土木工程专业英语课文翻译
土木工程专业外语课文翻译
土木工程专业外语课文翻译专业英语课文翻译Lesson 4Phrases and Expressions1.moisture content 含水量，含湿度; water content 2.cement paste 水泥浆 mortar 3.capillary tension 毛细管张力，微张力 4.gradation of aggregate 骨料级配 coarse fine (crushed stone , gravel ) 5.The British Code PC 100 英国混凝土规范PC 100; nowaday BS 8110 6. coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete 混凝土热膨胀系数 7. The B .S Code 英国标准规范8. sustained load 永久荷载，长期荷载9. permanent plastic strain 永久的塑性应变stress 10. crystal lattice 晶格, 晶格11. cement gel 水泥凝胶体12. water -cement ratio 水灰比13. expansion joint 伸缩缝 14. stability of the structure 结构的稳定性structural stability 15. fatigue strength of concrete 混凝土的疲劳强度 Volume Changes of ConcreteConcrete undergoes volume changes during hardening . 混凝土在硬结过程中会经历体积变化。
If it loses moisture by evaporation , it shrinks , but if the concrete hardens in water , it expands . 如果蒸发失去水分，混凝土会收缩；但如果在水中硬结，它便膨胀。
土木工程专业英语(带翻译)
State-of-the-art report of bridge health monitoring AbstractThe damage diagnosis and healthmonitoring of bridge structures are active areas of research in recent years. Comparing with the aerospace engineering and mechanical engineering, civil engineering has the specialities of its own in practice. For example, because bridges, as well as most civil engineering structures, are large in size, and have quite lownatural frequencies and vibration levels, at low amplitudes, the dynamic responses of bridge structure are substantially affected by the nonstructural components, unforeseen environmental conditions, and changes in these components can easily to be confused with structural damage.All these give the damage assessment of complex structures such as bridges a still challenging task for bridge engineers. This paper firstly presents the definition of structural healthmonitoring system and its components. Then, the focus of the discussion is placed on the following sections:①the laboratory and field testing research on the damage assessment;②analytical developments of damage detectionmethods, including (a) signature analysis and pattern recognition approaches, (b) model updating and system identification approaches, (c) neural networks approaches; and③sensors and their optimum placements. The predominance and shortcomings of each method are compared and analyzed. Recent examples of implementation of structural health monitoring and damage identification are summarized in this paper. The key problem of bridge healthmonitoring is damage automatic detection and diagnosis, and it is the most difficult problem. Lastly, research and development needs are addressed.1 IntroductionDue to a wide variety of unforeseen conditions and circumstance, it will never be possible or practical to design and build a structure that has a zero percent probability of failure. Structural aging, environmental conditions, and reuse are examples of circumstances that could affect the reliability and the life of a structure. There are needs of periodic inspections to detect deterioration resulting from normal operation and environmental attack or inspections following extreme events, such as strong-motion earthquakes or hurricanes. To quantify these system performance measures requires some means to monitor and evaluate the integrity of civil structureswhile in service. Since the Aloha Boeing 737 accident that occurred on April28, 1988, such interest has fostered research in the areas of structural health monitoring and non-destructive damage detection in recent years.According to Housner, et al. (1997), structural healthmonitoring is defined as“the use ofin-situ,non-destructive sensing and analysis of structural characteristics, including the structural response, for detecting changes that may indicate damage or degradation”[1]. This definition also identifies the weakness. While researchers have attempted the integration of NDEwith healthmonitoring, the focus has been on data collection, not evaluation. What is needed is an efficient method to collect data from a structure in-service and process the data to evaluate key performance measures, such as serviceability, reliability, and durability. So, the definition byHousner, et al.(1997)should be modified and the structural health monitoring may be defined as“the use ofin-situ,nondestructive sensing and analysis of structural characteristics, including the structural response, for the purpose of identifying if damage has occurred, determining the location of damage, estimatingthe severityof damage and evaluatingthe consequences of damage on the structures”(Fig.1). In general, a structural health monitoring system has the potential to provide both damage detection and condition assessment of a structure.Assessing the structural conditionwithout removingthe individual structural components is known as nondestructive evaluation (NDE) or nondestructive inspection. NDE techniques include those involving acoustics, dye penetrating,eddy current, emission spectroscopy, fiber-optic sensors, fiber-scope, hardness testing, isotope, leak testing, optics, magnetic particles, magnetic perturbation, X-ray, noise measurements, pattern recognition, pulse-echo, ra-diography, and visual inspection, etc. Mostof these techniques have been used successfullyto detect location of certain elements, cracks orweld defects, corrosion/erosion, and so on. The FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA, USA)was sponsoring a large program of research and development in new technologies for the nondestructive evaluation of highway bridges. One of the two main objectives of the program is to develop newtools and techniques to solve specific problems. The