Aristotle and the Theory of Rhetoric(亚里士多德和修辞学)
亚里士多德修辞三元素英语修辞学
亚里士多德修辞三元素英语修辞学Aristotle's three elements of rhetoric are crucial in the art of persuasion, especially in the realm of English rhetoric. First, we have ethos, which refers to the character or credibility of the speaker. When presenting an argument, it's important to establish trustworthiness. People tend to believe those who seem genuine and reliable. So, building a strong ethos involves demonstrating sincerity, expertise, and good moral standing.Next is pathos, which deals with the emotional appeal to the audience. Connecting with people's feelings is a powerful way to motivate them. By tapping into their emotions, you can create a sense of urgency or sympathythat drives them to action. Pathos is about resonating with people's hearts and minds.And finally, we have logos, the logical aspect of rhetoric. Logos focuses on the rationality and soundness of the argument. Providing evidence, facts, and clearreasoning helps convince the audience of the truth or validity of your position. Logical arguments are compelling because they appeal to reason and common sense.In English rhetoric, utilizing all three elements effectively is key to success. You might start by establishing ethos through your credentials and sincere tone. Then, evoke pathos by telling a compelling story or using emotional language. And finally, wrap it up with a logical argument that ties everything together and leaves the audience.。
英语修辞学教案
English Rhetoric 英语修辞学I. Connotation of Rhetoric：rhetoric的含义1. Rhetoric may be used as an ordinary（普通用词）word and a technical term（专业术语）.1) As an ordinary word, rhetoric in a derogatory sense means “skilful argumentation”（巧辩）and “empty or exaggerated eloquence”（虚夸的话）.e.g. the exaggerated rhetoric of presidential campaigns（总统竞选期间唱的高调）；the empty rhetoric of the politicians（政客们的花言巧语）;flowery rhetoric（华丽的辞藻）Rhetoric also means (1) “language designed to have a persuasive or impressive effect on its audience”（言语，辞令）, e.g. employ stirring rhetoric; soothing rhetoric; glowing rhetoric (2) “a rtistic language”（艺术语言）, e.g. the rhetoric of fiction（小说的艺术语言）; the rhetoric of film(电影语言); body rhetoric(肢体语言)2) As a technical term, rhetoric has several senses. In America, the writing course or the writing textbook is entitled “rhetoric”. Apart from the above senses, rhetoric also has the following important senses:(1) Speaking rhetoric（演讲修辞）: the art of speaking(2) Compositional rhetoric（写作修辞）: the art of writing(3) Stylistic rhetoric（风格修辞，文体修辞）: the style of writing2. Rhetoric may also be subdivided into the following:1) Lexical rhetoric（词汇修辞）:the rhetorical law of choosing words and phrases2) Sentence rhetoric（句子修辞）:the rhetorical law selecting sentence patterns3) Paragraph rhetoric（段落修辞）:the rhetorical law of organizing paragraphs4) textual rhetoric（语篇修辞）:the rhetorical law of organizing textsII. Definition of Rhetoric修辞学的定义What is rhetoric ?1.Origin of modern rhetoric: 现代修辞学的起源Rhetoric originated in “speaking”（说话）. Aristotle（亚里士多得）, in the 4th century BC, first defined rhetoric as the art of persuasion, equivalent to argumentation as people understand today. John Locke（约翰.洛克）, English philosopher of the late 17th century, described rhetoric as “the science of oratory(演说术)” or “the art of speaking with propriety, elegance and force(修辞学是说话得体、优美和有力的艺术)”. All this explains why the word “rhetoric” means “speaking”in such European languages as Greek, Latin, French, Spanish and Italian. In the book Modern Rhetoric by American linguists Brooks（布鲁克斯）and Warren（沃伦）rhetoric is defined as “the art of using language effectively（修辞学是有效地使用语言的艺术）”.In the New Oxford Dictionary of English rhetoric is described as “the art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, especially the exploitation of figures of speech or other compositional techniques（修辞学是有效或有说服力的演说或写作的艺术，特别是运用英语修辞格或其它写作的艺术）”.2.Rhetoric and Figures of