托福TOFEL考试阅读背景知识(三)
托福阅读中常考背景解释总结
托福阅读中常考背景解释总结辽阔的海洋既是一个硕大无比的储热库，它大量地吸收着太阳能；同时它又是一台极其巨大的调温机，随时都在调节着海洋的表面和深层的水温。
海洋中上下层水温的差异蕴藏着一定的'能量，专家们称之为海水温差能，也叫做海洋热能。
而这种海水温差能可以用来进行发电，人们把这种发电方式叫做海水温差发电。
早在本世纪20年代，科学家们就开始着手研究试验海水温差发电的方法。
1926年，法国物理学家G·克劳德进行了海水温差发电的小型试验。
他在烧瓶A里加入28℃的温水（这相当于海水表层的水温）；连接在另一端烧瓶B里放入冰块，并保持0℃水温（以代表海洋深层的水温）。
用真空泵将A烧瓶内的空气抽出（抽到压力低到每平方厘米0。
038）。
由于液体的沸点是随着加在液面上压力的减小而降低的，所以在此低压下，足以使得烧瓶中28℃的水沸腾起来。
要是能够使烧瓶内的真空度进一步提高，也就是使烧瓶内的压力变得更低，那么烧瓶内的温水就会提前沸腾而迅速蒸发。
这样，相对于烧瓶B内0℃的冰块，就产生了以水蒸汽压差为主的压力差。
于是，A烧瓶内蒸发的水蒸汽通过一个喷嘴喷出，推动涡轮发电机组进行发电。
克劳德试验成功以后，于1929年在古巴建造了一套专门进行海水温差发电的实验装置。
他用一根直径2米的铜管，在距离海岸2000米处，从 650米的深海中汲取冷海水。
当温海水的温度为27。
5℃而冷海水的温度为13℃时，其发电功率为22千瓦。
然而，他用水泵抽取冷海水时所消耗的功率却达 80千瓦。
这岂不是得不偿失吗？实际上不然，克劳德的这套实验装置的发电潜力并没有得到充分发挥，按计算其发电功率可达220千瓦。
但不管怎样，克劳德的实验表明：利用海水的温差来进行发电，在技术上是可行的。
现在的新型海水温差发电装置，是首先把海水引入太阳能加温池，将海水加温到45～60℃（有的可高达90℃），然后再将温海水引进保持真空的某一空间，让它蒸发，借助于水蒸汽来推动汽轮发电机组进行发电。
TOEFL阅读背景知识汇总
TOEFL阅读背景知识汇总新托福阅读背景知识：石化林石化林的一点背景知识石化林存在于美国亚利桑那州的彩绘沙漠内，是广泛散布的石化木和石化树的集聚地。
来自火山灰的氧化硅溶于水并且渗入树木中，变成晶体，此时石化木便形成了。
人们现在所见到的石化木的鲜艳色彩是由其他矿物质所添加而形成的。
有些石化木看上去仿佛曾被斧子砍断以用作木柴，但它们可能是因地震断裂而形成的。
玛瑙桥(玛瑙是一种半宝石)是跨越在一条12米宽的溪流上方的单根石化木。
它在跨度上没有支撑，但两端埋在砂岩中。
宝石收藏者过去曾对石化林造成极大的破坏，如今石化木已受法律的保护，无人能再取走哪一片石头。
土著美洲人有一个解释石化林如何产生的故事。
一位女神为生火做饭集木头，但木头很湿不能燃烧。
女神很生气，便对一些木头施以恶咒语，把这们变成了石头，不能再为任何人所使用。
新托福阅读背景知识：初识芭蕾初识芭蕾芭蕾(Ballet)一词，源自意大利文Ballard，意思就是跳舞，专指“足尖舞”，是欧洲古典舞蹈的一种形式。
在其发展过程中，因常以这种舞蹈来叙述表演故事，而逐渐形成了一种特殊的演出形式。
1772年，查理·狄德罗(Charles Diderot)在法国大百科全书中说:“芭蕾系用跳舞解释行动。
特别要求剧场性的赏心悦目。
”。
帕鲁金尼(Perugino)更详细地叙述说：“芭蕾是由一位编导，运用连带哑剧的一系列独舞和群众，附加音乐和布景，去表现一种诗情画意，或一连串概念，或一个故事化的情节。
”芭蕾这种舞蹈形式一直发展到今天，形成了完整的舞剧艺术。
对于中国观众来说，芭蕾并不陌生，尤其近些年来，芭蕾受到了越来越多的观注，一股“芭蕾热”已经在几座大城市悄然兴起。
1997年的“中国歌剧舞剧年”可以说是热闹非凡，各个中外演出团体为广大观众献上了一台又一台精彩的演出，真是“你方唱罢我登场”。
从通俗的《天鹅湖》到浪漫的《吉赛尔》，从“拉丁味”的《堂·吉诃德》到充满海新托福阅读背景知识：脚尖的艺术脚尖的艺术从运动的实际需要来看，脚尖鞋的发明能够将舞者身体的重量支撑“面”经过若干倍的缩小后变成支撑“点”，从而有效地减小与地面的摩擦力，提高旋转的速度，造成风驰电掣的效果、超凡脱俗的幻觉，进而更好地为仙凡之恋这类虚幻的芭蕾题材服务。
TOEFL新托福阅读背景知识精选5篇
TOEFL新托福阅读背景知识精选5篇为了让大家更好的预备托福考试，我给大家整理新托福阅读背景学问汇总，下面我就和大家共享，来观赏一下吧。
新托福阅读背景学问：太空城休士顿太空城休士顿休士顿是US的第五大都市，人类第一次登上月球的阿波罗飞船11号就在这里升空，因而使它也成为全球著名的城镇。
这一城镇是在1836年当德克萨斯州自墨西哥获得独立时，随之而诞生。
通往墨西哥湾的休士顿港，是US第三大港，在那里出口的棉花和石油产品，其数量占全美第一位。
自从US国家航空太空总署NASA在近效设置太空中心以来，休士顿正在连续不断地急速进展。
阿斯托洛圆顶运动场Astrodome耗资3，100万美元，于1965年兴建完成的这一运动场是目前世界上最大的一座室内运动场，内部装有冷暖气设备。
棒球、足球、骞马，以至于马戏团表演，都可以在室内进行。
紧邻的Afterworld是一个规模极大的消遣中心，游客可以欣赏欧洲各种村落的景色，也能够观赏各类表演。
圣哈新托古战场SanJacintoBattlefield1836年，休士顿将军为了争取德州独立，率军与墨军激战的地方。
现在已成为州立公园，纪念塔高达174公尺，可乘电梯登上塔项。
塔下是历史博物馆。
距休士顿市约26公里。
US航空太空总署太空飞行中心NASAMannedSpacecraft因阿波罗11号在此升空而全球著名。
US国家航空太空总署NASA于1961年设立于休士顿东南方45公里处的克利阿湖畔。
四周有GeneralElectric和InternationalBusinessMachines等重要的电子工业企业，是名符其实的航空太空科学中心。
展览馆Exhibit Hall的一号馆中，陈设着太空飞行员使用的器具、太空食物、太空船模型、月球上采集的岩石，对一般观光客公开。
太空飞行中心内部极为宽阔，可在进入中心的问讯处索取地图，备作参考。
太空中心内也有礼品店，出售太空船模型、月球石头模型，以及阿波罗帽等。
托福考试阅读背景知识(全)
托福考试阅读背景知识（下）第二次世界大战后第二次世界大战规模空前。
