DNA种类

一、脱氧核糖核酸cDNA:互补DNA（Complementary DNA，cDNA）是一种利用逆转录酶，以RNA（通常是mRNA）为模板作成的复制品，经常用来将真核生物的基因（以mRNA形式）复制到原核生物细胞中。

若一个cDNA含有许多来自不同基因的mRNA，称为cDNA基因库（cDNA library）。

另外也可制成只含单一mRNA的cDNA。

(from wiki)cpDNA:叶绿体基因组也叫叶绿体DNA（cpDNA)，双链环状，每个叶绿体中约含12个cpDNA 分子。

叶绿体具有独立基因组，被认为是内共生起源的细胞器。

叶绿体基因组主要用于编码与光合作用密切相关的一些蛋白和一些核糖体蛋白。

叶绿体基因表达调控是在不同水平上进行的，光和细胞分裂素对叶绿体基因的表达也起着重要的调节作用。

gDNA: Genomic DNA.是区别与染色体之外的DNA，如质粒DNA等。

gDNA可以遗传给后代。

msDNA：Multicopy single-stranded DNA (msDNA) is a type of extrachromosomal satellite DNA that consists of a single-stranded DNA molecule covalently linked via a 2'-5'phosphodiester bond to an internal guanosine of an RNA molecule. The resultant DNA/RNA chimera possesses two stem-loops joined by a branch similar to the branches found in RNA splicing intermediates. The coding region for msDNA, called a "retron", also encodes a type of reverse transcriptase, which is essential for msDNA synthesis.[2]mtDNA：Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA or mDNA[2]) is the DNA located in organelles called mitochondria, structures within eukaryotic cells that convert the chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Most other DNA present in eukaryotic organisms is found in the cell nucleus.mtDNA是母系遗传的。

rDNA: Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) codes for ribosomal RNA. The ribosome is an intracellular macromolecule that produces proteins or polypeptide chains. The ribosome itself consists of a composite of proteins and RNA. As shown in the figure, rDNA consists of a tandem repeat of a unit segment, an operon, composed of NTS, ETS, 18S, ITS1, 5.8S, ITS2, and 28S tracts. rDNA has another gene, coding for 5S rRNA, located in the genome in most eukaryotes.[1] 5S rDNA is also present in tandem repeats as in Drosophila.[1] In the nucleus, the rDNA region of the chromosome is visualized as a nucleolus which forms expanded chromosomal loops with rDNA. These rDNA regions are also called nucleolus organizer regions, as they give rise to the nucleolus. In the human genome there are 5 chromosomes with nucleolus organizer regions: chromosomes 13,14,15,21 and 22.染色体上编码rRNA的基因。

