领导的代替物suggestion programs 建议给偿计划super leaders 超级领导者super ordinate goal 超级目标supportive approach to O.B. 组织行为学的支持趋势supportive model 支持模型surface agenda 正式日程surveillance devices 监督装置survey feedback 检查反应synergy 共同作用systematic study 系统研究Ttardiness 迟到task group 任务集体task leader 任务主管task significance 任务重要性task structure 任务构造task team 任务小组；任务团队task uncertainty 任务不确立性team building 团队建设team structure 团队构造team work 配合；团队工作technical skills 技术技术technology 技术technophobia 技术惊慌traditional view of conflict 矛盾的传统看法training multiplier effect 培训的乘数效应traits theories of leadership 领导特质理论Transactional Analysis(TA) 社会交往剖析transactional leaders 社会交往领导transcultural employees 多文化适应型员工transfer of training 培训迁徙triple-reward system 三级奖赏制度trust 相信two-factor model of motivation 奖赏的双要素理论type A people A 型人type B people B 型人two-way communication 双向交流Uuncertain avoidance 不确立性防止under participation 过少参加unfreezing 解冻unity of command 一致指挥upward feedback 上行反应upward communication 上行交流Vvalence 效价validity效度value premises价值基础value system 价值系统values 价值观variable-pay programs可变酬劳计划variable-interval reinforcement variable-ratio reinforcement vertical cliques垂直集体vertical conflict垂直矛盾vertical distribution of authority可变间隔加强可变比率加强权益的垂直分派Wwage incentive薪资激励work change 工作变换work councils工作委员会work ethic 工作伦理work force diversity 劳动力的多样化work group 工作集体work specialization 工作专业化written communication 书面交流whistle-blowers打口哨者；宣泄不满者X “X” chart“X”图。
护理伦理学名词解释
护理伦理学名词解释护理伦理学（nursing ethics）是指涉及护理实践中的伦理问题和原则的研究领域。
下面是一些护理伦理学的常见名词解释：1. 伦理学（ethics）：研究个人、团体或社会行为的道德标准和原则的学科。
2. 伦理原则（ethical principles）：用于指导护理实践中决策和行动的基本准则，例如尊重人的尊严、公正、同情心和谨慎。
3. 护理伦理（nursing ethics）：涉及护理职业实践中的伦理问题和原则的研究领域，包括护士与患者之间的关系、隐私权、病人权利和道德决策等。
4. 职业伦理（professional ethics）：指涉及职业实践中的伦理问题和原则，包括护理职业所面对的伦理挑战和对患者权益的尊重。
5. 自主权（autonomy）：指个体自行做出决策和行动的能力，包括患者在医疗决策中的自主权，以及护士在提供护理时尊重患者自主权的原则。
6. 患者权利（patient rights）：患者在医疗过程中拥有的基本权益，包括自主决策、知情同意、隐私保护、尊重和公正等。
7. 道德决策（ethical decision-making）：在伦理困境中作出决策的过程，涉及权衡不同的伦理原则和价值观，确定最合适的行动方案。
8. 伦理审查（ethical review）：对护理实践中遇到的伦理问题进行评估和解决的过程，通常涉及多学科的团队合作和借助伦理委员会等机构的支持。
9. 患者机密性（patient confidentiality）：指护士在处理患者个人信息时需要保护患者隐私权的原则，包括不泄露患者信息和限制信息的使用范围。
10. 职业责任（professional responsibility）：指护士对患者和职业所承担的义务和责任，包括提供高质量的护理、维护患者权益和遵守伦理准则等。
以上是一些护理伦理学的常见名词解释，这些概念对于护理实践中的伦理决策和道德选择至关重要，有助于护士提供安全、负责和道德的护理服务。
伦理决策的概念名词解释
伦理决策的概念名词解释伦理决策（Ethical Decision Making）是指在特定伦理问题和道德困境中，个人或组织基于道德原则和价值观做出的决策过程。
伦理决策的目的是准确、公正地评估各种选择，并采取符合伦理准则和伦理原则的行动。
首先，伦理决策的核心是道德原则和价值观。
道德原则是根据道德观念和伦理标准所建立的行为准则。
常见的道德原则包括公正、诚实、尊重、负责任和利益最大化等。
这些原则在伦理决策中起到指导作用，帮助人们评估和选择最佳行为。
而个人或组织的价值观则是根据其文化、教育、经验等因素所形成的信仰和规范，这些价值观在伦理决策中对行为的倾向产生重要影响。
其次，伦理决策是基于伦理准则和伦理原则的。
伦理准则是对于特定领域或行业所制定的指导行为的原则，比如医学伦理准则、商业伦理准则、教育伦理准则等。
这些准则帮助人们在特定的环境中做出符合伦理要求的决策。
伦理原则则是一般性的行为规范，如尊重他人的权益、保护弱者、提供真实信息等。
基于这些准则和原则，个人或组织可以在伦理困境中进行评估和选择。
伦理决策的过程可以包括以下几个阶段。
首先是识别伦理问题，也就是确定目标和价值观中的冲突点。
在这一阶段，个体或组织需要准确理解伦理困境的本质和相关信息。
其次是分析伦理困境，评估各种行为选择的优劣势。
这一阶段需要综合考虑不同的道德原则和价值观，推断和预测选择的后果。
然后是做出决策并实施，从伦理角度选择一个最佳行为，并采取相应的行动。
最后是反思和评估，对决策结果进行回顾和分析，以及衡量决策是否符合伦理要求和预期。
然而，伦理决策并非是一种简单的机械过程，而是受到个体和环境因素的影响。
个体因素包括个人的道德判断、知识水平、经验和情感等，而环境因素则包括社会文化、组织规范和法律等。
这些因素在伦理决策中相互交织，使得决策的结果是复杂且多变的。
因此，伦理决策是一个需要优化和发展的过程。
个人和组织可以通过道德教育和培训来提高伦理决策能力，加强对道德原则和伦理准则的理解和应用。
如何做一个有责任感的人英语作文
如何做一个有责任感的人英语作文Cultivating the Virtue of Responsibility.In the tapestry of human virtues, responsibility stands out as an indispensable thread, weaving together our actions, decisions, and impact on the world around us. Itis a multifaceted concept that encompasses both individual and collective accountability, empowering us to shape our destinies while contributing to the greater good.At its core, responsibility is the recognition that our choices have consequences, both intended and unintended. It requires us to think critically about the potential effects of our actions and to make decisions that align with our values and the interests of others. Whether it is in our personal lives, professional endeavors, or civic duties, embracing responsibility means taking ownership of our choices and actions.Cultivating the virtue of responsibility is a lifelongendeavor that demands self-reflection, discipline, and a commitment to ethical behavior. Here are some key steps to becoming a more