战争中发生的事，如600万犹太人被屠杀，原子弹在广岛爆炸，使美国知识分子感到震惊。
他们怀疑人性是否还有善良的一面，也感到人难以控制自己制造出来的巨大物质力量。
他们对文明与进步的信念发生了极大动摇。
50年代在“冷战”、麦卡锡主义和朝鲜战争的背景下，文坛趋于沉寂；印、70年代，经过越南战争、民权运动、学生运动、女权运动、水门案件，文坛活跃起来，出现了一批爱思索的作家。
在他们眼里，美国的社会变得十分复杂，价值观念混乱。
他们普遍感到不知怎样解释这样的现实，于是便通过怪诞、幻想、夸张的方式，再现生活中的混乱、恐怖和疯狂。
他们表现的是没有目标与方向的梦境世界他们讲的是支离破碎的故事，写的是“反英雄”、甚至是不完整的形象。
这个时期，文学作品中对**(包括同性爱)的描写也更为；露骨。
战争文学战后出现的第一股文学浪潮是战争小说。
其中较好的是梅勒的《裸者和死者》(1948)和詹姆斯·琼斯的《从这里到永恒》(1951)。
两部书的共同点是通过战争，写小兵、下级军官与军事机构的矛盾，即人的个性与扼杀个性的权力机构之间的冲突。
这些小说已经触及战后整个一代文学最突出的一个主题。
“怯懦的十年”50年代，右翼保守势力向30年代激进主义传统进攻，许多人由关心社会进步转而关心个人的私利。
这10年被称为“怯懦的十年”或“沉寂的十年”。
这期间，出现了一些作品，将资产阶级描绘成正面人物，鼓吹服从权威，如《穿灰法兰绒衣服的人》(1955)。
这类作品企图维护既定价值标准和现存社会秩序，很快就失去了影响。
另一方面，阿瑟·米勒等作家抵制麦卡锡主义，继续用作品抨击社会的不正义。
“垮掉的一代”50年代沉闷的政治空气使许多青年感到窒息，他们吸毒、群居，以颓唐、放纵的生活方式来表示自己的抗议。
其中有些人把这种生活与情绪写入文学作品，这便是“垮掉的一代”文学。
这种文学发展到60年代后，在国内民主运动高涨的背景下，增加了一些政治色彩。
托福阅读第三篇AgricultureintheLateOttomanEmpire
托福阅读 第三篇
3
The second engine driving agricultural output concerns cultivators' increasing payment of their taxes in cash rather than in kind (that is, in agricultural or other products).（并列上一段，第二点原因是人们更愿意用先进而不是物品来付税） Some historians have asserted that the increasing commitment to market agriculture was a product both of a mounting per capita tax burden and the state's growing preference for tax payments in cash rather than in kind.（递进，对于市场农业的押金一方面是由于单位资 产税的提高，二是国家更喜欢现金） In this view, such government decisions forced cultivators to grow crops for sale in order to pay their taxes. （递进，所以有些国家要求农民种庄稼然后买掉来付税）Thus, state policy is seen as the most important factor influencing the cultivators' shift from subsistence farming to market agriculture.（总结，这样看来，国家政策是导致农民从粮食生 产转变到市场农业的）
新托福TPO3阅读原文(三)The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems及译文
新托福TPO3阅读原文(三):The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems TPO-3-3：The Long-Term Stability of EcosystemsPlant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession”to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the mix of species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests.The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what “stability”means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity,by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle.Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes n ot from diversity but from the “patchiness”of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.译文：TPO-3-3 生态系统的长期稳定植物群体可以自由地聚集，它们特殊的结构取决于聚集区域的具体历史。
托福TPO9阅读真题（文本+答案+翻译）：Part3