other is to develop technologies for the quantitative assessment of the condition of bridges in support of bridge management and to investigate howbest to incorporate quantitative condition information into bridge management systems. They hoped to develop technologies to quickly, efficiently, and quantitatively measure global bridge parameters, such as flexibility and load-carrying capacity. Obviously, a combination of several NDEtechniques may be used to help assess the condition of the system. They are very important to obtain the data-base for the bridge evaluation.But it is beyond the scope of this review report to get into details of local NDE.Health monitoring techniques may be classified as global and local. Global attempts to simultaneously assess the condition of the whole structure whereas local methods focus NDE tools on specific structural components. Clearly, two approaches are complementaryto eachother. All such available informationmaybe combined and analyzed by experts to assess the damage or safety state of the structure.Structural health monitoring research can be categorized into the following four levels: (I) detecting the existence of damage, (II) findingthe location of damage, (III) estimatingthe extentof damage, and (IV) predictingthe remaining fatigue life. The performance of tasks of Level (III) requires refined structural models and analyses, local physical examination, and/or traditional NDE techniques. To performtasks ofLevel (IV) requires material constitutive information on a local level, materials aging studies, damage mechanics, and high-performance computing. With improved instrumentation and understanding of dynamics of complex structures, health monitoring and damage assessment of civil engineering structures has become more practical in systematic inspection and evaluation of these structures during the past two decades.Most structural health monitoringmethods under current investigation focus on using dynamic responses to detect and locate damage because they are global methods that can provide rapid inspection of large structural systems.These dynamics-based methods can be divided into fourgroups:①spatial-domain methods,②modal-domain methods,③time-domain methods, and④frequency- domain methods. Spatial-domain methods use changes of mass, damping, and stiffness matrices to detect and locate damage. Modal-domain methods use changes of natural frequencies, modal damping ratios, andmode shapesto detect damage. In the frequency domain method, modal quantities such as natural frequencies, damping ratio, and model shapes are identified.The reverse dynamic systemof spectral analysis and the generalized frequency response function estimated fromthe nonlinear auto-regressive moving average (NARMA) model were applied in nonlinear system identification. In time domainmethod, systemparameterswere determined fromthe observational data sampled in time. It is necessaryto identifythe time variation of systemdynamic characteristics fromtime domain approach if the properties of structural systemchangewith time under the external loading condition. Moreover, one can use model-independent methods or model-referenced methods to perform damage detection using dynamic responses presented in any of the four domains. Literature shows that model independent methods can detect the existence of damage without much computational efforts, butthey are not accurate in locating damage. On the otherhand, model-referencedmethods are generally more accurate in locating damage and require fewer sensors than model-independent techniques, but they require appropriate structural models and significant computational efforts. Although time-domain methods use original time-domain datameasured using conventional vibrationmeasurement equipment, theyrequire certain structural information and massive computation and are case sensitive. Furthermore, frequency- and modal-domain methods use transformed data,which contain errors and noise due totransformation.Moreover, themodeling and updatingofmass and stiffnessmatrices in spatial-domain methods are problematic and difficult to be accurate. There are strong developmenttrends that two or three methods are combined together to detect and assess structural damages.For example, several researchers combined data of static and modal tests to assess damages. The combination could remove the weakness of each method and check each other. It suits the complexity of damage detection.Structural health monitoring is also an active area of research in aerospace engineering, but there are significant differences among the aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, and civil engineering in practice. For example,because bridges, as well as most civil engineering structures, are large in size, and have quite lownatural frequencies and vibration levels, at lowamplitudes, the dynamic responses of bridge structure are substantially affected by the non-structural components, and changes in these components can easily to be confused with structural damage. Moreover,the level of modeling uncertainties in reinforced concrete bridges can be much greater than the single beam or a space truss. All these give the damage assessment of complex structures such as bridges a still challenging task for bridge engineers. Recent examples of research and implementation of structural health monitoring and damage assessment are summarized in the following sections.2 Laboratory and field testing researchIn general, there are two kinds of bridge testing methods, static testing and dynamic testing. The dynamic testing includes ambient vibration