Speech:Figures of speech are quite different from rhetoric, but they are important components in English rhetoric. In the New Oxford Dictionary of English, “figure of speech” is defined as “ a word or phrase used in a non-literal sense too add rhetorical force or interest to a spoken or written passage”(修辞格是用一个非字面意义的单词或短语使一段口头或笔头的文字增加修辞效果或兴趣). They refer to rhetorical devices（修辞手段）, each of which has a fixed pattern, e.g. Simile is introduced by comparative words as, like, as if, as though, etc.; Like Simile, Metaphor refers to the comparison of two essentially unlike things which have one point of resemblance;Irony refers to the intended implication of which is the opposite of the literal sense of words; Oxymoron refers to the conjunction of two words or phrases which are incongruous or contradictory in sense so as to describe a person or thing; Pun; a play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes onthe similar sense or sound of different words; etc. These figures are employed in the following.He is as stupid as a goose. (=He is very stupid.)He has a heart of stone./ He has a heart like flint.(=He is unfeeling and stubborn.)He slept like a log / top. (=He slept very soundly.)They are birds of a feather. (=They are people of the same sort.) (Simile and metaphor are used of the comparison of two essentially unlike things which have one point of resemblance.) This hard-working boy seldom reads more than an hour per week. (If a boy seldom reads more than an hour per week, he must be very lazy, not hard-working.)(Irony refers to the intended implication being the opposite of the literal sense of words)He seems to be a clever fool. (=He seems to be a fool, but in fact he is very clever.)(Oxymoron refers to the conjunction of two words or phrases which are incongruous or contradictory in sense)Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man.(grave: adj. serious; n. tomb The speaker stresses the latter.) (Pun refers to a play on words，sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound ofdifferent words)3.The difference between rhetoric and grammar, phonetics,lexicolog y1)The difference between rhetoric and grammarRhetoric is different from grammar, but it is closely related to grammar and also based on grammar. To be grammatically correct is foundation to writing, but it is not enough. Basic rhetorical requirements must also be met. Francis Christensenn, an American French rhetorician, once said:Grammar maps out the possible(计划可能发生的事情);rhetoric narrows the possible down to the desirable and effective （使可能发生的事情变成很理想的事情或有效地事情）.In the preface to the book A handbook of English Rhetoric Warren quoted a passage by a scholar:Grammar is the law of language, considered as language;rhetoric is the art of language, considered as thought.Grammar tells what is correct; rhetoric tells what is effective and pleasing.2)Rhetoric and phonetics, lexicologyRhetoric is quite different from phonetics and lexicology. Phonetics is about the study of speech sounds and their pronunciation;lexicology is about the study of the vocabulary of a language;grammar concerns the study or science of rules for forming words and combining them into sentences; whereas rhetoric is the art of speaking or writing so as to persuade people effectively.I II. The Object of the Study of Rhetoric（修辞学研究的内容）Rhetoric aims at studying all forms of culture, which may be forms of mass media or any cultural phenomenon, concrete or abstract. Modern rhetoric seems to include all forms of discourse ---- written or colloquial, even all forms of communication in symbols.（修辞学研究的对象是一切文化形式，它们可以是任何这样或那样、具体或抽象的文化现象。
亚理斯多德·诗学·修辞学 英文