托福TPO9阅读真题(文本+答案+翻译)：Part3托福TPO作为托福的模考工具，它的题目对于我们备考托福很有参考价值，为了帮助大家备考，下面小编给大家整理了托福TPO9阅读真题(文本+答案+翻译)：Part3，望喜欢！托福TPO9阅读文本：Part3The Arrival of Plant Life in HawaiiWhen the Hawaiian Islands emerged from the sea as volcanoes, starting about five million years ago, they were far removed from other landmasses. Then, as blazing sunshine alternated with drenching rains, the harsh, barren surfaces of the black rocks slowly began to soften. Winds brought a variety of life-forms.Spores light enough to float on the breezes were carried thousands of miles from more ancient lands and deposited at random across the bare mountain flanks. A few of these spores found a toehold on the dark, forbidding rocks and grew and began to work their transformation upon the land. Lichens were probably the first successful flora. These are not single individual plants; each one is a symbiotic combination of an alga and a fungus. The algae capture the sun's energy by photosynthesis and store it in organic molecules. The fungi absorb moisture and mineral salts from the rocks, passing these on in waste products that nourish algae. It is significant that the earliest living things that built communities on these islands are examples of symbiosis, a phenomenon that depends upon the close cooperation of two or more forms of life and a principle that is very important in island communities.Lichens helped to speed the decomposition of the hard rock surfaces, preparing a soft bed of soil that was abundantlysupplied with minerals that had been carried in the molten rock from the bowels of Earth. Now, other forms of life could take hold: ferns and mosses (two of the most ancient types of land plants) that flourish even in rock crevices. These plants propagate by producing spores-tiny fertilized cells that contain all the instructions for making a new plant-but the spore are unprotected by any outer coating and carry no supply of nutrient. Vast numbers of them fall on the ground beneath the mother plants. Sometimes they are carried farther afield by water or by wind. But only those few spores that settle down in very favorable locations can start new life; the vast majority fall on barren ground. By force of sheer numbers, however, the mosses and ferns reached Hawaii, survived, and multiplied. Some species developed great size, becoming tree ferns that even now grow in the Hawaiian forests.Many millions of years after ferns evolved (but long before the Hawaiian Islands were born from the sea), another kind of flora evolved on Earth: the seed-bearing plants. This was a wonderful biological invention. The seed has an outer coating that surrounds the genetic material of the new plant, and inside this covering is a concentrated supply of nutrients. Thus the seed's chances of survival are greatly enhanced over those of the naked spore. One type of seed-bearing plant, the angiosperm, includes all forms of blooming vegetation. In the angiosperm the seeds are wrapped in an additional layer of covering. Some of these coats are hard-like the shell of a nut-for