浅析不同文化中的身势语

Body Language in Different Cultures[Abstract] “Body language” is a kind of nonverbal communication with the richest meanings and great function. Like verbal language, it is also a part of culture. But not all body languages mean the same thing in different cultures. Different people have different ways of making nonverbal communication. For example: different people have different ideas about the proper distance between people conversing; the appropriateness of physical contact varies with different cultures. One could draw up quite a list of “rules” about eye contact: to look or not to look; when to look and how long to look; who and who not to look at. Facial expressions also vary among individuals and cultures; gestures can be particularly troublesome, for a slight difference in making the gesture itself can mean something quite different from that intended, and, a wrong interpretation of a gesture can arouse quite unexpected reactions and so on. So in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language, one should also know the gestures, body movements and mannerisms etc. that accompany a particular language. Some authorities feel that the two are dependent on each other. This is certainly true in most situations. But it is also true that in certain situations body action contradicts what is being said, just as the spoken words may mean something quite different from what body language communicates. When this occurs, one must try to get further information, or guess the meaning from the context of thesituation. In a sense, all body language should be interpreted; within a given context; to ignore the overall situation could be misleading. A comparative study of Chinese and American body language shows a number of similarities and diversities of body language. It shows the importance of knowing the specific gestures that go with a language. Observation shows that a truly bilingual person switches his body language at the same time he switches languages. In the following, the importance of body language on nonverbal communication in different cultures and their origins will be focused in order to lessen conflicts in cross-culture communication and make it much better and easier.[Key Words] nonverbal communication; body language; different culture; different ways浅析不同文化中的身势语【摘要】“身势语”同语言一样，都是文化的一部分。

在不同文化中，身势语的意义并不完全相同。

各民族有不同的非语言交际方式.例如：不同的民族在谈话时，对双方保持多大距离才合适有不同的看法；谈话双方身体接触的次数多少因文化不同而各异；在目光接触这一方面也有许多规定：看不看对方，什么时候看，看多久，什么人可以看，什么人不可以看；脸部表情也因个人和文化而异；打手势时动作稍有不同，就会与原来的意图有所区别，对某种手势理解错了，也会引起意外的反应等等。

