外文文献原稿及译文
英文文献翻译
外文文献原稿和译文原稿Sodium Polyacrylate:Also known as super-absorbent or “SAP”(super absorbent polymer), Kimberly Clark used to call it SAM (super absorbent material). It is typically used in fine granular form (like table salt). It helps improve capacity for better retention in a disposable diaper, allowing the product to be thinner with improved performance and less usage of pine fluff pulp. The molecular structure of the polyacrylate has sodium carboxylate groups hanging off the main chain. When it comes in contact with water, the sodium detaches itself, leaving only carboxylions. Being negatively charged, these ions repel one another so that the polymer also has cross-links, which effectively leads to a three-dimensional structure. It has hige molecular weight of more than a million; thus, instead of getting dissolved, it solidifies into a gel. The Hydrogen in the water (H-O-H) is trapped by the acrylate due to the atomic bonds associated with the polarity forces between the atoms. Electrolytes in the liquid, such as salt minerals (urine contains 0.9% of minerals), reduce polarity, thereby affecting superabsorbent properties, especially with regard to the superabsorbent capacity for liquid retention. This is the main reason why diapers containing SAP should never be tested with plain water. Linear molecular configurations have less total capacity than non-linear molecules but, on the other hand, retention of liquid in a linear molecule is higher than in a non-linear molecule, due to improved polarity. For a list of SAP suppliers, please use this link: SAP, the superabsorbent can be designed to absorb higher amounts of liquids (with less retention) or very high retentions (but lower capacity). In addition, a surface cross linker can be added to the superabsorbent particle to help it move liquids while it is saturated. This helps avoid formation of "gel blocks", the phenomenon that describes the impossibility of moving liquids once a SAP particle gets saturated.History of Super Absorbent Polymer ChemistryUn til the 1980’s, water absorbing materials were cellulosic or fiber-based products. Choices were tissue paper, cotton, sponge, and fluff pulp. The water retention capacity of these types of materials is only 20 times their weight – at most.In the early 1960s, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) was conducting work on materials to improve water conservation in soils. They developed a resin based on the grafting of acrylonitrile polymer onto the backbone of starch molecules (i.e. starch-grafting). The hydrolyzed product of the hydrolysis of this starch-acrylonitrile co-polymer gave water absorption greater than 400 times its weight. Also, the gel did not release liquid water the way that fiber-based absorbents do.The polymer came to be known as “Super Slurper”.The USDA gave the technical know how several USA companies for further development of the basic technology. A wide range of grating combinations were attempted including work with acrylic acid, acrylamide and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA).Since Japanese companies were excluded by the USDA, they started independent research using starch, carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), acrylic acid, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and isobutylene maleic anhydride (IMA).Early global participants in the development of super absorbent chemistry included Dow Chemical, Hercules, General Mills Chemical, DuPont, National Starch & Chemical, Enka (Akzo), Sanyo Chemical, Sumitomo Chemical, Kao, Nihon Starch and Japan Exlan.In the early 1970s, super absorbent polymer was used commercially for the first time –not for soil amendment applications as originally intended –but for disposable hygienic products. The first product markets were feminine sanitary napkins and adult incontinence products.In 1978, Park Davis (d.b.a. Professional Medical Products) used super absorbent polymers in sanitary napkins.Super absorbent polymer was first used in Europe in a baby diaper in 1982 when Schickendanz and Beghin-Say added the material to the absorbent core. Shortly thereafter, UniCharm introduced super absorbent baby diapers in Japan while Proctor & Gamble and Kimberly-Clark in the USA began to use the material.The development of super absorbent technology and performance has been largely led by demands in the disposable hygiene segment. Strides in absorption performance have allowed the development of the ultra-thin baby diaper which uses a fraction of the materials – particularly fluff pulp – which earlier disposable diapers consumed.Over the years, technology has progressed so that there is little if any starch-grafted super absorbent polymer used in disposable hygienic products. These super absorbents typically are cross-linked acrylic homo-polymers (usually Sodium neutralized).Super absorbents used in soil amendments applications tend to be cross-linked acrylic-acrylamide co-polymers (usually Potassium neutralized).Besides granular super absorbent polymers, ARCO Chemical developed a super absorbent fiber technology in the early 1990s. This technology was eventually sold to Camelot Absorbents. There are super absorbent fibers commercially available today. While significantly more expensive than the granular polymers, the super absorbent fibers offer technical advantages in certain niche markets including cable wrap, medical devices