extra protection. Some are soft and tempting, like a peach or a cherry. In some angiosperms the seeds are equipped with gossamer wings, like the dandelion and milkweed seeds. These new characteristics offered better ways for the seed to move to new habitats. Theycould travel through the air, float in water, and lie dormant for many months.Plants with large, buoyant seeds-like coconuts-drift on ocean currents and are washed up on the shores. Remarkably resistant to the vicissitudes of ocean travel, they can survive prolonged immersion in saltwater when they come to rest on warm beaches and the conditions are favorable, the seed coats soften. Nourished by their imported supply of nutrients, the young plants push out their roots and establish their place in the sun.By means of these seeds, plants spread more widely to new locations, even to isolated islands like the Hawaiian archipelago, which lies more than 2,000 miles west of California and 3,500 miles east of Japan. The seeds of grasses, flowers, and blooming trees made the long trips to these islands. (Grasses are simple forms of angiosperms that bear their encapsulated seeds on long stalks.) In a surprisingly short time, angiosperms filled many of the land areas on Hawaii that had been bare.Paragraph 2: Spores light enough to float on the breezes were carried thousands of miles from more ancient lands and deposited at random across the bare mountain flanks. A few of these spores found a toehold on the dark, forbidding rocks and grew and began to work their transformation upon the land. Lichens were probably the first successful flora. These are not single individual plants; each one is a symbiotic combination of an alga and a fungus. The algae capture the sun's energy by photosynthesis and store it in organic molecules. The fungi absorb moisture and mineral salts from the rocks, passing these on in waste products that nourish algae.It is significant that the earliest living thing that built communities on these islands are examples of symbiosis, a phenomenon that depends upon theclose cooperation of two or more forms of life and a principle that is very important in island communities.托福TPO9阅读题目：Part31. The phrase "at random" in the passage is closest in meaning to○finally○over a long period of time○successfully○without a definite pattern2. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that the fungi in lichens benefit from their symbiotic relationship with algae in what way?○The algae help the fungi meet some of their energy needs.○The algae protect the fungi from the Sun's radiation.○The algae provide the fungi with greater space for absorbing water.