二、核糖核酸：mRNA（前-mRNA/不均一核RNA）Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a molecule of RNA that encodes a chemical "blueprint" for a protein product. mRNA is transcribed from a DNA template, and carries coding information to the sites of protein synthesis: the ribosomes. Here, the nucleic acid polymer is translated into a polymer of amino acids: a protein. In mRNA, as in DNA, genetic information is encoded in the sequence of nucleotides arranged into codons consisting of three bases each. Each codon encodes for a specific amino acid, except the stop codons, which terminate protein synthesis. This process requires two other types of RNA: Transfer RNA (tRNA), that mediates recognition of the codon and provides the corresponding amino acid, and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), that is the central component of the ribosome's protein-manufacturing machinery.tRNATransfer RNA (tRNA) is an adaptor molecule composed of RNA, typically 73 to 93 nucleotides in length, that is used in biology to bridge the four-letter genetic code (ACGU) in messenger RNA (mRNA) with the twenty-letter code of amino acids in proteins.[1] The role of tRNA as an adaptor is best understood by considering its three-dimensional structure.rRNA：Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) is the RNA component of the ribosome, the enzyme that is the site of protein synthesis in all living cells. Ribosomal RNA provides a mechanism for decoding mRNA into amino acids and interacts with tRNAs during translation by providing peptidyltransferase activity. The tRNAs bring the necessary amino acids corresponding to the appropriate mRNA codon.Inside the ribosomeThe ribosomal RNAs form two subunits, the large subunit (LSU) and small subunit (SSU). mRNA is sandwiched between the small and large subunits and the ribosome catalyzes the formation of a peptide bond between the 2 amino acids that are contained in the rRNA.A ribosome also has 3 binding sites called A, P, and E.The A site in the ribosome binds to an aminoacyl-tRNA (a tRNA bound to an amino acid).The amino (NH2) group of the aminoacyl-tRNA, which contains the new amino acid, attacks the ester linkage of peptidyl-tRNA (contained within the P site), which contains the last amino acid of the growing chain, forming a new peptide bond. This reaction is catalyzed by peptidyltransferase.The tRNA that was holding on the last amino acid is moved to the E site, and what used to be the aminoacyl-tRNA is the peptidyl-tRNA.A single mRNA can be translated simultaneously by multiple ribosomes.Prokaryotes vs. EukaryotesBoth prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes can be broken down into two subunits (the S in 16S represents Svedberg units沉降单位):Note that the S units of the subunits cannot simply be added because they represent measures of sedimentation rate rather than of mass. The sedimentation rate of each subunit is affected by its shape, as well as by its mass.ProkaryotesIn prokaryotes a small 30S ribosomal subunit contains the 16S rRNA.The large 50S ribosomal subunit contains two rRNA species (the 5S and 23S rRNAs).Bacterial 16S, 23S, and 5S rRNA genes are typically organized as aco-transcribed operon.There may be one or more copies of the operon dispersed in the genome (for example, Escherichia coli has seven).Archaea contains either a single rDNA operon or multiple copies of the operon.The 3' end of the 16S rRNA (in a ribosome) binds to a sequence on the 5' end of mRNA called the Shine-Dalgarno sequence.Mutations in theShine-Dalgarno sequence can reduce translation. This reduction is due to a reduced mRNA-ribosome pairing efficiency, as evidenced by the fact that complementary mutations in the anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence can restore translation.WhentheShine-Dalgarnosequenceand the anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence pair, the translation initiation factors IF2-GTP, IF1, IF3, as well as the initiator tRNAfMet-tRNA(fMET) are recruited to the ribosome.EukaryotesSmall subunit ribosomal RNA, 5' domain taken from the Rfam database. This example is RF00177In contrast, eukaryotes generally have many copies of the rRNA genes organized in tandem repeats; in humans approximately 300–400 rDNA repeats are present in five clusters (on chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22).The 18S rRNA in most eukaryotes is in the small ribosomal subunit, and the large subunit contains three rRNA species (the 5S, 5.8S and 28S rRNAs).Mammalian cells have 2 mitochondrial (12S and 16S) rRNA molecules and 4 types of cytoplasmic rRNA (the 28S, 5.8S, 18S, and 5S subunits). The 28S, 5.8S, and 18S rRNAs are encoded by a single transcription unit (45S) separated by 2 internally transcribed spacers. The 45S rDNA organized into 5 clusters (each has 30-40 repeats) on chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22. These are transcribed by RNA polymerase I. 5S occurs in tandem arrays (~200-300 true 5S genes and many dispersed pseudogenes), the largest one on the chromosome 1q41-42. 5S rRNA is transcribed by RNA polymerase III.The tertiary structure of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) has been resolved by X-ray crystallography.