因此，要用外语进行有效的交际，在说某种语言时就得了解说话人的手势，动作，举止等所表示的意思。

而有些权威人士认为两者相互依存。

在大多数情况下这是对的。

在某些情况下，人体动作与所说的话不一致，口头说的与身势语表达的意思不一样。

这时要借助其他信息或从整个情况中猜测说话人的意思，从某种意义上说，一切身势语都要放在一定的情景下去理解；忽视了整个情景就会发生误解。

而通过中美身势语对比研究表明，两者有相似的地方，也有差异的地方，说明了解另一种语言中身势语的重要性。

可见，真正掌握两种语言的人在转变语言的同时也改变了身势语。

本文拟通过揭示身势语在日常交流中的重要性并介绍各种不同的身势语及其文化差异，目的是尽量减少跨文化交际中的摩擦冲突，使其更加轻松容易。

【关键词】非语言交际；身势语；不同文化；不同方式1. IntroductionLanguage is the most important communicational tool of human beings. To exchange information with language is called verbal communication. There is another way of exchanging information, which is being used all the time, but is often neglected. That is nonverbal communication. People could express their feelings and attitudes through facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, physical contact and so on. Or in other w ords, “our body communicates with the environments around all the time.”[1] P3 Since no definite meaning of language is used, people call it nonverbal communication. And body language is the main part of nonverbal communication. “People learn most about th e meaning of nonverbalmessages by studying them in relationship to verbal messages. ” [2] P104 There is nothing particularly novel in emphasis on the close relation of nonverbal language and speech, though gesture has nearly always been regarded as parallel with speech but as a necessarily subordinate means of expression. This despite evidence for the existence of wholly gesture languages in North America and Africa. The analysis made of gesture languages naturally developing among the deaf and dumb and the long history of pantomime and mime, using gestures to convey meaning without words.According to Dr. Alexander Loven, “once people know how to interpret body languages, there would be no verbal language that can express more clearly than they can.”[3] P1032. The necessity and importance of learning body language on nonverbal communicationDo you expect other cultures to adopt your customs or are you willing to adopt theirs? This might be translated to how business or even foreign relations are to be conducted. Do you compromise or force other peoples to deal only on your terms? You may not have time to learn a language, but most advisably, you need to take time to learn the "signals", which is a powerful communicator.As the global village continues to shrink and cultures collide, it isessential for everybody to become more sensitive, more aware, and more observant to the myriad motions, gestures, and body languages surrounding each day. And as many people cross over cultural borders, it would be fit for them to respect, to learn, and to understand more about the effective, yet powerful "silent language”, body language.In almost any Japanese film, it is obvious that people bow when they meet. If these men were fully "Americanized," they might shake hands instead: People from different cultures use different body languages or gestures, postures, facial expressions, and eye contact-to communicate nonverbally. Understanding body languages of other cultures can prevent a great deal of misunderstanding.Body language communicates as effectively as words- maybe even more effectively. Everyone uses gestures daily, almost instinctively, from beckoning to a waiter, or punctuating a business presentation with visual signals to airport ground attendants guiding an airline pilot into thejet-way or a parent using a whole dictionary of gestures to teach (or preach to) a child.Body language are indeed inextricably in social lives, and the "vocabulary" of body language can be at once informative entertaining and dangerous. Gestures can be menacing (two drivers on a freeway), warm (an open-armed welcome), instructive (a police man giving road directions, or even sensuous (the liquid movement of a Hawaiian huladancer).Bear in mind that some body languages are in general use, but there may always be exceptions. In recent years, western and contemporary values and ideas have become more popular and has either influenced, altered, and even replaced, some body languages that are more traditional. Thus understanding human behavior is tricky stuff. No two people behave in precisely the same way. Nor do people from the same culture all perform exactly the same gestures and body language uniformly. For almost any gestures there will probably be a minority within a given nationality who might say, "Well, some might attach that meaning to it, but to me it means..." and then they will provide a different interpretation.In the world of body language, the best single piece of advice is to remember the two A's, "ask" and be "aware". If you see a motion or body language that is new or confusing, ask a local person what it signifies. Then, be aware of the many body signs and customs around you. Nonverbal communication ranges from facial expression to body language. Gestures, signs, and use of space are also important in nonverbal communication. Multicultural differences in body language, facial expression, use of space, and especially, gestures, are enormous and enormously open to misinterpretation. Learning about body language is useful both in traveling and in international relations. And in amulticultural society like the United States, it can also be helpful in daily life.3. The concrete types and application of the body language3.1 Types of body language3.1.1 Distance between people conversingThe conversion of distance between you and the people with whom you interact is as much a part of communication experiences as the words you exchange. Notice that you might allow one person to stand very close to you while keep another at a distance. All beasts, birds and fishes have their own space. Like animals, human being also have the sense of personal space. According to Dr. Hall, there are four kinds of boundaries of distance for US people: “(i) intimate distance, 0-45 cm. It is fit for married couples and lovers; (ii) personal distance, 45-120cm . This is only fit for the communication between friends, acquaintances or relatives;(iii) social distance. 120-360 cm. It is used in the situation of dealing with impersonal affairs.(iv) public distance, 360-750cm. It is available in informal parties.”