testing and forcedvibration testing. In ambient vibration testing, the input excitation is not under the control. The loading could be either micro-tremors, wind, waves, vehicle or pedestrian traffic or any other service loading. The increasing popularity of this method is probably due to the convenience of measuring the vibrationresponse while the bridge is under in-service and also due to the increasing availability of robust data acquisition and storage systems. Since the input is unknown, certain assumptions have to be made. Forced vibration testing involves application of input excitation of known force level at known frequencies. The excitation manners include electro-hydraulic vibrators, force hammers, vehicle impact, etc. The static testing in the laboratory may be conducted by actuators, and by standard vehicles in the field-testing.we can distinguish that①the models in the laboratory are mainly beams, columns, truss and/or frame structures, and the location and severity of damage in the models are determined in advance;②the testing has demonstrated lots of performances of damage structures;③the field-testing and damage assessmentof real bridges are more complicated than the models in the laboratory;④the correlation between the damage indicator and damage type,location, and extentwill still be improved.3Analytical developmentThe bridge damage diagnosis and health monitoring are both concerned with two fundamental criteria of the bridges, namely, the physical condition and the structural function. In terms of mechanics or dynamics, these fundamental criteria can be treated as mathematical models, such as response models, modal models and physical models.Instead of taking measurements directly to assess bridge condition, the bridge damage diagnosis and monitoring systemevaluate these conditions indirectly by using mathematical models. The damage diagnosis and health monitoring are active areas of research in recentyears. For example, numerous papers on these topics appear in the proceedings of Inter-national Modal Analysis Conferences (IMAC) each year, in the proceedings of International Workshop on Structural HealthMonitoring (once of two year, at Standford University), in the proceedings of European Conference on Smart materials and Structures and European Conference on Structural Damage AssessmentUsing Advanced Signal Processing Procedures, in the proceedings ofWorld Conferences of Earthquake Engineering, and in the proceedings of International Workshop on Structural Control, etc.. There are several review papers to be referenced, for examples,Housner, et al. (1997)provided an extensive summary ofthe state of the art in control and health monitoring of civil engineering structures[1].Salawu (1997)discussed and reviewed the use of natural frequency as a diagnostic parameter in structural assessment procedures using vibration monitoring.Doebling, Farrar, et al. (1998)presented a through review of the damage detection methods by examining changes in dynamic properties.Zou, TongandSteven (2000)summarized the methods of vibration-based damage and health monitoring for composite structures, especially in delamination modeling techniques and delamination detection.4Sensors and optimum placementOne of the problems facing structural health monitoring is that very little is known about the actual stress and strains in a structure under external excitations. For example, the standard earthquake recordings are made ofmotions of the floors of the structure and no recordings are made of the actual stresses and strains in structural members. There is a need for special sensors to determine the actual performance of structural members. Structural health monitoring requires integrated sensor functionality to measure changes in external environmental conditions, signal processing functionality to acquire, process, and combine multi-sensor and multi-measured information. Individual sensors and instrumented sensor systems are then required to provide such multiplexed information.FuandMoosa (2000)proposed probabilistic advancing cross-diagnosis method to diagnosis-decision making for structural health monitoring. It was experimented in the laboratory respectively using a coherent laser radar system and a CCD high-resolution camera. Results showed that this method was promising for field application. Another new idea is thatneural networktechniques are used to place sensors. For example,WordenandBurrows (2001)used the neural network and methods of combinatorial optimization to locate and classify faults.The static and dynamic data are collected from all kinds of sensorswhich are installed on the measured structures.And these datawill be processed and usable informationwill be extracted. So the sensitivity, accuracy, and locations,etc. of sensors are very important for the damage detections. The more information are obtained, the damage identification will be conducted more easily, but the price should be considered. That’s why the sensors are determined in an optimal ornearoptimal distribution. In aword, the theory and validation ofoptimumsensor locationswill still being developed.5 Examples of health monitoring implementationIn order for the technology to advance sufficiently to become an operational system for the maintenance and safety of civil structures, it is of paramount importance that new analytical developments are ultimately verified with appropriate data obtained frommonitoring systems, which have been implemented on civil structures, such as bridges.Mufti (2001)summarized the applications of SHM of Canadian bridge engineering, including