and food packaging.Sodium polyacrylate, also known as waterlock, is a polymer with the chemical formula [-CH2-CH(COONa)-]n widely used in consumer products. It has the ability to absorb as much as 200 to 300 times its mass in water. Acrylate polymers generally are considered to possess an anionic charge. While sodium neutralized polyacrylates are the most common form used in industry, there are also other salts available including potassium, lithium and ammonium.ApplicationsAcrylates and acrylic chemistry have a wide variety of industrial uses that include: ∙Sequestering agents in detergents. (By binding hard water elements such as calcium and magnesium, the surfactants in detergents work more efficiently.) ∙Thickening agents∙Coatings∙Fake snowSuper absorbent polymers. These cross-linked acrylic polymers are referred to as "Super Absorbents" and "Water Crystals", and are used in baby diapers. Copolymerversions are used in agriculture and other specialty absorbent applications. The origins of super absorbent polymer chemistry trace back to the early 1960s when the U.S. Department of Agriculture developed the first super absorbent polymer materials. This chemical is featured in the Maximum Absorbency Garment used by NASA.译文聚丙烯酸钠聚丙烯酸钠，又可以称为超级吸收剂或者又叫高吸水性树脂，凯博利克拉克教授曾经称它为SAM即：超级吸收性物质。
外文文献及翻译
外文文献原稿和译文原稿DATABASEA database may be defined as a collection interrelated data store together with as little redundancy as possible to serve one or more applications in an optimal fashion .the data are stored so that they are independent of programs which use the data .A common and controlled approach is used in adding new data and in modifying and retrieving existing data within the data base .One system is said to contain a collection of database if they are entirely separate in structure .A database may be designed for batch processing , real-time processing ,or in-line processing .A data base system involves application program, DBMS, and database.THE INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMSThe term database is often to describe a collection of related files that is organized into an integrated structure that provides different people varied access to the same data. In many cases this resource is located in different files in different departments throughout the organization, often known only to the individuals who work with their specific portion of the total information. In these cases, the potential value of the information goes unrealized because a person in other departments who may need it does not know it or it cannot be accessed efficiently. In an attempt to organize their information resources and provide for timely and efficient access, many companies have implemented databases.A database is a collection of related data. By data, we mean known facts that can be recorded and that have implicit meaning. For example, the names, telephone numbers, and addresses of all the people you know. You may have recorded this data in an indexed address book, or you may have stored it on a diskette using a personalcomputer and software such as DBASE Ⅲor Lotus 1-2-3. This is a collection of related data with an implicit meaning and hence is a database.The above definition of database is quite general. For example, we may consider the collection of words that made up this page of text to be usually more restricted. A database has the following implicit properties:● A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning. A random assortment of data cannot be referred to as a database.● A database is designed, built, and populated with data for a specific purpose. It has an intended group of user and some preconceived applications in which these users are interested.● A database represents some aspect of the real world, sometimes called the miniworld. Changes to the miniworld are reflected in the database.In other words, a database has some source from which data are derived, some degree of interaction with events in the real world, and an audience that is actively interested in the contents of the database.A database management system (DBMS) is composed of three major parts: (1) a storage subsystem that stores and retrieves data in files; (2)a modeling and manipulation subsystem that provides the means with which to organize the data and to add, delete, maintain, and update the data; and (3) an interface between the DBMS and its users. Several major trends are emerging that enhance the value and usefulness of database management systems.●Managers who require more up-to-date information to make effective decisions.●Customers who demand increasingly sophisticated information services and more current information about the status of their orders, invoices, and accounts.●Users who find that they can develop custom applications with database systems in a fraction of the time it takes to use traditional programming languages.