○The fungi produce less waste in the presence of algae.3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○Some of the earliest important examples of symbiosis-the close cooperation of two or more living things-occur in island communities.○Symbiosis-the close cooperation of pairs or small groups of living organisms-is especially important in these island environments.○The first organisms on these islands worked toget her closely in a relationship known as symbiosis, which is particularly important on islands.○It is significant to note that organisms in the beginningstages of the development of island life cannot survive without close cooperation.Paragraph 3: Lichens helped to speed the decomposition of the hard rock surfaces, preparing a soft bed of soil that was abundantly supplied with minerals that had been carried in the molten rock from the bowels of Earth. Now, other forms of life could take hold: ferns and mosses (two of the most ancient types of land plants) that flourish even in rock crevices. These plantspropagate by producing spores-tiny fertilized cells that contain all the instructions for making a new plant-but the spore are unprotected by any outer coating and carry no supply of nutrient. Vast numbers of them fall on the ground beneath the mother plants. Sometimes they are carried farther afield by water or by wind. But only those few spores that settle down in very favorable locations can start new life; the vast majority fall on barren ground. By force of sheer numbers, however, the mosses and ferns reached Hawaii, survived, and multiplied. Some species developed great size, becoming tree ferns that even now grow in the Hawaiian forests.4. The word "abundantly" in the passage is closest in meaning to○ occasionally○ plentifully○ usefully○ fortunately5. The word "propagate" in the passage is closest in meaning to○ multiply○ emerge○ live○ evolve6. According to paragraph 3, what was the relationship between lichens and ferns in the development of plant life on Hawaii?○Ferns were able to grow because lichens created suitable soil.○The decomposition of ferns produced minerals that were used by lichens.○Lichens and ferns competed to grow in the sam e rocky environments.○Lichens and ferns were typically found together in volcanic areas.Paragraph 4: Many millions of years after ferns evolved (but long before the Hawaiian Islands were born from the sea), another kind of flora evolved on Earth: the seed-bearing plants. Thiswas a wonderful biological invention. The seed has an outer coating that surrounds the genetic material of the new plant, and inside this covering is a concentrated supply of nutrients. Thus the seed's chances of survival are greatly enhanced over those of the naked spore. One type of seed-bearing plant, the angiosperm, includes all forms of blooming vegetation. In the angiosperm the