[4]P31From the four divisions by Dr. Hall, we could note that not only in America, in other activity areas, people would also alter their distanceaccording to their relation. Different people and culture compose of different range of space. Most of the people in English-speaking countries (England, the United States, Germany, Australia) that stress individualism generally demand more space than do the people from collective cultures and tend to take an active, aggressive stance when their space is violated. It is found that most English-speaking people like the English, Americans and Australians do not like people to be too close unless there is a reason, such as showing affection or encouraging intimacy. Germans, too, regard private space as sacred. In collective cultures, people are more interdependent. The members work, play, live and sleep in close proximity to one another. Mexico and most Arab cultures are good examples. In Mexico the physical distance between people when engaged in conversation is closer than what is usual north of the border. With regard to Arabs, closeness cannot be avoided. Typical Arab conversations are at close range. While waiting for shopping, if it is possible, they would stick into the queue with perfect assurance. Because they don‟t hold the conception of privacy.“Take Britain and Italian for example, there would be a very interesting sense when people from the two countries are talking to each other. It seems that the Italian would always be the aggressor while the English be the defender. However, in their own condition, they just want to hold the communication space they used to.”[5] P37 A person‟s use of space isdirectly linked to the value system of their culture. For example, oriental people could bear the physical touch in a crowd bus, while western people may find it unable to endure. As to personal space, Chinese, Japanese, even most of Asian people have fewer requirements than western people. For westerners value more on individualism.3.1.2 Physical contactIn the part of space habit, the frequency and degree of physical contact between communicators usually vary according to their culture. Physical contact only occurs in intimate distance and personal distance. In intimate distance, people could embrace, hug, kiss and caress each other. In personal distance, people could touch each other, shake hands or observe the subtle facial expressions of the counterpart.“In English-speaking countries, such as the United States, intimate distance is only available between the most familiar persons. Any physical contact is avoided among ordinary friends and acquaintances. Even in a crowded lift, any touch between each other is not allowed. If you touch someone slightly or unconsciously, you have to apologize immediately by saying “sorry”, “Very sorry”, “Excuse me” and so on, or else you will be treated with disdain or even more intense response.” [6] P32-33 The culture of these countries particularly stresses th e “private space”. It is not allowed to be invaded. People would keep their personal space which is called “moving area” in communication. And the size ofthe space is usually a signal of the degrees of the person‟s privacy and the relationship between the two communicators. In China, the sense of private space is comparatively weak. For with the large population, crowdedness is quite ordinary. People may feel uncomfortable with the physical contact in crowd, but in most of times, they would forgive and endure this kind of behavior rather than get angry. Although Japanese also don‟t possess strong sense of personal space, they have strict limits towards physical contact. However, Arabs would be more in favor of physical contact. They like to stand close, no matter at home or in public area. When encountering friends, they would embrace, caress and smell each other, even touch the noses.[7] P43 Western people would be terrified by the sight of these kinds of greeting.Hugging is a common form of physical contact. It often occurs between married couples or old friends who have been parted for a long time. In many countries, it is quite common that two females embrace together and kiss each other to express greeting. In English-speaking countries, such as America, England, females often hug their male friends gently and kiss their cheeks to say goodbye. Meanwhile, males in most East Asian and non-English-speaking countries only shake hands but not hug to express welcome. [8] P14Japanese are used to bow. In Arabs, Russia, France, Eastern Europe and some Mediterranean countries, two males usually express welcome by warm hugging or kissing cheek. So do someLatin American countries.In China, it is often to see some young people of the same sex walking hand in hand, shoulder by shoulder or hugging. Dancing with same sex friends is also quite usual, however, in English-speaking countries, physical contact between same sex may be regarded as a subtle signal. When people past their childhood, they should not walk hand in hand with their friends of the same sex. And it is rare to find two same sex persons embracing together and dancing, which would often means that they are homosexual couple.People would always make some facial expressions or gestures that shows their inner emotions when they are talking. Charles Lamb, a famous British novelist, described in his Poor Relation his hero as:“He enterth smiling-embarrassed. He holdeth out his hand to you to shake,and-draweth it back again. He casually looketh in aboutdinner-time-when the table is full. He offereth to go away, seeing you have company-but is induced to stay.”[9] P298 No dialogue and no mental description here, but it is easy to know exactly from his gesture their relationship and their mental activities.3.1.3 Eye contactThe eyes are extremely important communication tool, for the number of massage one can send with his eyes is nearly limitless. In sufficient or excessive eye contact may create communication barriers. It is importantin relationships because it serves to show intimacy, attention, and influence.Some of the following words used to describe a person‟s eyes are heard daily: direct, sensual, sardonic, expressive, intelligent, penetrating, sad, cheerful, worldly, hard, trusting, and suspicious.Most studies, as well as your personal observations, tell you that culture modifies the amount of eye contact in which you engage and who is the recipient of the eye contact. Patterns of eye contact vary from culture to culture. In many societies, avoiding eye contact communicates respect and deference, although this may vary from context to context. “For many Americans, maintaining eye contact indicates that one is paying attention, showing respect.”