●Organizations that discover information has a strategic value; they utilize their database systems to gain an edge over their competitors.A DBMS can organize, process, and present selected data elements from the database. This capability enables decision makers to search, probe, and query database contents in order to extract answers to nonrecurring and unplanned questions that aren’t available in regular reports. These questions might initially be vague and/or p oorly defined, but people can “browse” through the database until they have the needed information. In short, the DBMS will “mange” the stored data items and assemble the needed items from the common database in response to the queries of those who aren’t programmers. In a file-oriented system, user needing special information may communicate their needs to a programmer, who, when time permits, will write one or more programs to extract the data and prepare the information. The availability of a DBMS, however, offers users a much faster alternative communications path.DATABASE QUERYIf the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database ,as well as interrogate it ,this capability allows for managing personal database. However, it does not automatically leave an audit trail of actions and does not provide the kinds of controls necessary in a multi-user organization .There controls are only available when a set of application programs is customized for each data entry and updating function.Software for personal computers that perform some of the DBMS functions has been very popular .Individuals for personal information storage and processing intended personal computers for us .Small enterprises, professionals like doctors, architects, engineers, lawyers and so on have also used these machines extensively. By the nature of intended usage ,database system on there machines are except from several of the requirements of full-fledged database systems. Since data sharing is not intended, concurrent operations even less so ,the software can be less complex .Security and integrity maintenance are de-emphasized or absent .as data volumes will be small, performance efficiency is also less important .In fact, the only aspect of a database system that is important is data independence. Data independence ,as stated earlier ,means that application programs and user queries need not recognize physical organization of data on secondary storage. The importance of this aspect , particularly for the personal computer user ,is that this greatly simplifies database usage . The user can store ,access and manipulate data at ahigh level (close to the application)and be totally shielded from the low level (close to the machine )details of data organization.DBMS STRUCTURING TECHNIQUESSpatial data management has been an active area of research in the database field for two decades ,with much of the research being focused on developing data structures for storing and indexing spatial data .however, no commercial database system provides facilities for directly de fining and storing spatial data ,and formulating queries based on research conditions on spatial data.There are two components to data management: history data management and version management .Both have been the subjects of research for over a decade. The troublesome aspect of temporal data management is that the boundary between applications and database systems has not been clearly drawn. Specifically, it is not clear how much of the typical semantics and facilities of temporal data management can and should be directly incorporated in a database system, and how much should be left to applications and users. In this section, we will provide a list of short-term research issues that should be examined to shed light on this fundamental question.The focus of research into history data management has been on defining the semantics of time and time interval, and issues related to understanding the semantics of queries and updates against history data stored in an attribute of a record. Typically, in the context of relational databases ,a temporal attribute is defined to hold a sequence of history data for the attribute. A history data consists of a data item and a time interval for which the data item is valid. A query may then be issued to retrieve history data for a specified time interval for the temporal attribute. The mechanism for supporting temporal attributes is to that for supporting set-valued attributes in a database system, such as UniSQL.In the absence of a support for temporal attributes, application developers who need to model and history data have simply simulated temporal attributes by creating attribute for the time interval ,along with the “temporal” attribute. This of course may result in duplication of records in a table, and more complicated search predicates in queries. The one necessary topic of research in history data management is to quantitatively establish the performance (and even productivity) differences betweenusing a database system that directly supports attributes and using a conventional database system that does not support either the set-valued attributes or temporal attributes.Data security, integrity, and independenceData security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database of the database, called subschemas. For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data.Data integrity refers to the accuracy, correctness, or validity of the data in the database. In a database system, data integrity means safeguarding the data against invalid alteration or destruction. In large on-line database system, data integrity becomes a more severe problem and two additional complications arise. The first has to do with many users accessing the database concurrently. For example, if thousands of travel agents book the same seat on the same flight, the first agent’s booking will be lost. In such cases the technique of locking the