语言学简明教程Chapter_5
新编简明英语语言学教程
新编简明英语语言学教程Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of h islanguage.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
语言学简明教程
• 重要名词概念
语言 说话 交际工具 思维 社会 社会现象
第一单元 语言的社会功能
• 学习目标
弄清楚语言和说话的关系 认识语言是一种特殊的社会现象 领会语言是人类最重要的交际工具 认识语言是人类思维的工具 弄清楚语言和思维的关系 理解语言具有民族性，而思维能力是全人类共同的
第二单元 语言是符号系统
• 学习目标
认识社会发展促进语言发展；了解语言要素的相互 制约的关系对语言发展的影响；认识语言发展的特点。 了解语言分化的原因；认识社会方言及其形成原因； 认识地域方言及其划分；了解语言的谱系分类。 认识语言是随着社会的统一而统一的理论；认识共 同语及其在现代社会生活中的重要性；了解共同语的规 范和汉语规范化问题。
第七单元 语言随着社会的发展而发展
• 学习内容提要
语言是不断地发展变化地，社会发展是语言发展 的根本原因， 语言中各个要素相互制约，其中某种要 素的变化也会影响语言的变化；语言的发展变化具有 渐进性和不平衡性的特点；语言随着社会发展而分化、 统一，亲属语言、方言、共同语的形成与社会的发展 密切相关。
第四单元 语法
• 学习内容提要
讲授语法结构的基本规律，包括构成语法的单位－－句子、词组、词、语 素，以及语素和词组合成更大语法单位的类型，语法结构的层次性与递归性特点， 语法的聚合规则，句子的变换、语言结构的类型和普遍特征。
• 教学目的要求
认识语法的结构单位，掌握语法的组合规则和聚合规则的基本精神；能运 用已学的语法理论分析和阐释常见的语法现象，如语法结构的层次关系、语法意 义与语法形式、语法手段与语法范畴、句子的多义与同义、句式的变换等；认识 不同语言语法结构的特点。
• 学习内容提要
教授语音的物理属性、胜利属性，语音单位的分 类及发音原理，音位的划分原理，音位的组合和音节， 以及记录语音的符号－－国际音标。
新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学一、定义1. semantics语义学: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。
二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning意义研究的不同观点5.2.1 The naming theory命名论(by希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论: Words are just names or labels for things.词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。
Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory局限性:1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only.这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object: eg. jump, quickly, pretty, and, in, hearted, think, hard, slowly…)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world: ghost, gragon, unicorn麒麟. 有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。
3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such as joy and impulse. 有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse刺激，这样的抽象概念。
语言学教案Chapter 5 Meaning
Chapter 5 Meaning5.1 Meanings of “meaning”5.2 The referential theory5.3 Sense relations5.3.1 Synonymy5.3.2 Antonymy5.3.3 Hyponymy5.4 Componential analysis5.5. Sentence meaning5.5.1 An integrated theory5.5.2 Logical semanticsSemantics: the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.5.1 Meanings of “meaning”Ogden & Richards: 16 major categories of meaning, with 22 sub-categories Ogden, C. K. & I. A. Richards. 1923. The Meaning of Meaning[M]. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Leech: 7 types of meaningLeech, G. 1981[1974]. Semantics: The study of Meaning [M]. Harmondsworth: Penguin.●Conceptual meaning (概念意义): similar to reference (指称)●Connotative meaning (内涵意义): some additional, especially emotive meaning.E.g. c.f. politician & statesmanNote: Connotation and denotation in philosophyCONNOTATION (内涵)DENOTATION (外延)E.g. human●Thematic meaning (主题意义)Question: How to explain the meaning of a word in the conceptual meaning?E.g. DESK1) to point to a desk directly2) to describe it as “a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs, at which one reads and writes.3) to paraphrase it as “a desk is a kind of table, which has drawers”4) to give the Chinese equivalent 书桌5.2 The referential theoryProblems:The concrete thing pointed at differs from the abstract concept behind the thing.The object pointed at does not directly correspond to the concept.CONCEPTSemantic triangleconceptword thingC.f. Sense & reference1) Sense: the abstract properties of an entity——concept ——connotation Reference: the concrete entities having these entities ——denotation2) Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.E.g. grammatical words like but, if, and5.3 Sense relations●Sense●ReferenceThree kinds of sense relations: sameness relation, oppositeness relation, and inclusiveness relation5.3.1 SynonymySYNONYMY: the sameness relation●Stylistic differenceE.g. Little Tom ___________ a toy bear. c.f. buy & purchase●Connotative difference.E.g. “I’m thrifty. You are economical. And he is stingy.”●Dialectical differenceE.g. c.f. autumn & fall5.3.2 AntonymyAntonymy: the oppositeness relation(1) Gradable antonymyE.g. good: bad, long: short, big: smallgradable---comparative and superlative degree; lexicalizationE.g. good & badgraded against different norms---no absolute criterionE.g. c.f. a big car & a small planeone member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term E.g. How old are you?C.f. Unmarked & marked●Unmarked: the term is more often used●Marked: the term is less used, odd, or unusual(2) Complementary antonymyE.g alive:dead, male:femaleNOTE 1: Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other.NOTE 2: No comparative or superlative degrees are allowed.E.g. alive, dead, 半死不活*John is more dead than Mary.C.f. John is more mad than stupid.C.f. Gradable and complementary1. The difference between the gradable and the complementary is somewhat similar tothat between the contrary and the contradictory.In logic, a proposition is the contrary of another if it is impossible for both to true, or false.E.g. The coffee is hot.The coffee is cold.A proposition is the contradictory of another if it is impossible for both to be true, orfalse.E.g. This is a male cat.This is a female cat.a b a bgradable complementary2. The norm in complementary is absolute.E.g. male & female3. There is no cover term for the two members of a pair.E.g. Is it a boy or a girl?