Aristotle's Poetics and Rhetoric1. IntroductionAristotle, the ancient Greek philosopher and polymath, is widely acknowledged as one of the most influential figures in the history of Western thought. His works on a wide range of topics, including metaphysics, ethics, politics, and natural science, continue to be studied and debated to this day. Among his numerous contributions, his writings on poetics and rhetoric are particularly noteworthy for their lasting impact on the field of literary criticism and persuasivemunication.2. The PoeticsAristotle's Poetics is a seminal work that has had a profound influence on the theory and practice of literature and drama. Written in the 4th century BCE, the Poetics is a systematic examination of the nature, structure, and function of poetry and tragic drama. In this work, Aristotle explores the essential elements of poetry, such as plot, character, and spectacle, and provides insightful analysis of the principles of dramaticposition, performance, and effect on the audience. The Poetics also offersvaluable insights into the psychological and emotional impact of poetry and drama, as well as the role of imitation and catharsis in literary expression.3. The RhetoricAristotle's Rhetoric is another seminal work that has had a significant influence on the theory and practice of persuasivemunication. Written around the same time as the Poetics, the Rhetoric is aprehensive inquiry into the art of persuasion and argumentation. In this work, Aristotle examines the methods and strategies of effective public speaking and argumentation, as well as the psychological and emotional factors that influence an audience's response to persuasive discourse. The Rhetoric also delves into the ethical and logical aspects of rhetoric, emphasizing the importance of truth, credibility, and reasoning in persuasivemunication.4. The Relationship between Poetics and RhetoricAristotle's Poetics and Rhetoric are closely related in their exploration of the principles and techniques of effectivemunication and expression. While the Poetics focuseson the aesthetic and emotional dimensions of literary and dramatic expression, the Rhetoric deals with the practical and persuasive aspects of public speaking and argumentation. Despite their differences, both works share amon concern with the art of persuasion and the role of language, emotion, and reason in shaping human understanding and belief.5. Influence and LegacyThe impact of Aristotle's Poetics and Rhetoric has been far-reaching and enduring. These works have exerted a profound influence on the development of literary criticism, drama, and rhetoric in Western civilization, providing a foundation for subsequent theories of literature and persuasivemunication. From the classical era to the present day, Aristotle's ideas continue to inspire and inform the study and practice of poetry and rhetoric, serving as a touchstone for scholars, writers, andmunicators seeking to understand and harness the power of language and expression.6. ConclusionIn conclusion, Aristotle's Poetics and Rhetoric represent two ofthe most significant works in the history of literary criticism and persuasivemunication. Their enduring relevance and influence attest to the timeless wisdom and insight of Aristotle's thought, as well as the enduring human fascination with the art of language, expression, and persuasion. As we continue to explore and study these works, we can g本人n valuable insights into the nature and potential of literature and rhetoric, and their profound impact on human culture and consciousness.。
亚里士多德的“四因说”理论及其后果-西方哲学史论文-哲学论文
亚里士多德的“四因说”理论及其后果-西方哲学史论文-哲学论文——文章均为WORD文档，下载后可直接编辑使用亦可打印——亚里士多德的四因说是哲学史上的老生常谈.但是，老生常谈并不意味着充分的理解。
事实上，四因说仍然是西方思想史上值得我们认真思考的重大问题。
亚里士多德的四因说并非是对早期自然哲学的一种简单总结，它完全是性的。
正是通过四因说,形式了质料成为了首要意义上的自然.质料和形式地位的这种变化，不可避免地带来了一系列重要的理论后果。
可以说，亚里士多德的四因说决定性地改变了西方思想的命运，它不仅颠覆了苏格拉底以前的自然哲学对自然和存在的基本理解，也很大程度上决定了亚里士多德之后西方哲学理解自然和存在的基本方式。
一、自然：质料与形式在《物理学》的开篇，亚里士多德规定了任何一门科学，因此也包括物理学的研究对象。
在他看来，我们只有认识了一个事物的本原、原因和元素,我们才能理解这一事物。
因此，对于物理学的研究，首要的课题就是要确定其本原（《物理学》184a10-16）。
①在这里，亚里士多德和早期的自然哲学家们一样，认为我们只有把握了万事万物的本原（arche），才会真正理解什么是自然（《物理学》184a15-16, 193a20-25）。
本原这个概念对于希腊哲学家们而言意味着什么呢？在《形而上学》中亚里士多德说：原因的意思和本原一样多，因为一切原因都是本原（《形而上学》1013a16-17）。