fibre-reinforced polymers sensors, remote monitoring, intelligent processing, practical applications in bridge engineering, and technology utilization. Further study and applications are still being conducted now.FujinoandAbe(2001)introduced the research and development of SHMsystems at the Bridge and Structural Lab of the University of Tokyo. They also presented the ambient vibration based approaches forLaser DopplerVibrometer (LDV) and the applications in the long-span suspension bridges.The extraction of the measured data is very hard work because it is hard to separate changes in vibration signature duo to damage form changes, normal usage, changes in boundary conditions, or the release of the connection joints.Newbridges offer opportunities for developing complete structural health monitoring systems for bridge inspection and co ndition evaluation from“cradle to grave”of the bridges. Existing bridges provide challenges for applying state-of-the-art in structural health monitoring technologies to determine the current conditions of the structural element,connections and systems, to formulate model for estimating the rate of degradation, and to predict the existing and the future capacities of the structural components and systems. Advanced health monitoring systems may lead to better understanding of structural behavior and significant improvements of design, as well as the reduction of the structural inspection requirements. Great benefits due to the introduction of SHM are being accepted by owners, managers, bridge engineers, etc..6 Research and development needsMost damage detection theories and practices are formulated based on the following assumption: that failure or deterioration would primarily affect the stiffness and therefore affect the modal characteristics of the dynamic response of the structure. This is seldom true in practice, because①Traditional modal parameters (natural frequency, damping ratio and mode shapes, etc.) are not sensitive enough to identifyand locate damage. The estimation methods usually assume that structures are linear and proportional damping systems.②Most currently used damage indices depend on the severity of the damage, which is impractical in the field. Most civil engineering structures, such as highway bridges, have redundancy in design and large in size with low natural frequencies. Any damage index should consider these factors.③Scaledmodelingtechniques are used in currentbridge damage detection. Asingle beam/girder models cannot simulate the true behavior of a real bridge. Similitude laws for dynamic simulation and testing should be considered.④Manymethods usually use the undamaged structural modal parameters as the baseline comparedwith the damaged information. This will result in the need of a large data storage capacity for complex structures. But in practice,there are majority of existing structures for which baseline modal responses are not available. Only one developed method(StubbsandKim (1996)), which tried to quantify damagewithout using a baseline, may be a solution to this difficulty. There is a lot of researchwork to do in this direction.⑤Seldommethods have the ability to distinguish the type of damages on bridge structures. To establish the direct relationship between the various damage patterns and the changes of vibrational signatures is not a simple work.Health monitoring requires clearly defined performance criteria, a set of corresponding condition indicators and global and local damage and deterioration indices, which should help diagnose reasons for changes in condition indicators. It is implausible to expect that damage can be reliably detected or tracked by using a single damage index. We note that many additional localized damage indiceswhich relate to highly localized properties ofmaterials or the circumstances may indicate a susceptibility of deterioration such as the presence of corrosive environments around reinforcing steel in concrete, should be also integrated into the health monitoring systems.There is now a considerable research and development effort in academia, industry, and management department regarding global healthmonitoring for civil engineering structures. Several commercial structural monitoring systems currently exist, but further development is needed in commercialization of the technology. We must realize that damage detection and health monitoring for bridge structures by means of vibration signature analysis is a very difficult task. Itcontains several necessary steps, including defining indicators on variations of structural physical condition, dynamic testing to extract such indication parameters,defining the type of damages and remaining capacity or life of the structure, relating the parameters to the defined damage/aging. Unfortunately, to date, no one has accomplished the above steps. There is a lot of work to do in future.桥梁健康监测应用与研究现状摘要桥梁损伤诊断与健康监测是近年来国际上的研究热点,在实践方面,土木工程和航空航天工程、机械工程有明显的差别,比如桥梁结构以及其他大多数土木结构,尺寸大、质量重,具有较低的自然频率和振动水平,桥梁结构的动力响应极容易受到不可预见的环境状态、非结构构件等的影响,这些变化往往被误解为结构的损伤,这使得桥梁这类复杂结构的损伤评估具有极大的挑战性.本文首先给出了结构健康监测系统的定义和基本构成,然后集中回顾和分析了如下几个方面的问题:①损伤评估的室内实验和现场测试;②损伤检测方法的发展,包括:(a)动力指纹分析和模式识别方法, (b)模型修正和系统识别方法, (c)神经网络方法;③传感器及其优化布置等,并比较和分析了各自方法的优点和不足.文中还总结了健康监测和损伤识别在桥梁工程中的应用,指出桥梁健康监测的关键问题在于损伤的自动检测和诊断,这也是困难的问题;最后展望了桥梁健康监测系统的研究和发展方向.关键词:健康监测系统;损伤检测;状态评估;模型修正;系统识别;传感器优化布置;神经网络方法;桥梁结构1概述由于不可预见的各种条件和情况下，设计和建造一个结构将永远不可能或无实践操作性，它有一个失败的概率百分之零。
土木工程专业英语翻译