[10] P35When they speak with others, most Americans look away from their listeners most of the time. They might look at their listeners every 10 to 15 seconds. When a speaker has finished taking a turn, he or she looks directly at the listener to signal completion.The main difference between Chinese and English eye contact focus on the eye etiquette. “On man-to-man occasion, Americans are required to look at the other man in their eyes to show their honesty, or they will be regarded as treated, disdained, scared, indifferent or absent-minded.”[11] P117-118 Thus there is a saying in American English: “Never try to believe those who dare not look squarely at your eyes.” When theycommunicate, Americans are used to staring at his or her counterpart‟s eyes, look at him or her carefully and treat it as confidence. Whileloo king away politely will be consider as disrespect. “However, in Chinese culture, people who are engaged in interpersonal communication will not look directly into others‟ eyes, especially when the youth talk to the old or the subordinate talk to his superior. They are asked to lower their head and nod in order to show their modesty and respect.” [12]P117-118Eye contact often reflects a cultural value. India and Egypt are two good examples of eye contact mirroring a cultural value. In India, the amount of eye contact that is appropriate depends on one‟s position (people of different socioeconomic classes avoid eye contact with each other). “In Egypt the issue is not social statues but rather gender. Women and men who are strangers may avoid eye contact out of modesty and respect for religious rules.”[13] P221There also are gender variations among members of dominant culture in how people use their eyes to communicate. For example, both sexes signal interests and involvements with others by making eye contact, but men also use it to challenge others or to assert their statues and power. In addition, research on the subject indicates that in most instances, women maintain more eye contact than men do; women look at other women more and hold eye contact longer with one another than men do.Therefore, it is necessary to add that gender characteristics regarding eye contact vary from culture to culture.3.1.4 Facial expressions“Many people and scholars have claimed that facial expressions and eye behaviours are probably the most significant areas of the body for communicating nonverbal messages, especially, attitudes and emotion. And it is apparently true that when conversing with each other, people tend to look at their interlocutor‟s face, often ignoring other p arts of the body.”[14]P402Facial expressions carry meaning determined by contexts and relationships. Many facial expressions have been identified as having an innate basis in humans. For instance, the smile, which is typically an expression of pleasure, h as many functions. A woman‟s smile at a policeman who is about to give her a ticket does not carry the same meaning as the smile she gives to a young child. A smile may show affection, convey politeness, or disguise true feelings. Pain is conveyed by a grimace, which also signifies disgust or disapproval. Surprise, shock, or disbelief can be shown by raising the eyebrows. A wink given to a friend may mean “You and I have a secret.” Or “I‟m just kidding.” Between a man and woman, a wink can be flirtatious. Our faces easily reveal emotions and attitudes.The degree of facial expressiveness also varies among individuals andcultures. The fact that members of one culture do not express their emotions as openly as members of another does not mean they do not express emotions. Rather, there are cultural restraints on the amount of nonverbal expressiveness permitted. Given individual differences, it is difficult to make generalizations about a cultural style of communication. Americans express themselves facially in varying degrees. People from certain ethnic backgrounds in the United States may use their hands, bodies, and faces more than white Americans. “In China, Han Nationality always and must welcome the guest with a smile, while some India tribes in US use lou dly crying instead.”[15] P943.1.5 GesturesGestures refer to specific body movements that carry meanings. Gestures are both innate and learned. They are used in all cultures, tend to be tied to speech processes, and are usually automatic.In the United States pointing is a very common gesture. Americans point to objects and at people with the index finger. Directions are even given by pointing in one direction or another with the index finger. Germans point with the little finger, and Japanese point with the entire hand, palm up. In much of Asia, pointing at a person with the index finger is considered rude.As have already indicated, there are a limitless number of idiosyncratic gestures found in each culture. There are the gestures whose meaning arethe feature and property of a particular culture. For example, in Argentina, one twists an imaginary mustache to signify that everything is “okay”. “In the United States, making a circle with one‟s thumb and index finger while extending the other is emblematic of the word …ok‟; In Japan (Korea) it signifies … money‟ (okane) ;”[16] P34and among Arabs this gesture is usually accompanied by a baring of teeth, and together they signify extreme hostility. This same gesture to a Tunisian means “ I‟ll kill you.”The taken- for- granted sign one makes of beckoning is also culturally based. “In China, when a person wants to signal a friend to come, he or she usually makes the gesture with the hand with the palm down and drawing the fingers toward the palm. When seeing this gesture, many Americans think the other person is waving good-bye.”[17] P103In parts of Burma, the summoning gesture is made palm down, with the fingers moving as though playing piano. Filipinos often show their agreement with a quick downward nod of head. In Germany and much of Scandinavia, tossing the head back makes a beckoning motion. And in Spain, to beckon someone you stretch your arm out, palm downward, and make a scratching motion toward your body with your fingers.3.2 Application of the body language3.2.1 GreetingIn Asian countries, there are some common greeting gestures, they arehandshaking, bowing, avoid eye contact. But in different culture, the ways of greetings will be different. In China, the western custom of shaking hands is the customary form of greeting, but often a nod of the head or slight bow is sufficient. Hugging and kissing when greeting are uncommon. Business cards are often exchanged, and yours should be printed in your own language and in Chinese. Also, it is more respectful to present your card (or a gift or any other article) using both hands. The Chinese are enthusiastic