②根据海德格尔的见解，这个概念同时意味着开端和支配（[8], pp.285-286）。
它既是一个事物的起点,也是支配这个事物的原理.亚里士多德和他的思想前辈们一样，都是从本原出发来理解自然的，这构成了整个希腊哲学的一种内在一致性。
亚里士多德正是从本原出发区分了自然事物和不是由自然构成的事物.在他看来，自然的事物在自身中必然地具有一种运动和静止的本原（《物理学》192b14-16,23-24,33-34），从而与那些由其他原因而存在的事物区别开来，比如，床是由技艺造成的，发现了一个宝藏是因为运气,军事公职是出于选择（[9], 35, 3-6）。
《英语修辞学》第二章
English Rhetoric
Chapter Two Brief History of Western Rhetoric
By Song Pingfeng
Page 9
/NewInfor/html/30370.htm • 拉斐尔最著名的壁画是为梵蒂冈宫绘制的《雅典学院》。这幅巨型壁画把古希腊以来
的５０多个著名的哲学家和思想家聚于一堂，包括柏拉图、亚里士多德、苏格拉底、 毕达哥拉斯等，以此歌颂人类对智慧和真理的追求，赞美人类的创造力。
• 然而，柏拉图对修辞的看法并非一成不变。海德格尔在1924-1925年讲授 《智者篇》时提出，柏拉图的修辞观念有一个演变的过程，其轨迹可以通过 比较三篇对话勾勒出来（Brogan：3-15）。《高尔吉亚篇》代表了早期柏拉 图全盘否定修辞的态度；海德格尔认为，在《智者篇》中，柏拉图的态度有 了重大变化，转而相信修辞对“不在”（non-being）或者说“存在”之外的 领域的关注应当在哲学中占据一席之地，辩证（dialectic）能够克服修辞的 欺骗倾向，使之为哲学服务；《斐德若篇》(Phaedrus)则是发生这一转变的 关 键 场 所 。 在 这 篇 对 话 中 ， 柏 拉 图 着 重 探 讨 了 真 理 （ aletheia ） 与 语 言 （logos）的关系。
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1.4 Some Ancient Greek Rhetoricians and their theory
(1). Corax (科拉克斯)
Corax of Syracuse and his students Tisias(蒂西亚斯，有名的捉刀人，专 门为诉讼者撰写诉状) were the first rhetoricians in history. His theory: the first is a theory of how arguments should be developed from probabilities; the second is their first concept of organization of a message. According to Corax, legal arguments should consist of four parts: introductory, explanation, argumentation and conclusion. (Corax 将法律演说分成四个部分：前言，解释，论辩和结论。)
英语修辞学-亚里士多德的三种说服方式
英语修辞学-亚里士多德的三种说服方式清华四大国学导师之一的陈寅恪曾经说过，若论语言、文化之根源，古希腊语和古汉语有相通之处。
古希腊语之发音强调格律与韵律，对于元音的运用和古汉语有诸多相同之处。
But what I’d like to add up is there are many differences betwee n ancient Greek and ancient Chinese. Chinese, from its verbal perspe ctive, is focusing too much on conception, or artistic conception sp ecifically, while Greek is majorly focusing on its rationalization. 抛开汉语的发展演变不谈，从理性思辩的这一角度来说一说古希腊语的个人见解。
2300多年前的古希腊哲学家Aristotle（亚里斯多德）在他的《雄辩的艺术》(The Art of Rhetoric)这本书里就曾经论述过：一次成功的演说只有包含了“e thos, logos and pathos”这三方面才会有效果和说服力。
古希腊为什么能够成为哲学的发源地与ethos，logos和pathos这三个词不无关系。
那么，这三个希腊语源的单词到底包含着什么含义呢，let’s check’em out!ETHOS ——represents the character or image从词源来说ethos源于希腊语词ethikos，表示“moral o r showing moral character”。
亚里斯多德认为一个演说者在开始阶段必须在听众中建立一种“道德可信度”，即moral credibility。
这样，人们才会对他说的话有所信服。
这个词经由拉丁语词ēthicus进入英语。
若追溯更早的语言历史演变，ethos则源于原始印欧语（known as PIE）*swedhe-。
亚里士多德 诗学介绍 英文版
Poetics is the earliest surviving work of dramatic theory and the first extant philosophical treatise to focus on literary theory. In it, Aristotle offers an account of what he calls "poetry" (a term which in Greek literally means "making" and in this context includes drama—comedy, tragedy, and the satyr play—as well as lyric poetry, epic poetry, and the dithyramb-A song sung to praise Dionysus, the God of wine and fertility). They are similar in the fact that they are all imitations but different in the three ways that Aristotle describes. 1. They differ in the music rhythm, harmony, meter and melody. 2. The difference of goodness in the characters. 3. The way the characters are presented in which they stay in the role that they are describing as a narrative or acting as if they are doing the things that the characters are doing.He examines its "first principles" Aristotle says there are two causes for the origin of poetry. 1. Is imitation because we learn imitation and helps with learning. 2. To have an easier time of seeing truths. and identifies its genres and basic elements. His analysis of tragedy constitutes the core of the discussion. Although Aristotle's Poetics is universally acknowledged in the Western critical tradition, Marvin Carlson explains, "almost every detail about his seminal work has aroused divergent opinions."The work was lost to the Western world and often misrepresented for a long time. It was available through the Middle Ages and earlyRenaissance only through a Latin translation of an Arabic version written by Averroes.InfluencePoetics is considered to have