*How male is it?Exception: true & false (Pp 167)(3) Converse antonymyE.g. buy: sell, lend: borrowX buys something from Y. == Y sells something to X.RELATIONAL OPPOSITES5.3.3 HyponymyHYPONYMYSUPERORDINATEHYPONYMSCO-HYPONYMSflowerrose peony jasmine chrysanthemum tulip violet carnationAUTO-HYPONMYlivingplant animalbird fish insect animalhuman animaltiger lion elephant …5.4 Componential analysisSEMANTIC FEATURES/SEMANTIC COMPONENTS: semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. (Pp 170)E.g. boy: HUMAN, YOUNG, MALEwoman: HUMAN, ADULT, FEMALEYOUNG: ～ADULTFEMALE: ～MALEE.g. father = PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)mother = PARENT (x, y) & ～MALE (x)son = CHILD (x, y) & MALE (x)die = BECOME (x, (～ALIVE(x)))kill = CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (～ALIVE (y)))))murder = INTEND (x, (CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (～ALIVE (y)))))))➢Synonyms: words or expressions with the same semantic componentsE.g. bachelor, unmarried man: HUMAN, ADULT, UNMARRIED➢Antonyms: words with contrasting semantic componentsE.g. cold & hot, give & take➢Hyponyms: words which have all the semantic components of anotherE.g. boy & girl are hyponyms of childSense relations between sentences:E.g.1.a. * John killed Bill but Bill didn’t die.b. * John killed Bill but he was not the cause of Bill’s death.c. * John murdered Bill without intending to.EntailmentE.g. a. John killed Bill.b. Bill died.Difficulties1) Polysemous words will have different sets of semantic components.2) The difference between the semantic components differs.C.f. MALE and FEMALE (absolute) & ADULT and YOUNG (relative)boy and man (clear-cut)& girl and woman (vague)3) There may be words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain. Question: How to express the semantic features?METALANGUAGE (原语言): a language used for talking about another language 5.5. Sentence meaning1) The sentence meaning is not merely a sum of word meaning, and it is related to word order.E.g. a. The man chased the dog.b. The dog chased the man.2) Sentences have thematic meaning.E.g. a. I’ve already seen that film.b. That film I’ve already seen.3) The sentence meaning is connected with its syntactic structure.E.g. The son of Pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of Pharaoh’s son.5.5.1 An integrated theoryPrinciple of COMPOSITIONALITYsystematic informationgrammatical classificationdictionary idiosyncratic information Semantic theory semantic informationprojection rules●Dictionary: to provide the grammatical classification and semantic information ofwords➢Grammatical classificationGrammatical markers/syntactic markersSystematic information✧Systemic part —Semantic markers: (Male), (Female), (Human), (Animal)✧Idiosyncratic information —Distinguishers(辨义成分)E.g. bachelora. [who has never married];b. [young knights serving under the standard of another knight];c. [who has the first or lowest academic degree];d. [young fur seal when without a mate during the breeding time].●Projection rules: responsible for combining the meanings of words togetherSNP VPDet N V NPthe man hits Det Nthe Adj Ncolorful ballSelection restrictionsProblems1. The distinction between semantic marker and distinguisher is not very clear.E.g. (Young)2. The collocation of words may not be accounted for by grammatical markers, semantic markers or selection restrictions.E.g. a. He said hello to the nurse and she greeted back.b. My cousin is a male nurse.c. ? My cousin is a female nurse.3. The use of semantic markers like (Human), (Male) and (Adult), is elements of an artificial meta-language.5.5.2 Logical semanticssentence meaningPREPOSITIONAL LOGIC(命题逻辑)/ PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS(命题演算)/ SENTENTIAL CALCULUS(句子演算):proposition≈sentence meaningTruth value: truth or falsePredicate logic (Pp 180)p (simple proposition)one-place connective: negation ～or ﹁two-place connective: conjunction &disjunction ∨implicationequivalence ≡orConnective conjunction: similar to the English “and”Connective disjunction: similar to the English “or”Connective implication/conditional implication: corresponds to the English “if…then”Connective equivalence/bicond itional: corresponds to “iff…then”C.f. Antonyms & “not”●With complementary antonyms, the denial of one is the assertion of the other.●With gradable, that is not necessarily the case.E.g. John isn’t old.John is old.C.f. Conjunction & “and”●ConjunctionE.g. He missed the train and arrived late.●“And”E.g. He arrived late and missed the train.