第一单元In terms of architecture, the structure of a building is and does much more than that. It is an inseparable part of the building form and to varying degrees is a generator of that form. Used skillfully, the building structure can establish or reinforce orders and rhythms among the architectural volumes and planes. It can be visually dominant or recessive. It can develop harmonies or conflicts. It can be both confining and emancipating. And, unfortunately in some cases, it cannot be ignored. It is physical.从建筑学方面来说，建筑结构并非仅仅如此，它是建筑风格一个不可分割的部分，并且在不同程度上体现了建筑风格。
巧妙熟练地设计建筑结构能够在建筑空间和平面上建立或加强格调和韵律。
它做到直观上的显性和隐形，能够发展和谐体或对照体，同时它是局限的和开放的，并且在（某些情况下）一点是不可忽略的，也就是它的实际性。
The requirement of strength means that the materials selected to resist the stresses generated by the loads and shapers of the structure(s) must be adequate. Indeed, a “factor of Safety” is usually provided so that under the anticipated loads, a given material is not stressed to a level even close to its rupture point. The material property called stiffness is considered with the requirement of strength. Stiffness is different from strength in that it directly involves how much a structure strains or deflects under load. A material that is very strong but lacking in stiffness will deform too much to be of value in resisting the forces applied.强度要求意味着选择合适的材料来承受由荷载引起的应力和保持适当结构形状。
土木工程专业英语(苏小卒)课文翻译13、15、17、18单元
土木工程专业英语(苏小卒)课文翻译13、15、17、18单元Unit 13 第十三单元Survey测量教学目标了解测量的内容、方法、范围和原理了解常用的测量类型熟悉各种测量方法和类型的词汇熟悉科技类文献的常用句型熟悉map、chart、plot、construction、draw的含义；so far、heretofore、by far的含义；have to do with、be referred to、be related to的含义；compatible with、pertain to 、application to 的含义；；layout、staking out 的含义；construction 的不同含义。
Surveying has to do with（与..有关）the determination of the relative spatial location（相对空间位置）of points on or near the surface of the earth. It is the art（技术）of measuring horizontal and vertical distance between objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines, and of establishing points by predetermined angularand linear measurements（角测量法和线性测量法）.测量是关于确定地球表面上或接近地球表面的点的相对空间位置。
它是测量物体之间水平与垂直距离、测量线条之间夹角、确定线条方向以及通过预先确定角测量法和线性测量法来建立点的技术。
Accompanying the actual measurement（度量）of survey are mathematical calculations. Distance, angles, directions, locations, elevations, areas, and volumes are thus determined from data of survey. Also, much of the information of the survey is portrayed graphically（图示描述）by the construction of maps, profiles（纵剖面图）, cross sections（横剖面图）, and diagrams(图表）.数学计算伴随着测量中的实际量度。
土木工程专业英语原文及翻译
成绩徐州工程学院08 级土木(1) 班课程考试试卷考试科目专业英语考试时间学生姓名所在院系土木学院任课教师徐州工程学院印制Stability of Slopes9.1 IntroductionTranslational slips tend to occur where the adjacent stratum is at a relatively shallow depth below the surface of the slope:the failure surface tends to be plane and roughly parallel to the pound slips usually occur where the adjacent stratum is at greater depth，the failure surface consisting of curved and plane sections．In practice, limiting equilibrium methods are used in the analysis of slope stability. It is considered that failure is on the point of occurring along an assumed or a known failure surface．The shear strength required to maintain a condition of limiting equilibrium is compared with the available shear strength of the soil，giving the average factor of safety along the failure surface．The problem is considered in two dimensions，conditions of plane strain being assumed．It has been shown that a two-dimensional analysis gives a conservative result for a failure on a three-dimensional(dish-shaped) surface．9.2 Analysis for the Case of φu =0This analysis, in terms of total stress，covers the case of a fully saturated clay under undrained conditions, i.e. For the condition immediately after construction．Only moment equilibrium is considered in the analysis．In section, the potential failure surface is assumed to be a circular arc. A trial failure surface(centre O，radius r and length L awhere F is the factor of safety with respect to shear strength．Equating moments about O：Therefore(9.1)The moments of any additional forces must be taken into account．In the event of a tension crackdeveloping ，as shown in Fig.9.2，the arc length L a is shortened and a hydrostatic force will act normal to the crack if the crack fills with water．It is necessary to analyze the slope for a number of trial failure surfaces in order that the minimum factor of safety can be determined．Based on the principle of geometric similarity，Taylor[9.9]published stability coefficients for the analysis of homogeneous slopes in terms of total stress．For a slope of height H the stability coefficient (N s) for the failure surface along which the factor of safety is a minimum is(9.2)For the case ofφu =0，values of N ss depends on the slope angleβand the depth factor D，where DH is the depth to a firm stratum．Gibson and Morgenstern [9.3] published stability coefficients for slopes in normally consolidated clays in which the undrained strength c u(φu =0) varies linearly with depth．Example 9.1A 45°slope is excavated to a depth of 8 m in a deep layer of saturated clay of unit weight 19 kN／m3:the relevant shear strength parameters are c u =65 kN／m2 andφuIn Fig.9.4, the cross-sectional area ABCD is 70 m2.Weight of soil mass=70×19=1330kN／mThe centroid of ABCD is 4.5 m from O．The angle AOC is 89.5°and radius OC is 12.1 m．The arc length ABC is calculated as 18.9m．The factor of safety is given by：This is the factor of safety for the trial failure surface selected and is not necessarily the minimum factor of safety．The minimum factor of safety can be estimated by using Equation 9.2.From Fig.9.3，β=45°and assuming that D is large，the value of N s9.3 The Method of Slicesαand the height, measured on the centre-1ine,is h. The factor of safety is defined as the ratio of the available shear strength(τf)to the shear strength(τm) which must be mobilized to maintain a condition of limiting equilibrium, i.e.The factor of safety is taken to be the same for each slice，implying that there must be mutual support between slices，i.e. forces must act between the slices．