record or field provides the means for preventing one user from accessing a record while another user is updating the same record.The second complication relates to hardware, software or human error during the course of processing and involves database transaction which is a group of database modifications treated as a single unit. For example, an agent booking an airline reservation involves several database updates (i.e., adding the passenger’s name and address and updating the seats-available field), which comprise a single transaction. The database transaction is not considered to be completed until all updates have been completed; otherwise, none of the updates will be allowed to take place.An important point about database systems is that the database should exist independently of any of the specific applications. Traditional data processing applications are data dependent.When a DMBS is used, the detailed knowledge of the physical organization of the data does not have to be built into every application program. The application program asks the DBMS for data by field name, for example, a coded representationof “give me customer name and balance due” would be sent to the DBMS. Without a DBMS the programmer must reserve space for the full structure of the record in the program. Any change in data structure requires changes in all the applications programs.Data Base Management System (DBMS)The system software package that handles the difficult tasks associated with creating ,accessing and maintaining data base records is called a data base management system (DBMS). A DBMS will usually be handing multiple data calls concurrently.It must organize its system buffers so that different data operations can be in process together .It provides a data definition language to specify the conceptual schema and most likely ,some of the details regarding the implementation of the conceptual schema by the physical schema.The data definition language is a high-level language, enabling one to describe the conceptual schema in terms of a “data model “.At the present time ,there are four underling structures for database management systems. They are :List structures.Relational structures.Hierarchical (tree) structures.Network structures.Management Information System(MIS)An MIS can be defined as a network of computer-based data processing procedures developed in an organization and integrated as necessary with manual and other procedures for the purpose of providing timely and effective information to support decision making and other necessary management functions.One of the most difficult tasks of the MIS designer is to develop the information flow needed to support decision making .Generally speaking ,much of the information needed by managers who occupy different levels and who have different levels and have different responsibilities is obtained from a collection of exiting information system (or subsystems)Structure Query Language (SQL)SQL is a data base processing language endorsed by the American NationalStandards Institute. It is rapidly becoming the standard query language for accessing data on relational databases .With its simple ,powerful syntax ,SQL represents a great progress in database access for all levels of management and computing professionals.SQL falls into two forms : interactive SQL and embedded SQL. Embedded SQL usage is near to traditional programming in third generation languages .It is the interactive use of SQL that makes it most applicable for the rapid answering of ad hoc queries .With an interactive SQL query you just type in a few lines of SQL and you get the database response immediately on the screen.译文数据库数据库可以被定义为一个相互联系的数据库存储的集合。
外文文献原稿和译文
外文文献原稿和译文原稿1. IntroductionOver the past two decades, organizations of all types have increasingly acknowledged the importance of customer satisfaction and loyalty. The marketing literature suggests that the long term success of a firm is clearly based on its ability to rapidly respond to changing customer needs and preferences (Narver &Slater, 1990; Webster, 1992). A key motivation for the increasing emphasis on customer satisfaction is that higher customer satisfaction can lead to have a stronger competitive position resulting in higher market share and profitability (Fornell, 1992), reduced price elasticity, lower business cost, reduced failure cost, and mitigated cost of attracting new customers (Chien, Chang, & Su, 2003).The principal focus of this study is on evaluating the efficiency of customer satisfaction and loyalty (CS&L) for existing mobile phone brands in Turkish mobile phone sector. Since the early1990s, with the launch of the mobile phones, there has been a remarkable development both in their product sophistication and their rapid and widespread adoption. With more than three billion subscribers around the world, the extent of mobile phone diffusion in emerging markets has been increasingly larger than that in developed countries (Kalba, 2008). Turkey, being one of the fastest emerging market economies in the world, adopted mobile phone technology in 1994. Since then, there has been a considerable increase in the level of mobile phone ownership, where the number of mobile phone users in the country is expected to reach around70 million by the end of 2013, representing a penetration rate of over 90% (RNCOS, 2010). The significant rise in mobile phone usage can partially be attributed