*He missed the train and arrived late.C.f. Implication & “if…then”●ImplicationE.g. If he is an Englishman, he speaks English.If snow is white, grass is green.E.g. If snow is black, grass is green.●“If…then”E.g.? If snow is white, grass is green.*If snow is black, grass is green.In sum, propositional logic, concerned with the semantic relation between propositions, treats a simple proposition as an unanalyzed whole.E.g. All men are rational.Socrates is a man.Therefore, Socrates is rational.PREDICATE LOGIC/PREDICATE CALCCULUS studies the internal structure of simple propositions.Question: How to analyze Socrates is a man?Argument (主目): a term which refers to some entity about which a statement is being madePredicate (谓词): a term which ascribes some property, or relation, to the entity, or entities, referred toSocrates is the argument, and man is the predicate.Token: M(s)Note: A simple proposition is seen as a function (函数) of its argument. The truth value of a proposition varies with the argument.M(s) =1, M(c) =0E.g. John loves Mary.L (j, m)John gave Mary a book. G (j, m, b)kill: CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (～ALIVE (y)))))C (x, (B (y, (～A (y)))))All men are rational.1. All is the universal quantifier and symbolized by an upturned A—∀in logic.2. The argument men does not refer to any particular entity, which is known as avariable and symbolized as x, y.Notation: ∀x (M(x) R(x))“For all x, it is the case that, if x is a man, then x is rational.”Some men are clever.Some is the existential quantifier and symbolized by a reversed E—∃Notation: ∃x (M(x) & C(x))C.f. Universal quantifier & existential quantifier1.Quantifiers2.Implication connectiveE.g.All men are rational.There is no man who is not rational.Notation: ∀x (M(x) R(x)) ≡～∃x(M(x) & ～R(x))(1) ∀x(P(x))≡～∃x(～P(x))～∀x (P(x))≡∃x (～P(x))∃x (P(x)) ≡～∀x (～P(x))～∃x (P(x)) ≡∀x (～P(x))(2) ∀x(M(x) R(x))M(s)∴R(s)(3) ∀x(M(x)) R(x))R(s)∴R(s)(4) ∃x (M(x) & C(x))M(s)∴C(s)。
Chapter_5 语言学
Chapter 5 Meaning(semantics)Semantics•Definition: Semantics is the study of meaning in language.•Meaning has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists. E.g. Plato & Aristotle.5.1 The meaning of “meaning”•C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923). The Meaning of Meaning.•John means to write.•A green light means to go.•Health means everything.•His look was full of meaning.•What is the meaning of life?•What does …capitalist‟ mean to you?•What does …cornea‟ me an?•The transparent, convex, anterior portion of the outer fibrous coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and the pupil and is continuous with the sclera.•Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:–Conceptual meaning → Denotation–Connotative meaning → Connotation–Social meaning–Affective meaning–Reflected meaning–Collocative meaning–Thematic meaning(1) Conceptual meaning•Also called …denotative‟ or …cognitive‟ meaning.–Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.–Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.(2) Connotative meaning•What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.•Involving the …real world‟ experience one associates with an expres sion when one uses or hears it. •Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.Step motherDenotation & Connotation•Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in real world. •Connotation:the properties of the entity a word connote, it‟s a term in contrast with denotation.•E.g.1 words with the same denotation, but differ in the connotative meanings:politician (derogatory) statesman ( favorable)•E.g. 2•color words Denotation Connotationwhite the color of white purityred the color of red passion, blood, happynessblue the color of blue sadnessMr. Smith is a white man. He was looking rather green the other day. He has been feeling blue today. When I saw him, he was in brown mood. I hope he‟ll soon be in the pink again. (3) Social meaning•What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.–Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class.–Time: the language of the 18th c., etc.–Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc.Such as:•abode: poetic•home: general•steed: poetic•horse: general•nag: slang•gee-gee: baby language(4) Affective meaning•Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about. Such as–Y ou‟re a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobate, and I hate you for it!–I‟m terribly sorry to interru pt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little. or–Will you belt up.…Colorful‟ meaningCommendatory•tough-minded•resolute, firm•shrewd•childlike•wiseman•man of usual talent•stout, solid, plum•slender, slimDerogatory•ruthless•obstinate•sly, crafty•childish•wiseguy•freak•fleshy, fat, tubby•lean, skinny, lanky, weedy, scraggy(5) Reflected meaning•What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression. Such as, When you hear …click the mouse twice‟, you think of Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.