The forces (per unit dimension normal to the section) acting on a slice are：1.The total weight of the slice，W=γb h (γsat where appropriate)．2.The total normal force on the base，N (equal to σl)．In general thisforce has two components，the effective normal force N'(equal toσ'l ) and the boundary water force U(equal to ul )，where u is the pore water pressure at the centre of the base and l is the length of the base．3.The shear force on the base，T=τm l.4.The total normal forces on the sides, E1 and E2.5.The shear forces on the sides，X1 and X2.Any external forces must also be included in the analysis．The problem is statically indeterminate and in order to obtain a solution assumptions must be made regarding the interslice forces E and X：the resulting solution for factor of safety is not exact．Considering moments about O，the sum of the moments of the shear forces T on the failure arc AC must equal the moment of the weight of the soil mass ABCD．For any slice the lever arm of W is rsinα,therefore∑Tr=∑Wr sinαNow,For an analysis in terms of effective stress，Or(9.3)where L a is the arc length AC．Equation 9.3 is exact but approximations are introduced in determining the forces N'．For a given failure arc the value of F will depend on the way in which the forces N' areestimated．The Fellenius SolutionIn this solution it is assumed that for each slice the resultant of the interslice forces is zero．The solution involves resolving the forces on each slice normal to the base，i.e.N'=WCOSα-ulHence the factor of safety in terms of effective stress (Equation 9.3) is given by(9.4)The components WCOSαand Wsinαcan be determined graphically for each slice．Alternatively，the value of αcan be measured or calculated．Again，a series of trial failure surfaces must be chosen in order to obtain the minimum factor of safety．This solution underestimates the factor of safety：the error，compared with more accurate methods of analysis，is usually within the range 5-2%.For an analysis in terms of total stress the parameters C u andφu are used and the value of u in Equation 9.4 is zero．If φu=0 ,the factor of safety is given by(9.5)As N’ does not appear in Equation 9.5 an exact value of F is obtained．The Bishop Simplified SolutionIn this solution it is assumed that the resultant forces on the sides of theslices are horizontal，i.e.X l-X2=0For equilibrium the shear force on the base of any slice isResolving forces in the vertical direction:(9.6)It is convenient to substitutel=b secαFrom Equation 9.3，after some rearrangement，(9.7)The pore water pressure can be related to the total ‘fill pressure’ at anypoint by means of the dimensionless pore pressure ratio，defined as(9.8)(γsat where appropriate)．For any slice,Hence Equation 9.7 can be written:(9.9)As the factor of safety occurs on both sides of Equation 9.9,a process of successive approximation must be used to obtain a solution but convergence is rapid．Due to the repetitive nature of the calculations and the need to select an adequate number of trial failure surfaces，the method of slices is particularly suitable for solution by computer．More complex slope geometry and different soil strata can be introduced．In most problems the value of the pore pressure ratio r u is not constant over the whole failure surface but，unless there are isolated regions of high pore pressure，an average value(weighted on an area basis) is normally used in design．Again，the factor of safety determined by this method is an underestimate but the error is unlikely to exceed 7％and in most cases is less than 2％．Spencer [9.8] proposed a method of analysis in which the resultant Interslice forces are parallel and in which both force and moment equilibrium are satisfied．Spencer showed that the accuracy of the Bishop simplified method，in which only moment equilibrium is satisfied, is due to the insensitivity of the moment equation to the slope of the interslice forces．Dimensionless stability coefficients for homogeneous slopes，based on Equation 9.9，have been published by Bishop and Morgenstern [9.2].It can be shown that for a given slope angle and given soil properties th e factor of safety varies linearly with γu and can thus be expressed asF=m-nγu(9.10)where，m and n are the stability coefficients．The coefficients，m and n arefunctions ofβ,φ’，the dimensionless number c'/γand the depth factor D.Example 9.2Using the Fellenius method of slices，determine the factor of safety，in terms of effective stress，of the slope shown in Fig.9.6 for the given failure surface．The unit weight of the soil，both above and below the water table，is 20 kN／m 3 and the relevant shear strength parameters are c’=10 kN/m2andφ’=29°. W) of each slice is given byW=γbh=20×1.5×h=30h kN／mThe height h for each slice is set off below the centre of the base and thenormal and tangential components hcosαand hsinαWcosα=30h cosαW sinα=30h sinαThe pore water pressure at the centre of the base of each slice is taken to beγw z w，where z w is the vertical distance of the centre point below the water table (as shown in figure)．This procedure slightly overestimates t he pore water pressure which strictly should be) γw z e，where z e is the vertical distance below the point of intersection of the water table and the equipotential through the centre of the slice base．The error involved is on the safe side．The arc length (L a) is calculated as 14.35 mm．