to the fact that Turkey has the youngest population in Western Europe. Turkey currently has the 6th largest young mobile phone user base in the world, with more than 11million subscribers underthe age of 25, providing a very lucrative market for mobile phone companies (Euro monitor International,2010). It should however be noted that the penetration in this market at present is still below the EU average, indicating that the mobile phone sector is not saturated yet, and there is still space for new investors. Currently, there exist nearly more than 10 major mobile phone companies operating in the Turkish mobile phone sector, each having a relatively large product line. As of 2010, the top five mobile phone brands were Nokia, Samsung, LG, Motorola and Sony Ericsson and together they account for nearly 75% of overall market sales. As a new comer, phone is rapidly increasing its market share, but as of the start of this study, did not have a significantly large presence. In terms of market share, Nokia has been undisputedly the market leader (36.4% of sales) with Samsung featuring second (19.5%) and LG ranking third (10.1%) (Patron Turk,2010).Commensurate to its widespread diffusion globally, there has been a growing worldwide academic interest in mobile phone usage which focuses mainly on examining its contribution to social life, user preferences and its ergonomic features (Bag chi, Kirs, & Lopez, 2008). A number of empirical studies were also conducted within the context of Turkish mobile phone sector. The topics of these studies ranged from examining motivation of use (Dedeoglu,2004; Oscan & Kodak, 2003) to mobile phone selection (Isiklar &Buyukozkan, 2007), from customer satisfaction (Turkyilmaz &Ozkan, 2007) to brand loyalty (Simsek & Noyan, 2009).The methodology used in study to evaluate the relative CS&Lefficiency of mobile phone brands is based on data envelopment analysis (DEA). The traditional DEA technique has long been utilized as an invaluable tool in the field of operations research and management science to solve problems in wide range of industries(Hu, Lai, & Huang, 2009; Lee, 2009; Lin, Lee, & Chiu, 2009) as well as in not-for-profit organizations (Mahajan, 1991; Wu, Liang, &Chen, 2009; Zhang, Huang, Lin, & Yu, 2009); but its diffusion into the field of marketing and related disciplines has been relatively slow. For instance, in the marketing field, DEA has recently been employed as a powerful tool for data analysis in measuring efficiency in retailing sector (Charnes, Cooper, Learner, & Phillips,1985; Donthu & Yoo, 1998; Keh, 2000; Keh & Chu, 2003; Thomas,Barr, Cron, &Slocum, 1998), evaluating website marketing efficiency(Shuai & Wu, 2011), benchmarking marketing productivity(Donthu, Hershberger, & Osmonbekov, 2005; Kamakura, Ratchford,& Agrawal, 1988), and measuring relative market efficiency(Murthi, Srinivasan, & Kalyanaram, 1996) or service quality(Athanassopoulos, 1997; Soteriou & Staurinides, 1997). The assessment of CS&L has always been a major research item on the agenda of researchers in the marketing and related fields, because the issue of how efficiently a firm manages its marketing processes and their relationship with their customers is central to its ability to gain competitive edge vis-à-vis its rivals. The DEA approach adopted in this study illustrates how differences in CS&L efficiency between various mobile phone brands can be ascertained empirically, and thus helps management determine proper policies and courses of action.The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 reviews the recent literature on customer satisfaction and customer loyalty studies. Section 3 provides an in-depth description of our research methodology. Section 4 presents the results of our analysis. The last section (Section 5) summarizes our findings, describes managerial implications of the study and provides the concluding remarks.2. Background literatureWhile customer satisfaction has been defined in various ways, the high-level conceptualization that appears to have gained the widest acceptance states that satisfaction is a customer’s post purchase evaluation of a product or service (Cronin & Taylor,1992; Westbrook & Oliver, 1991). Customer satisfaction is also generally assumed to be a significant determinant of repeat sales, positive word-of-mouth, and customer loyalty. It has also long been considered as one of the key antecedents of creating brand loyalty (Cronin, Brady, & Hult, 2000; Dick & Basu, 1994; Fornell,Michael, Eugene, Jaesung, & Barbara, 1996; Syzmanski & Henard,2001). Satisfied customers return and buy more, and they tell other people about their experiences, both positive and negative (Fornellet al., 1996).Building on Hirschman’s (1970) exit-voice theory, weakly dissatisfied consumers would be of primary importance to a firm. While strongly dissatisfied consumers generally choose the exit option (i.e., they leave the firm), the weakly dissatisfied customers tendto stay loyal to the firm and rather employ the voice option, which implies overt complaints as an attempt to change the firm’practices or offerings (Fornell &Wernerfelt, 1988). Thereby, proper handling of customer complaints may ensure that weakly dissatisfied consumers remain loyal, and serve as an exit barrier (Fornell,1992; Halstead & Page, 1992). The impact of loyal customers is considerable; for many industries the profitability of a firm increases