•Many taboo terms are result of this.(6) Collocative meaning•The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.–pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, colour, village, etc.–handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.(7) Thematic meaning•What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis. Such as,–Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.–The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.–They stopped at the end of the corridor.–At the end of the corridor, they stopped.5.2 The Referential Theory•Referential theory: the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for.•Leech‟s conceptual meaning has 2 sides:Sense (Connotation): the abstract properties of an entity;Reference (Denotation): the concrete entities having those properties.Concept: the abstract thing which has no existence in the material word and can only be sensed in our mind.•Note: every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference. Eg. “but ” “if” “God” “dragon”… So we should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.•Words→Concepts →Things: Ogden & Richards in The Meaning of Meaning5.3 Sense Relations•Synonymy(sameness relation)•Antonymy(oppositeness relation)•Hyponymy(inclusiveness relation)5.3.1 Synonymy•buy/purchase•thrifty/economical/stingy•autumn/fall•flat/apartment•tube/underground5.3.2 Antonymy(1) Gradable antonymy•good ----------------------- bad•long ----------------------- short•big ----------------------- small–Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very.–Can have comparative forms.–Can be asked with how.•NOTE:•1) They are gradable, the denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other.good – bad (so-so, average, etc.)hot – cold (warm, cool, etc.)•2)they are graded against different norms.a big car < a small car•3) one member of the pair (usually the higher grade) serves as the cover terms.how old are you? (both old and young)length, depth, width, etc.(2) Complementary antonymyNot A = B; not B= A•alive : dead•male : female•present : absent•innocent : guilty•complementary gradable(3) Converse antonymy•buy : sell•lend : borrow•give : receive•parent : child•husband : wife5.3.3 Hyponymy•Inclusiveness•A is included in / a kind of B.•Cf.: chair and furniture, rose and flower–Superordinate: the more general term–Hyponym: the more specific term–Co-hyponyms: members of the same classAnimalbird fish insect animalhuman animaltiger lion elephant ...Animal : auto-hyponym 自动下义词（是其本身的下义词）•Note:•A superordinate may be missing. Eg.“Color” is not the superordinate of “green, white, red, yellow…”“Beard, moustuch, whisker” have no superordinate.b. Hyponyms may be missing. E.g.uncle, rice in English in contrast to chinese 叔叔，伯伯，舅舅，稻，谷，米，饭5.4. Componential Analysis•The modern approach to the study of meaning, using semantic feature or semantic component to analyze the meaning of words.•E.g.–boy [HUMAN, YOUNG, MALE]–girl [HUMAN, YOUNG, FEMALE]–man [HUMAN, ADULT, MALE]–woman [HUMAN, ADULT, FEMALE]ADULT→ [+ADULT]YOUNG→ [-ADULT]FEMALE→ [-MALE]–boy [-ADULT, +MALE]–girl [-ADULT, -MALE]–man [+ADULT, +MALE]–woman [+ADULT, -MALE]Note:•a. Two words or expressions which have the same semantic components will be synonymous. E.g.Bachelor & unmarried man: [+adult, +male,+ unmarried]•b. Words which have a contrasting components are antonyms. E.g.Man & woman; boy & girl•c. words which have all the semantic components of another are hyponyms. E.g.Boy, girl → child : [+human, -adult]This componential analysis also explains the sense relations of sentences.•1. The following sentences are self-contradicted sentences as the words or expressions have contradictory semantic components.a. John killed Bill, but Bill did not die.b. John murdered Bill without intending to.•2. Entailment: the truth of the second sentence necessarily follows from the truth of the first while the falsity of the second follows from the falsity of the first. E.g.a. John killed Bill.b. Bill died.a. John is a bachelor.b. John is unmarried.(Because (a) sentences contain words which have all the semantic components of a word in (b).)5.5 Sentence Meaning•The meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it, but it is also obvious that sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the words.•The cat is chasing the mouse.•The mouse is chasing the cat.•I have read that book.•That book I have read.•T he daughter of Queen Elizabeth‟s son is the son of Queen Elizabeth‟s daughter.。
语言学简明教程Chapter 5
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Examples:
1) I hurried home. ( a sentence, also a clause, a simple sentence) 2) John likes linguistics, but Mary is interested in history. coordinating conjunction (coordinate sentence/compound sentence) 3) Because I was late, they went without me. subordinator subordinate clause (从属句) main clause(独立句,主句)
S NP Det A N boy V kicked VP NP Det the N ball.