seeds are wrapped in an additional layer of covering. Some of these coats are hard-like the shell of a nut-for extra protection. Some are soft and tempting, like a peach or a cherry. In some angiosperms the seeds are equipped with gossamer wings, like the dandelion and milkweed seeds. These new characteristics offered better ways for the seed to move to new habitats. They could travel through the air, float in water, and lie dormant for many months.7. The word "This" in the passage refers to○the spread of ferns and mosses in Hawaii○the creation of the Hawaiian Islands○the evolution of ferns○the development of plants that produce seeds8. According to paragraph 4, why do seeds have a greater chance of survival than spores do? To receive credit, you must select TWO answer choices.○Seeds need less water to grow into a mature plant than spores do.○Seeds do not need to rely on outside sources of nutrients.○Seeds are better protected from environmental dangers than spores are.○Seeds are heavier than spores and are therefore more likely to take root and grow.9. Why does the author mention "a nut", "a peach", and "a cherry"?○To indicate that some seeds are less likely to survive than others○To point out that many angiosperms can be eaten○To provide examples of blooming plants○To illustrate the variety of coverings among angiosperm seeds10. The word "dormant" in the passage is closest in meaning to○hidden○inactive○underground○preservedParagraph5: Plants with large, buoyant seeds-like coconuts-drift on ocean currents and are washed up on the shores.Remarkably resistant to the vicissitudes of ocean travel, they can survive prolonged immersion in saltwater when they come to rest on warm beaches and the conditions are favorable, the seed coats soften. Nourished by their imported supply of nutrients, the young plants push out their roots and establish their place in the sun.11. According to paragraph 5, a major reason that coconuts can establish themselves in distant locations is that their seeds can○survive long exposure to heat on island beaches○float and survive for long periods in ocean water○use saltwater for maintenance and growth○maintain hard, protective coats even after growing roots12. According to the passage, which of the following characteristics do spores and seeds have in common?○They may be surrounded by several layers of covering.○They are produced by flowering plants.○They may be spread by wind.