[1] The secondary structure of SSU rRNA contains 4 distinct domains —the 5', central, 3' major and 3' minordomains. A model of the secondary structure for the 5' domain (500-800 nucleotides) is shown.tmRNA：Transfer-messenger RNA (abbreviated tmRNA, also known as 10Sa RNA and by its genetic name SsrA) is a bacterial RNA molecule with dual tRNA-like and messenger RNA-like properties. The tmRNA forms a ribonucleoprotein complex (tmRNP) together with Small Protein B (SmpB), Elongation Factor Tu (EF-Tu), and ribosomal protein S1. Intrans-translation, tmRNA and its associated proteins bind to bacterial ribosomes which have stalled in the middle of protein biosynthesis, for example when reaching the end of a messenger RNA which has lost its stop codon.snRNA：Small nuclear ribonucleic acid (snRNA) is a class of small RNA molecules that are found within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. They are transcribed by RNA polymerase II or RNA polymerase III and are involved in a variety of important processes such as RNA splicing (removal of introns from hnRNA), regulation of transcription factors (7SK RNA) or RNA polymerase II (B2 RNA), and maintaining the telomeres. They are always associated with specific proteins, and the complexes are referred to as small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNP) often pronounced "snurps". These elements are rich in uridine content.A large group of snRNAs are known as small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs). These are small RNA molecules that play an essential role in RNA biogenesis and guide chemical modifications of ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and other RNA genes (tRNA and snRNAs). They are located in the nucleolus and the Cajal bodies of eukaryotic cells (the major sites of RNA synthesis).snoRNA：Small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) are a class of small RNA molecules that primarily guide chemical modifications of other RNAs, mainly ribosomal RNAs, transfer RNAs and small nuclear RNAs. There are two main classes of snoRNA, the C/D box snoRNAs which are associated with methylation, and the H/ACA box snoRNAs which are associated with pseudouridylation. snoRNAs are commonly referred to as guide RNAs but should not be confused with the guide RNAs that direct RNA editing in trypanosomes.miRNA:A microRNA (abbreviated miRNA) is a short ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecule found in eukaryotic cells. A microRNA molecule has very few nucleotides (an average of 22) compared with other RNAs.miRNAs are post-transcriptional regulators that bind to complementary sequences on target messenger RNA transcripts (mRNAs), usually resulting in translational repression or target degradation and gene silencing.[1][2] The human genome may encode over 1000 miRNAs,[3][4] which may target about 60% of mammalian genes[5][6] and are abundant in many human cell types.[7]siRNA:Small interfering RNA (siRNA), sometimes known as short interfering RNA or silencing RNA, is a class of double-stranded RNA molecules, 20-25 nucleotides in length, that play a variety of roles in biology. The most notable role of siRNA is its involvement in the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway, where it interferes with the expression of a specific gene. In addition to its role in the RNAi pathway, siRNA also acts in RNAi-related pathways, e.g., as an antiviral mechanism or in shaping the chromatin structure of a genome; the complexity of these pathways is only now being elucidated.piRNA:Piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA) is the largest class of small non-coding RNA molecules that is expressed in animal cells.[1][2] piRNAs form RNA-protein complexes through interactions with piwi proteins. These piRNA complexes have been linked to both epigenetic and post-transcriptional gene silencing of retrotransposons and other genetic elements in germ line cells, particularly those in spermatogenesis.[3] They are distinct from microRNA (miRNA) in size (26–31 nt rather than 21–24 nt), lack of sequence conservation, and increased complexity.[1][2]It remains unclear how piRNAs are generated, but potential methods have been suggested, and it is certain their biogenesis pathway is distinct from miRNA and siRNA, while rasiRNAs are a piRNA subspecies.The wide variation in piRNA sequences and piwi function over species contributes to the difficulty in establishing the functionality of piRNAs.[22] However, like other small RNAs, piRNAs are thought to be involved in gene silencing,[1] specifically the silencing of transposons. The majority of piRNAs are antisense to transposon sequences,[14] suggesting that transposons are the piRNA target. In mammals it appears that the activity of piRNAs in transposon silencing ismost important during the development of the embryo,[19] and in both C. elegans and humans, piRNAs are necessary for spermatogenesis.aRNA:Antisense RNA is a single-stranded RNA that is complementary to a messenger RNA (mRNA) strand transcribed within a cell. Antisense RNA may be introduced into a cell to inhibit translation of a complementary mRNA by base pairing to it and physically obstructing the translation machinery.[1] This effect is therefore stoichiometric. An example of naturally occurring mRNA antisense mechanism is the hok/sok system of the E. coli R1 plasmid. Antisense RNA has long been thought of as a promising technique for disease therapy; the only such case to have reached the market is the drug fomivirsen. One commentator has characterized antisense RNA as one of "dozens of technologies that are gorgeous in concept, but exasperating in [commercialization]".[2] Generally, antisense RNA still lack effective design, biological activity, and efficient route of administration其他/未分组： gRNA · shRNA · stRNA · ta-siRNA克隆载体：噬菌粒·质粒·λ噬菌体·黏质体·F黏粒·PAC ·BAC ·YAC ·HAC。