responsible individual:1. Self-Awareness and Accountability.The foundation of responsibility lies in self-awareness. This involves understanding our own strengths, weaknesses, and motivations. It means being honest with ourselves about our actions and their potential impact on others. Accountability is essential for personal growth and development. When we take responsibility for our mistakes, we learn from them and improve our decision-makingabilities.2. Setting Goals and Making Commitments.Responsibility requires us to establish clear goals and commit to fulfilling them. Whether it is a personal goal, such as completing a degree or starting a new hobby, or a professional commitment, such as meeting deadlines or completing projects, setting realistic goals and stickingto them is a testament to our responsible nature.3. Prioritizing and Managing Time Effectively.Time management is a crucial aspect of responsibility. It involves prioritizing tasks and allocating our time wisely to ensure that we meet our obligations. Effective time management helps us stay organized, reduce stress, and achieve our goals.4. Respecting Others and Their Boundaries.Responsibility extends beyond our own actions and encompasses our interactions with others. It requires us to respect the rights, opinions, and boundaries of others. This means being considerate, listening attentively, and treating others with dignity and respect.5. Taking Initiative and Embracing Challenges.Responsible individuals are proactive and takeinitiative in their personal and professional lives. Theyare not afraid to step outside of their comfort zones and embrace new challenges. They recognize that growth and development often come through stepping into the unknown and pushing themselves to achieve more.6. Being Reliable and Trustworthy.Responsibility is closely linked to reliability and trustworthiness. When others can depend on us to keep our promises and fulfill our obligations, they develop a sense of trust and respect for us. Reliability is essential for building strong relationships and maintaining a reputation of integrity.7. Ethical Decision-Making.Responsibility demands that we make ethical decisions, even in the face of adversity or temptation. It involves considering the long-term consequences of our actions and adhering to our moral principles. Ethical decision-making helps us maintain our integrity and contribute positively to our communities.8. Giving Back to Society.A sense of responsibility extends beyond our personal lives to encompass our role in society. Responsiblecitizens actively participate in their communities, volunteering their time, supporting charitable organizations, and advocating for causes that they believe in. Giving back to society not only benefits others but also enriches our own lives and fosters a sense of purpose.9. Recognizing Interdependence.Responsibility acknowledges the interconnectedness of our lives and the interdependence of individuals and communities. We are all part of a larger system, and our actions have the potential to impact others, both near and far. Embracing this sense of interdependence fosters compassion, cooperation, and a desire to make a positive contribution to the world.Cultivating the virtue of responsibility is not withoutits challenges. It requires us to navigate complex situations, balance competing interests, and make difficult choices. However, the rewards of responsibility are immense. It empowers us, fosters trust and respect, and enables usto live a life of meaning and purpose. By embracing responsibility in all aspects of our lives, we not only become better individuals but also contribute to a more just, equitable, and sustainable world for all.。
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Case study
Use the AAA model to analyse the case
And determine what Davis should do
The businel Reports
GPFR provide information about a reporting entity to a wide range of parties who are unable to demand information specifically tailored to their individual requirements
cont