○They are able to grow in barren soils.Paragraph 3: Lichens helped to speed the decomposition of the hard rock surfaces, preparing a soft bed of soil that was abundantly supplied with minerals that had been carried in the molten rock from the bowels of Earth. Now, other forms of life could take hold: ferns and mosses (two of the most ancient types of land plants) that flourish even in rock crevices. ■These plants propagate by producing spores-tiny fertilized cells that contain all the instructions for making a new plant-but the spore are unprotected by any outer coating and carry no supply of nutrient. ■Vast numbers of them fall on the ground beneath the mother plants. ■Sometimes they are carried farther afield by water or bywind. ■But only those few spores that settle down in very favorable locations can start new life; the vast majority fall on barren ground. By force of sheer numbers, however, the mosses and ferns reached Hawaii, survived, and multiplied. Some species developed great size, becoming tree ferns that even now grow in the Hawaiian forests.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.So since the chances of survival for any individual spore are small, the plants have to produce many spores in order to propagate.Where could the sentence best fit?14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.After the formation of the Hawaiian Islands, much time passed before conditions were suitable for plant life.●●●Answers Choices○Algae are classified as symbiotic because they produce energy through the process of photosynthesis.○The first successful plants on Hawaii were probably lichens, which consist of algae and fungi living in a symbiotic relationship.○Lichens helped create favorable conditions for the growthof spore-producing plants such as ferns and mosses.○Seed-bearing plants evolved much later than spore-producing plants, but both types of plants had evolved well before the formation of the Hawaiian Islands.○Unlike spores, seeds must move to new habitats in order to have a strong chance of survival and growth.○Seed-bearing plants arrived and spread quickly in Hawaii, thanks to characteristics that increased their seeds' ability to survive and to move to different areas托福TPO9阅读答案：Part3参考答案：1. ○42. ○13. ○34. ○25. ○16. ○17. ○48. ○2, 39. ○410. ○211. ○212. ○313. ○214. The first successful plants…Lichens helped create favorable…Seed-bearing plants arrived…托福TPO9阅读翻译：Part3参考翻译：夏威夷植物的到来大约500万年以前，当夏威夷群岛作为火山从海洋中出现的时候，它们与其他大陆相距甚远。
托福阅读背景知识大全
托福阅读背景知识大全托福考试中，阅读每篇文章篇幅在700字左右，总共3-4篇。
托福阅读是托福考试中相当重要的一个科目，而它涵盖的题材又十分广泛。
如果在考场上，同样的考题，考生熟悉并掌握了阅读文章的背景知识，做起题来就会非常轻松，做题的速度和准确率也会提高很多。
虽然托福阅读并不考察背景知识，但背景知识又绝对是需要备考的资料之一。
本篇文章雷哥托福小托君就带领大家一起来看看托福阅读中常常出现的背景知识。
一、历史历史背景知识在托福阅读中出现得还是比较多的，历史是一个很宽泛的概念，它包括不同国家的发展进程，从文化、政治到生活、社会等等。
比如说，在欧美近代史中，工业革命占据着特别重要的位置。
从托福TPO中出现的有关工业革命的文章可以看到，它也会涉及工业革命中的农业发展、铁路建设等，还涉及那个时期的人口增长等方方面面。
工业革命起源于英国，它的发展包括了当时的棉花、运输、钢铁、汽车等等产业。
大家在进行阅读备考的时候，可以留意一下文章内容。
除了工业革命之外，还有诸如美国发展史、民族融合、文化融合等等。
二、地理地理学题材包括地球的构成、地理现象、降雨降雪、冰川的形成、河流森林等。
三、文学一般文学都是与历史分不开的，文学就是在记录历史。
研究文学就是重温历史。
托福阅读中常常出现诸如美国文学作品的介绍，包括作者生平、文学流派等。