The results are given inTable 9.1∑Wcosα=30×17.50=525kN／m∑W sinα=30×8.45=254kN／m∑(wcos α-ul)=525—132=393kN／m9.4 Analysis of a Plane Translational SlipIt is assumed that the potential failure surface is parallel to the surface of the slope and is at a depth that is small compared with the length of the slope. The slope can then be considered as being of infinite length，with end effects being ignored．The slope is inclined at angle βmz (0<m<1)above the failure plane．Steady seepage is assumed to be taking place in a direction parallel to the slope．The forces on the sides of any vertical slice are equal and opposite and the stress conditions are the same at every point on the failure plane．In terms of effective stress，the shear strength of the soil along the failure plane isand the factor of safety isThe expressions forσ,τandμare:The following special cases are of interest．If c’=0 and m=0 (i.e. the soilbetween the surface and the failure plane is not fully saturated),then(9.11)If c’=0 and m=1(i.e. the water table coincides with the surface of the slope)，then：(9.12)It should be noted that when c’=0 the factor of safety is independent ofthe depth z．If c’ is greater than zero，the factor of safety is a function of z, and βmay exceedφ’ provided z is less than a critical value．For a total stress analysis the shear strength parameters c u andφu are used with a zero value of u. Example 9.3A long natural slope in a fissured overconsolidated clay is inclined at 12°to the horizontal．The water table is at the surface and seepage is roughly parallel to the slope．A slip has developed on a plane parallel to the surface at a depth of 5 m．The saturated unit weight of the clay is 20 kN／m3．The peak strength parameters are c’=10 kN/m2andφ’=26°；the residual strength parameters are c r’=0 andφr’=18°.Determine the factor of safety alo ng the slip plane(a)in terms of the peak strength parameters (b)in terms of the residual strength parameters．With the water table at the surface(m=1)，at any point on the slip plane，Using the peak strength parameters，Then the factor of safety is given byUsing the residual strength parameters，the factor of safety can beobtained from Equation 9.12:9.5 General Methods of AnalysisMorgenstern and Price[9.4]developed a general analysis in which all boundary and equilibrium conditions are satisfied and in which the failure surface may be any shape，circular，non-circular or compound．The soil mass above the failure plane is divided into sections by a number of vertical planes and the problem is rendered statically determinate by assuming a relationship between the forces E and X on the vertical boundaries between each section．This assumption is of the formX=λf(x)E (9.13)where f(x)is an arbitrary function describing the pattern in which the ratio X/E varies across the soil mas s andλis a scale factor．The value ofλis obtained as part of the solution along with the factor of safety F．The values of the forces E and X and the point of application of E can be determined at each vertical boundary．For any assumed function f(x) it is necessary to examine the solution in detail to ensure that it is physically reasonable (i.e. no shear failure or tension must be implied within the soil mass above the failure surface). The choice of the function f(x) does not appear to influence the computed value of F by more than about 5% and f(x)=l is a common assumption．The analysis involves a complex process of iteration for the values ofλ and F，described byMorgenstern and Price[9.5]，and the use of a computer is essential.Bell [9.1] proposed a method of analysis in which all the conditions of equilibrium are satisfied and the assumed failure surface may be of any shape．The soil mass is divided into a number of vertical slices and statical determinacy is obtained by means of an assumed distribution of normal stress along the failure surface．Sarma [9.6] developed a method，based on the method of slices，in which the critical earthquake acceleration required to produce a condition of limiting equilibrium is determined．An assumed distribution of vertical interslice forces is used in the analysis．Again，all the conditions of equilibrium are satisfied and the assumed failure surface may be of any shape．The static factor of safety is the factor by which the shear strength of the soil must be reduced such that the critical acceleration is zero．The use of a computer is also essential for the Bell and Sarma methods and all solutions must be checked to ensure that they are physically acceptable．References[9.1]Bell,J,M.(1968):’General Slope Stability Analysis’, Journal ASCE,V01.94,No.SM6.：‘Stability Coefficients for Earth Slopes Geotechnique，．’，Vo1.1 5,No.1.‘A Numerical Method for Solving the Equations of Stability of General Slip Surfaces’Computer Journal，Voi.9,P.388．[9.6]Sarma,S.K. (1973):’Stability Analysis of Embankments and Slopes’,Geotechnique，Vo1.23，No.2.[9.7]Skempton,A.W.(1970):’First-Time Slides in Overconsolidated Clays’(Technical Note)，[9.8]Spencer，E．(1 967)：‘A Method of Analysis of the Stability of Embankments Assuming Parallel Inter-SliceForces’，Geotechnique，．[9.9]Taylor,D.W.(1937):’Stability of Earth Slopes’,Journal of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers，Vo1.24,No.3边坡稳定9.1 引言重力和渗透力易引起天然边坡、开挖形成的边坡、堤防边坡和土坝的不稳定性。
土木工程专业英语带译文
Chapter 6
If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel, is placed in concrete, then the composite material, reinforced concrete, resists not only compression but also bending and other direct tensile actions. A reinforced concrete section where the concrete resists the compression and steel resists the tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the construction industry.