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100.18 Where a matter involves a conflict with, or within, an organisation, a Member should also consider consulting with those charged with governance of the organisation, such as the board of directors or the audit committee. 100.19 It may be in the best interests of the Member to document the substance of the issue and details of any discussions held or decisions taken, concerning that issue. 100.20 If a significant conflict cannot be resolved, a Member may wish to obtain professional advice from the relevant professional body or legal advisors, and thereby obtain guidance on ethical issues without breaching confidentiality. For example, a Member may have encountered a fraud, the reporting of which could breach the Member's responsibility to respect confidentiality. The Member should consider obtaining legal advice to determine whether there is a requirement to report. 100.21 If, after exhausting all relevant possibilities, the ethical conflict remains unresolved, a Member should, where possible, refuse to remain associated with the matter creating the conflict. The Member may determine that, in the circumstances, it is appropriate to withdraw from the Engagement Team or specific assignment, or to resign altogether from the Engagement, the Firm or the employing organisation.
7 Steps
6. What are the consequence of each
possible course of action?
Each course of action should be evaluated in respect to its norms, principles and values and from both short and long tem perspectives & positive and negative consequences
7 Steps
1. What are the facts of the case? 2. What are the ethical issues?
1. Identify the primary stakeholders 2. Define the ethical issues
3. What are the norms, principles & values
Ethical Decision Making Model
Applying Ethical Decision Making models
American Accounting Association model (AAA) 7 step model PurposePurpose- to develop a systematic approach to making decisions that can be used in any situation having ethical implications
7 Steps
4. What are the alternative courses of
action? 5. What is the best course of action that is step 3?
Is there any norm, principle or value so persuasive that a resolution is obvious. For example, protecting the environment is important to avoid permanent damage and respect the rights of the communities who rely on the environment for survival
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants
Ethical conflict resolution 100.16 In evaluating compliance with the fundamental principles, a Member may be required to resolve a conflict in the application of fundamental principles. 100.17 When initiating either a formal or informal conflict resolution process, a Member should consider the following, either individually or together with others, as part of the resolution process: (a) Relevant facts; (b) Ethical issues involved; (c) Fundamental principles related to the matter in question, including the identification of threats to those principles; (d) Established internal procedures which might represent safeguards against the identified threats; and (e) Alternative courses of action. Having considered these issues, a Member should determine the appropriate course of action that is consistent with the fundamental principles identified. The Member should also weigh the consequences of each possible course of action. If the matter remains unresolved, the Member should consult with other appropriate persons within the Firm or employing organisation for help in obtaining resolution
7. What is the decision?
Joint code of Professional Conduct
Guidance note 1 and Sections 100.16 to 100.21 contain steps for Ethical conflict resolution similar to those outlined in the AAA model however the focus is more on the fundamental principles of professional conduct, threats & safeguards as outlined in the Joint code of Professional Conduct It outline 5 steps that should be considered Relevant facts Ethical issues Fundamental principles related to the matter in question, including the identification of threats to those principles Establish internal procedures which might represent safeguards against the identified threats; and Alternative course of action