been less influential in its time compared with what is generally understood to be its more famous contemporary, Rhetoric. This is probably because in Aristotle's time rhetoric and poetics were classified as sort of siblings in the pantheon of ideal things. Because of rhetoric's direct importance for law and politics, it evolved to become, to a large degree, distinct from poetics, in spite of both themes being classified under aesthetics in the Aristotelian system of metaphysics. In this sense, rhetoric and poetics are two sides of the same thing—the aesthetic dimension. In Aristotelian philosophy, this is regarded as one of the metaphysical aspects of things; in the Kantian view of the pure aesthetic, it is understood as something non-conceptual that frees the mind.The Arabic ver sion of Aristotle’s Poetics that influenced the Middle Ages was translated from a Greek manuscript dated to sometime prior to the year 700. This manuscript was translated from Greek to Syriac and is independent of the currently-accepted 11th-century source designated Paris 1741. The Syriac language source used for the Arabic translations departed widely in vocabulary from the original Poetics and it initiated amisinterpretation of Aristotelian thought that continued through the Middle Ages.There are two different Arabic interpretations of Aristotle’s Poetics in commentaries by Abu Nasr al-Farabi and Averroes.Al-Farabi’s treatise endeavors to establish poetry as a logical faculty of expression, giving it validity in t he Islamic world. Averroes’ commentary attempts to harmonize his assessment of the Poetics with al-Farabi’s, but he is ultimately unable to reconcile his ascription of moral purpose to poetry with al-Farabi’s logical interpretation.Averroes' interpretation of the Poetics was accepted by the West because of its relevance to their humanistic viewpoints. Occasionally the philosophers of the Middle Ages even preferred Averroes’ commentary to Aristotle's stated sense. This resulted in the survival of Aristotle’s Poetics through the Arabic literary tradition.。
浅析《了不起的盖茨比》中的象征主义
2018年31期总第419期ENGLISH ON CAMPUS浅析《了不起的盖茨比》中的象征主义文/王斯纯一、作者和创作背景弗朗西斯.菲茨杰拉德是美国二十世纪二三十年代杰出的现实主义作家，凭借其1925年出版的代表作之一《了不起的盖茨比》，在美国文学史上奠定了不可撼动的地位。
菲茨杰拉德所处的时代背景也给他的创作思想和风格打下了特殊的烙印，因而他也被誉为是“爵士时代”的代言人，其作品深刻反映了“迷茫的一代”所处的困境和心声。
“爵士时代”是指1918年第一次世界大战结束后，1929年经济大萧条之前，在这样的一个“转型期”，人们摈弃了传统思想，摆脱了战争的灰暗，盲目地沉浸在享乐主义中，菲茨杰拉德评价这个时代是“一个奇迹的时代，一个艺术的时代，一个挥金如土的时代，也是一个充满嘲讽的时代”。
因此，菲茨杰拉德常用这一代人渴望的奢华的上流生活和微妙浪漫的感情纠葛作为作品的主题，但却又能敏锐地察觉到背后的空虚和失落，以小见大，描述了美国在这一特殊历史时期真实的社会现状。
《了不起的盖茨比》讲述了出身贫寒的盖茨比在离家闯荡之后成为了自己理想中富豪，以全新的身份去追求梦中情人富家女黛西，然而由于战争的介入，黛西早已嫁给了门当户对的富二代，但这样的婚姻也并不幸福；相反，盖茨比用自己奋斗而来的财富高调炫富，想方设法接近黛西，摒弃传统道德的禁锢，希望和黛西旧情复热，捍卫真爱。
然而，就像美国社会喧嚣繁华的背后总有不为人知的冷漠和凄凉，看似高尚的爱情最后吸引黛西的只是盖茨比的地位和财富，在一场车祸后，善良的盖茨比心甘情愿地成为了黛西的替罪羊，而黛西的自私和懦弱暴露无疑，最终等待盖茨比的只有死亡。
作品的巧妙之处在于并非单纯的悲伤爱情故事，影射出了美国上层社会的虚伪和自私，让读者纷纷为成为主流意识牺牲品的盖茨比感到叹息。
二、象征主义的运用“象征是指能够表达一定抽象意义和概念的具体物品、事物等。
一个象征符号不仅传达了其字面上的含义，更重要的包含了多层内涵意义。
2017年高考历史必考知识点：亚里士多德
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▲高考历史必考知识点：亚里士多德
亚里士多德（Aristotle 公元前384～前322），古代先哲，古希腊人，世界古代史上伟大的哲学家、科学家和教育家之一，堪称希腊哲学的集大成者。
他是柏拉图的学生，
亚历山大的老师。
公元前335 年，他在雅典办了一所叫吕克昂的学校，被称为逍遥学派。
马克思曾称亚里士多德是古希腊哲学家中最博学的人物，恩格斯称他是“古代的黑格尔”。
作为一位百科全书式的科学家，他几乎对每个学科都做出了贡献。
他的写作涉及伦
理学、形而上学、心理学、经济学、神学、政治学、修辞学、自然科学、教育学、诗歌、风俗，以及雅典法律。
亚里士多德的著作构建了西方哲学的第一个广泛系统，包
含道德、美学、逻辑和科学、政治和玄学。
▲高考历史必考知识点：亚里士多德的贡献
①哲学：
A 继承又突破了柏拉图的思想。
肯定客观世界是真实的存在，是人类认识的来源，
产生于对外界事物的感觉。
这一观点使他“接近了唯物主义”，但不彻底，常动摇于唯
物和唯心主义之间。
B 确立了哲学研究的对象，在《形而上学》中，提出哲学所必须研究和解决的十三
个问题，其中一些问题，一直是后来西方哲学争论的中心，
②生物学：对五百多种不同的动物进行分类，至少对五十多种动物进行了解剖研
究。
③物理学：在《物理学》中，指出具体事物是由形式和质料组成的。
1。
亚里士多德演讲三要素英语