6. —We shall finish the civil work by the end of the year. 在年底前我们将完成土建工作。 —Cement steel and timber are the most important construction materials used in civil engineering. 水泥、钢材和木材是土建工程中最重要的建筑材料。 7. These are the anchor bolts (rivets, unfinished bolts, high-strength structural bolts) for the structure. 这是用于结构的锚定螺栓（铆钉、粗制螺栓、高强度结构用螺栓）。
Chapter 6
Chapter 6 Reinforced Concrete
土木工程专业英语第二版 段兵延主编_经典完整版翻译
《土木工程专业英语》参考译文第一课土木工程学土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科,是指规划,设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。
此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构,从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。
土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂,给排水系统,医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。
他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路,管线，摩天大楼,以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。
此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。
土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。
在178２年,英国人JohｎＳmｅaton 为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。
自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师,尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。
领域。
因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。
不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。
一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置,如地下水水位，下水道,和电力线。
岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。
环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染,对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。
交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。
同时,结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划,设计和说明。
从项目开始到结束,对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。
根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费,所有工作的进度表,订购工作所需要的材料和设备,雇佣承包商和分包商,还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。
贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。
计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件(即计算机辅助设计,或者ＣAD）并对其进行管理。
土木工程专业英语课后翻译
一.1.受压构件是只承受轴向压力的结构构件。
Compression members are those structural elements that are subjected only to axial compressive forces.2.公式1.1要成立，构件必须是弹性的并且其两端能自由转动但不能横向移动。
For Eq.1.1 to be valid,the member must be elastic,and it's ends must be free to rotate but not translate laterally.3.临界荷载有时被称为欧拉荷载或欧拉屈服荷载。
The critical load is sometimes referred to as the Euler load or the Euler buckling load.4.图1.2中的应力-应变曲线不同于延性钢的应力-应变曲线，因为它有明显的非线性区域。
The stress-strain curve in Fig.1.2 is differet from the ones for ductile steel because it has a pronounced region of nonlinearity.5.其他因素，像焊接和冷弯，都能影响残余应力，但冷却过程是残余应力的主要来源。
Other factors,such as welding and cold bending to create curvature in a beam, can contribute to be the residual stress,but the cooling process is the chief source.二1。
作用在结构上的力被称为荷载The forces that act on a structure are called loads.2．恒载就是固定不变的荷载，包括结构自身的重量。
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土木工程专业英语课文翻译土木工程专业英语课文翻译土木工程专业，是大学的一种自然学科。
专门培养掌握各类土木工程学科的基本理论和基本知识，能在房屋建筑、地下建筑、道路、隧道、桥梁建筑、水电站、港口及近海结构与设施。
以下是小编整理土木工程专业英语课文翻译的资料，欢迎阅读参考。
weight of the project. Environmental specialists study the project’s impact on the local area: the potential for air and groundwater pollution, the project’s impact on local animal and plant life, and how the project can be designed to meet government requirements aimed at protecting the environment. Transportation specialists determine what kind of facilities are needed to ease the burden on local roads and other transportation networks that will result from the completed project. Meanwhile, structural specialists use preliminary data to make detailed designs, plans, and specifications for the project. Supervising and coordinating the work of these civil engineer specialists, from beginning to end of the project, are the construction management specialists. Based on information supplies by the other specialists, construction management civil engineers estimate quantities and costs of materials and labor, schedule all work, order materials and equipment for the job, hire contractors and subcontractors, and perform other supervisory work to ensure the project is completed on time and as specified.领域。
因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。
不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。
一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。
岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。
环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。
交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。
同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。
从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。
根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。
Throughout any given project, civil engineers make extensive use of computers. Computers are used to design the project’s various elements (computer-aided design, or CAD) and to manage it. Computers are necessity for the modern civil engineer because they permit the engineer to efficiently handle the large quantities of data needed in determining the best way to construct a project.贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。
计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者 CAD）并对其进行管理。
计算机成为了现代土木res built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities.土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。
此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。
Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, orresidential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities.土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。
他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。
此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。
The word civil derives from the Latin for citizen. In 1782, Englishman John Smeaton used the term to differentiate his nonmilitary engineering work from that of the military engineers who predominated at the time. Since then, the term civil engineering has often been used to refer to engineers who build public facilities, although the field is much broader.土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民” 。
在1782 年，英国人John Smeaton 为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。
自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。
Scope. Because it is so broad, civil engineering is subdivided into a number of technical specialties. Depending on the type of project, the skills of many kinds of civil engineer specialists may be needed. When a project begins, the site is surveyed and mapped by civil engineers who locate utility placement—water, sewer, and power lines. Geotechnical specialists perform soil experiments to determine if the earth can bear.工程师的必备品，因为它使得工程师能有效地掌控所需的大量数据从而确定建造一项工程的最佳方法。
Structural engineering. In this specialty, civil engineers planand design structures of all types, including bridge, dams, power plants, supports for equipment, special structures for offshore projects, the United States space program, transmission towers, giant astronomical and radio telescopes, and many other kinds of projects. Using computers, structural engineers determine the forces a structure must resist: its own weight, wind and hurricane forces, temperature changes that expand or contract construction materials, and earthquakes. They also determine the combination of appropriate materials: steel, concrete, plastic, asphalt, brick, aluminum, or other construction materials.结构工程学。