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Time for Break
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5.3 Clause Types
Seven Clause Patterns in English
SV SVC SVA SVO SVOO SVOC SVOA
They are singing. The job is difficult. He was in the car. Lily is playing chess. I will send you the plan. The boss considers his secretary excellent. I put the plate away.
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complex sentence
Syntax (句法)
—a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. ( More: ….is the study of the structure of phrases, clauses and especially sentences. It is considered as a subset in the study of grammar, which includes all areas of language aspects including phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. Syntax studies how phrases and clauses are constructed. )
新编简明英语语言学教程05Chapter5-sema
"up" and "down", "hot" and "cold".
examples
understanding antonyms helps to express contrasts and nuances more accurately.
importance
antonymy
examples
"John opened the door." (John 是动作 "open" 的发起者)
Agency example
Agency
Suffering from trouble
表示遭受某种困难或不幸，通常由动词或动词短语表示。
Suffering from trouble example
"The company is suffering from financial trouble." (公司正在遭受财务困难)
Types of semantic fields
The Application of Semantic Field Theory
Lexicography: Semantic field theory can be used in lexicography to organize and categorize words in dictionaries and thesauri based on their semantic relationships.
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Point to the matter
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CHAPTER
Semantic implication and presupposition
新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学一、定义1. semantics语义学: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。
二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning意义研究的不同观点5.2.1 The naming theory命名论(by希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论: Words are just names or labels for things.词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。
Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory局限性:1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only.这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object: eg. jump, quickly, pretty, and, in, hearted, think, hard, slowly…)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world: ghost, gragon, unicorn麒麟. 有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。
3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such as joy and impulse. 有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse刺激，这样的抽象概念。
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5.2 Word Classes and Word Order ①The boy kicked the ball angrily.
② Boy the ball kicked angrily. ③ The girl caught the ball angrily. ④ The flower smiles happily.
Chapter 5 Grammar: Clause
5.1 Introduction Clause (小句/子句)
—a group of words which form a grammatical unit and which contain a subject and a finite verb. A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence and often functions as a noun, adjective or adverb.
4
Positional relation or word order
refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of language, the sentence will be ungrammatical or nonsensical.
(coordinate sentence/compound sentence)
3) Because I was late, they went without me.
subordinator subordinate clause (从属句) main clause(独立句,主句)
complex sentence
6
X’ Theory (X-bar Theory)
A girl with brown hair X ’’ P (Specifier) X’ X’ X (complement)
X ’’ P (Phrase level) X’
Specifier
( the)
X (head) complement
Which are correct and which are not, and why? Determiner + noun + verb + determiner+ noun + adv The dog ate the bone noisily. The boy kicked the ball angrily.
(The tall boy has kicked the ball with his right foot angrily. )
Relation of substitutability
refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in the same sentence structures.
a
girl
with brown hair 7
Specifiers
---- Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qualifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP.
Syntactic category(句法范畴）:
a category of words having the same grammatical properties Phrase: expansion of words.
E.g. the new book; run fast “ head words”
2
Syntax (句法)
—a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
( More: ….is the study of the structure of phrases, clauses and especially sentences. It is considered as a subset in the study of grammar, which includes all areas of language aspects including phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. Syntax studies how phrases and clauses are constructed. )
1
Examples:
1) I hurried home.
( a sentence, also a clause, a simple sentence)
2) John likes linguistics, but Mary is interested in history.
coordinating conjunction
Clause (go to the book)
5
The XP rule
XP
Specifier
X
ComplLeabharlann mentHead(Phrase elements)
Note: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P, which refer to nouns, verbs, adjectives and prepositions.