亚里士多德演讲三要素英语Aristotle's Three Elements of Speech: The Essence of Eloquence.Aristotle, the father of Western philosophy and rhetoric, has left a profound impact on the art of persuasion through his teachings on the art of speech. His insights into the construction and delivery of an effective speech have stood the test of time and continue to influence orators, speakers, and writers to this day. Among his many contributions to the field of rhetoric,Aristotle's theory of the three elements of speech stands out as a cornerstone of persuasive communication.The three elements of speech, according to Aristotle, are Ethos, Pathos, and Logos. These three components work synergistically to create a compelling argument that resonates with the audience and moves them to action. Let us delve deeper into each of these elements and explore their significance in the art of eloquence.Ethos: The Appeal to Character.Ethos, or the appeal to character, refers to the credibility and trustworthiness of the speaker. Aristotle believed that for a speech to be effective, the speaker must first establish a strong ethical foundation with the audience. This is achieved through demonstrating virtue, honesty, and integrity in one's words and actions.Eth.。
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Aristotle and the Theory of Rhetoric
1 The introduction of Aristotle
Aristotle was born to Greek parents in the Macedonian town of Stagira. At that time, Plato was opening the Academy in Athens. When he was seventeen, he went to Athens and entered the academy. He stayed on as a teacher and left twenty years later on Plato’s death.
2 The theory of Aristotle
(1)the definition : Rhetoric refers to the faculty of observing in any given
case the available means of persuasion.
(2)the classification of oratory (according to the topics and occasions )
A.deliberative/political oratory: it urges us either to do or not to do
something and aims to distinguish the beneficial and harmful. It concerns with the future and is about things to be done hereafter that he advises, for or against.
B.epideictic/ceremonial oratory: it either praises or censures somebody
and aims to judge whether a matter or a person is respectful or shameful. It is concerned with the present, the state of things existing at the time. (Also, people sometimes often find it useful to recall the past and to makes guesses at the future.)
C.forensic oratory: it either attacks or defends somebody and aims to
distinguish the justice and injustice. It is concerned with the past. (3)two major categories of rhetoric
A.artistic proofs: the rhetorician needs to construct the material by
means of rhetorical methods. Then three ways to persuade are proposed.
a.logical appeals(logos): they stress the reasonableness of the
rhetorician’s argument.
○1enthymeme (deductive argument)
In essence, it is a kind of deductive argument. It is mainly used to persuade the hearers. The orator just gives the major premises and the hearers draw a conclusion on the base of guessing out the minor premises. Such a way can lead the hearers to participate in the speech.
When it is shown that, certain propositions being true, a further and quite distinct proposition must also be true in consequence, whether invariably or usually, this is called syllogism in dialectic, enthymeme in rhetoric.
○2example (inductive argument)
When we base the proof of a proposition on a number of similar cases, this is induction in dialectic, example in rhetoric.
○3maxim: it is the common rule that is accepted by almost everyone. Sometimes, it is thought to be the premises of enthymeme.
b.pathetic appeals(pathos): they raise emotions favorable to the
rhetorician’s position. The rhetorician tries to persuade the hearers through getting a knowledge of their emotions and adjusting his own speech to the hearers’ emotions.
c.ethical appeals(ethos): they raise emotions favorable to the
rhetorician’s moral character. Aristotle argued that good people are more worthy of believing. In other words, such a way mainly emphasizes the morality of the rhetorician or the orator.
B.inartistic proofs: the rhetorician interprets the existing evidence,
such as the laws, rules, evidences and so on. The rhetorician just needs to make use of them.。