比如，各种古希腊罗马神话故事作品、史诗文学、自传等等；有黑人文学、男方作家、纽约作家以及诗歌流派等。
四、天文学涉及宇宙、银河、八大行星、日食月食极光天文现象、火星上有水、雷电现象等。
五、社会社会生活中大家比较关心的问题以及比较有争议的问题等，比如说，男女平等、抑郁症的治疗、节日庆典、人际交往、社会群体、社交媒体、交通问题、教育问题、城市规划等等。
六、动植物此题材属于托福阅读必考题材。
涉及到的内容通常涵盖某种动物的起源、某地植物的起源、乌龟的习性、鹿群数量的变迁、植物与矿物等。
七、其他类包括艺术（陶器、瓷器、音乐、绘画、玻璃艺术、手工艺）、建筑、生物科技、经济金融等。
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托福TOFEL考试阅读背景知识(三)
独立的民族主权国家的建成（1781-1814）
在战争过程中，大陆会议制订了邦联条例，1781-1787年13州组成了邦联国会，宣布成立美利坚共和国。
1787年，在费城召开制宪会议，大州和小州的代表经过争论，同意每州均选出两名参议员；在蓄奴制问题上，北部对南部作出了重大妥协，默认奴隶制存在，在征税及分配众议员席位方面，南部黑奴均以3／5的人口计算。
会议最后制定了宪法草案。
这是世界上第1部成文宪法。
1788年6月由9个州批准生效。
根据宪法，美国建成立法、行政、司法三权分立、相互制衡的联邦制国家。
后又增加了宪法前10条修正案(后即以“权利法案”著称)。
该法案于1791年12月，经11个州批准生效。
1789年联邦政府成立。
4月，华盛顿就任美国首届总统(1792年连任)。
在国内外政策出现分歧的过程中，财政部长A．汉密尔顿派组织了联邦党，主张中央集权，外交上亲英，控制了联邦政府的权力。
国务卿T．杰斐逊派主张维护国内人民民主权利，同情法国革命，组织了民主共和党。
1793年华盛顿在欧洲列强联合干涉法国革命时，采取中立政策。
次年11月，联邦政府和英国签订了损害美国主权的杰伊条约。
亲英和亲法成为联邦党和民主共和党在外交政策上的分野。
在内政方面，联邦政府制定关税条例，建立银行，稳定经济。
1801年，民主共和党T．杰斐逊出任总统。
杰斐逊政府废除上述4项法令，削减开支，减轻税收，取消酒税，鼓励农产品出口。
1803年从法国手中购买了面积达200多万平方公里的路易斯安那。
英国一直不甘心丧失北美殖民地。
英舰在公海上继续拦截美国船只，强制征用美国海员。
为维护航海自由，1812―1814年美国进行了第2次对英战争。
除海战外，优势在英军方面。
1814年8月，英军曾攻占华盛顿首府，焚烧总统府及会。
但随后美国取得胜利。
1814年12月，英美在今比利时的根特签订和约。
这次战争使美国得以摆脱英国政治上的控制和经济上的渗透，成为一个完全独立的民族主权国家。
美英巴黎条约 (Treaty of Parise,1783)
美英战争 (1812)(War of l812)
南北战争前南北经济的不同发展（1814―1861）
19世纪上半叶，美国领土逐渐由大西洋沿岸扩张到太平洋沿岸。
经济发生了显著变化，北部、南部经济沿着不同方向发展。
北部发展海上贸易，扩大航运业。
进行大量的资本原始积累。
早在1790年就在罗得岛建立了第l座棉纺厂。
此后，陆续出现其他工厂。
从19世纪初期起，大量资金投放于工商业，工业生产得到发展。
在大力引进西欧科学技术的同时，鼓励创造和发明。
50年代，工业化迅速推进。
1860年，美国工业生产居世界第4位。
2／3的制造品由东北部生产。
西欧移民大批涌入，并向西迁移，为发展经济提供了自由雇佣劳动力。
但在南部，以奴隶劳动为基础的棉花种植园经济不断扩大，由大西洋沿岸各州扩展到得克萨斯境内。
在西部新开辟的地区，是推广自由劳动制还是奴隶制，南部和北部的代言人争执不休，成为全国政治斗争的主题。
1820年北部对南部作出让步，达成《密苏里妥协案》，双方争执暂时乎息。
西进运动 (Westwood Movement)
密苏里妥协案 (Missouri Compromise)
南北战争前的外交和政治（1814―1861）
1823年，美国总统J．门罗发表了“门罗宣言”。
反对欧洲列强干涉西半球事务。
1846-1848年，美国发动对墨西哥战争，把得克萨斯、新墨西哥和加利福尼亚并入美国领土。
1814年美英战争即将结束时，联邦党召集哈特福德会议，图谋分裂联邦，但遭失败，因而瓦解。
联邦党的衰落标志着商业资本开始向工业资本过渡。
1816-1824年，美国进入民主共和党一党执政时期，它代表北部资产阶级和南部奴隶主的共同利益，习称“和谐时期”。
以后民主共和党
分裂，政治力量重新组合。
1828年，成立了民主党，推选A．杰克逊为总统候选人，杰克逊当选并连任总统至1837年3月。
1834年辉格党成立。
杰克逊政府将印第安人迁至密西西比河以西，并制止了南卡罗来纳州借口高关税法而掀起的分裂危机。
政府废除了贫民因负债而受监禁的法令，普及了白人男子的普选权，并进行了一些民主改革，习称“杰克逊民主”。
1828-1856年，民主党和辉格党成为对峙的两大政党。
除1840年和1848年两届总统竞选由辉格党获胜外，其余各届总统竞选均由民主党获胜。
随着南部和北部两种不同社会经济制度斗争的激化和黑奴反抗的不断掀起，群众性的反奴运动广泛开展。
1840年，主张废奴运动的“自由党”成立。
1848年，废奴主义者，民主党和辉格党内反对奴隶制的人组织了自由土壤党，以在西部地域建立自由州为宗旨。
1850年，双方经过争执，达成妥协，国会通过严峻的逃奴追缉法。
1854年国会通过堪萨斯―内布拉斯加法案，取消了奴隶州和自由州的地理疆界线，也就使密苏里妥协案随之废除，遭到北部工业资产阶级的强烈反对。
1854年成立了共和党，以反对奴隶制为宗旨。
1856年。
民主党J．布坎南当选总统，此时实际上民主党已成为代表奴隶主利益的政党。
1857年法院作出斯科特判决案，其法律涵意是使奴隶制的规模推向全国。
1859年J．布朗领导的反奴隶制的武装起义被镇压。
1860年总统选举中，共和党候选人A．林肯获胜。
蓄谋叛乱已久的南部奴隶主集团决定脱离联邦，并于1861年2月另行成立宣布维护奴隶制的南部同盟。
门罗主义 (Monron Doctrine)
废奴运动 (Abolition Movement)
堪萨斯―内布拉斯加法案 (Kansas-Nebraska Act)
约翰?布朗起义 (John Brown's Rebellion)
【。