applauders. You may be greeted with group clapping, even by small children. When a person is applauded in this fashion it is the custom for that person to return the applause or a "thank you." When walking in public places, direct eye contact and staring is uncommon in the larger cities, especially in those areas accustomed to foreign visitors. However, in smaller communities, visitors may be the subject of much curiosity and therefore you may notice some stares.In Japan, the graceful act of bowing is the traditional greeting. However, they have also adopted the western custom of shaking hands, albeit with a light grip and perhaps with eyes averted. Meanwhile, to show respect for their customs, it would flatter them to offer a slight bow when being introduced. It is considered rude to stand with your hand or hands in your pockets, especially when greeting someone or when addressing a group of people. Although handshaking is generally adopted around the world,Southeast Asians press together; Japanese bow; Middle Easterners and many Asians favor a gentle grip.3.2.2 Display of affectionAffection displays are facial and body movements that show feeling and emotions. Expressions of happiness or surprise, for instance, are displayed by the face and convey the person‟s inner feelings. Though affection displays are shown primarily through the face, postures, and other body displays can also convey an emotional state.Many affection displays are universally recognized. A research indicates that regardless of culture, the primary emotional states include happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust, contempt, and interest. In addition to these primary affection displays, there are about 30 affection blends, which are combinations of the primary emotions.Affection displays may be unconscious and unintentional, such as a startled look of surprise, a blush of embarrassment, or dilated pupils due to pleasure or interest. Or affection displays may be conscious and intentional, such as when people purposely smile and look at another person to convey warmth and affection. Cultural norms often govern both what kind of and how much of affection displays are to be shown.3.2.3 Cultural difference in touchCultures differ in the overall amount of touching that they prefer.High-contact cultures such as those in the Middle East, Latin America, and southern Europe touch each other in social conversations much more than people do from non- contact cultures, such as Asia and northern Europe. These cultural differences can lead to difficulties in intercultural communication. Germans. Scandinavia, and Japanese, for example, may be perceived as cold and aloof by Brazilians and Italians, who in turn may be regarded as aggressive, pushy and overly familiar by the northern Europeans.Cultures also differ in which part people can be touched. In Thailand and Malaysia, for instance, the head should not be touched because it is considere d to be sacred and the locus of a person‟s spiritual and intellectual powers. In the United States, the head is far more likely to be touched.Cultures vary in their expectations about who touches whom. In Japan, for instance, there are deeply held feelings against the touch of a stranger. These expectations are culture-specific, and even cultures that live near one another can have very different norms. Among the Chinese, for instance, shaking hands among people of the opposite sex is perfectly acceptable; among Malay it is not.Indeed, for those who practice the Muslin religion, casual touching between members of the opposite sex is strictly forbidden. Both men and women have to cleanse themselves ritually before praying if they happento make physical contact with someone of the opposite sex. Holding hands, for example, or walking with an arm across the other‟s shoulder or around the waist, or even grabbing an elbow to help another across the street are all considered to be socially inappropriate behaviors between men and women. In some places there are even legal restrictions against public displays of hugging and kissing, even among married couples. However, this social taboo refers only to apposite-sex touching; it is perfectly acceptable for women to hold hands or for men to walk arm in arm. Many Euro-Americans of course, have the opposite reaction, and they react negatively to same-sex touching (particularly among men) but usually do not mind opposite-sex touching.3.3 A comparative study of Chinese and American body language Generally speaking, the Chinese are not a touch-oriented society (especially true for visitors). So avoid touching or any prolonged form of body contact. Public displays of affection are very rare. On the other hand, you may note people of the same sex walking hand-in-hand, which is simply a gesture of friendship. Don't worry about a bit of pushing and shoving in stores or when groups board public buses or trains. Apologies are neither offered nor expected. Personal space is much less in China. The Chinese would stand much closer than Westerners. Chinese like to avoid saying "no." A gesture that is often used to signal "no" or that "something is very difficult" (pausing to rethink) is to tip the headbackward and audibly suck air in through the teeth.Americans are also not touch oriented. In normal social situations, Americans generally stand about 30 inches apart from one another, which is also considered their personal "comfort zone." At sporting events or the theater, Americans usually slide into a crowded aisle while facing forward. American children are taught to look others directly in the eyes when greeting and conversing. Doing otherwise would mean shyness or weakness. In America, people are used to raise arm and waggle the open hand back and forth signaling “hello” or “good-bye” or trying to get someone‟s attention. Americans will often wave to another person and then turn to make hand scoop inward; or raise the index finger, palm toward one‟s face, and make a “curling” moti on with that finger to beckon or summon another person. “Sometimes, they will extend the forefinger and make a circular motion near the temple or ear to mean something or someone is “crazy”.”[18] P944. ConclusionCulture is all-persuasive, multidimensional, and boundless; it is everywhere and in everything. The same is also true of body language on nonverbal communication. One can make hundreds of movements with his bodies: where and how he touches people, his gaze and eye contact, and his use of space are just some of the behaviors in which he engage。