proportionally with the number of loyal customers and up to 60% of sales to new customers can be attributed to the word of mouth referrals (Reichheld & Sasser, 1990).Within the existing literature on customer satisfaction research, various customer satisfaction models were developed based on a cumulative view of satisfaction. To this end, a number of customer satisfaction indices (CSIs) were designed with most prominent of those being Swedish Customer Satisfaction Barometer (SCSB), the American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) and European Customer Satisfaction Index (ECSI). Of these CSIs, we employed the ECSI model as the backbone of our CS&L efficiency model in this study due to its recent popularity in the literature and its comprehensiveness in CS&L coverage. The ECSI is a structural model based on the assumptions that customer satisfaction is derived by a number of factors such as perceived quality, perceived value, expectations of customers, and image of a firm. These factors are the antecedents of overall customer satisfaction (Turkyilmaz &Ozkan, 2007). The model also estimates the results when a customer is satisfied or not. The four antecedents of customer satisfaction may also have direct effects on customer loyalty(Johnson, Gustafson, Andreessen, Lervik, & Cha, 2001). Each construct in the ECSI model is a latent construct which is operational zed by multiple indicators (Chien et al., 2003; Fornell,1992). The underlying constructs of the ECSI model are explained as follows:The image construct evaluates the underlying image of the company. Image refers to the brand name and the kind of associations customers obtain from the product/company (Andreassen &Lindestad, 1998). Martensen, Kristiansen, and Rosholt (2000)argue that image is an important dimension of the customer satisfaction model. Image is a consequence of being reliable,professional and innovative, having contributions to society, and adding prestige to its user. It is anticipated that image has a positive effecton customer satisfaction, customer expectations and customer loyalty.Customer expectations are the consequences of prior experience with the company’s products (Rotondaro, 2002). This construct evaluates customer expectations for overall quality, for product and service quality, and for fulfillment of personal needs. The customer expectations construct is expected to have a direct and positive relationship with customer satisfaction (Anderson, Fornell, &Lehmann, 1994).Perceived quality is evaluation of recent consumption experience by the market served. This construct evaluates customization and reliability of a given product or service. Customization is the degree to which a product or service meets a customer’s requirements, and reliability is the degree to which firm’s offering is reliable, standardized, and free from deficiencies. Perceived quality is expected to have a positive effect on customer satisfaction (Fornellet al., 1996).Perceived value is the perceived level of product quality relative to the price paid by customers. Perceived value is the rating of the price paid for the quality perceived and a rating of the quality perceived for the price paid (Fornell et al., 1996). Perceived value structure provides an opportunity for comparison of the firms according their price-value ratio (Anderson et al., 1994). In the model, perceived value is expected to have a positive impact on satisfaction.Customer satisfaction construct indicates how much customers are satisfied, and how well their expectations are fulfilled. This construct evaluates overall satisfaction level of customers, fulfillment of their expectations, and company’s performance versus the ideal provider．Customer loyalty is the ultimate factor in the ECSI model. Loyalty is measured by repurchase intention, price tolerance and intention to recommend products or services to others. It is expected that better image and higher customer satisfaction should increase customer loyalty.3. MethodologyThis section presents the research methodology adopted in this study. The following subsections explain the survey instrument, the data collection procedure, and the DEA model.3.1. Survey instrumentThe DEA model of CS&L, which is shown in Fig. 1, consists of the aforementioned constructs which are based on previous research and prominent theories in the field of consumer behavior. The constructs of the CS&L model are unobservable (latent) variables indirectly described by a set of observable variables which are called manifest variables or indicators. The constructs and their constituent items are shown in Table 1. The use of multiple measures for each construct increases the precision of the estimate as compared to an approach of relying on a single measure. In our CS&L efficiency model, all four antecedents of customer satisfaction and loyalty which include image, customer expectations, perceived quality and perceived value were treated as input variables, while the two constructs, namely customer satisfaction and customer loyalty were considered as output variables.The survey questionnaire was designed using a three-step process. First, the consumer behavior literature was extensively reviewed for the manifest variables. Secondly, the questionnaire items were prepared in Turkish and refined through a series of discussions with two senior marketing managers of a prominent mobile phone company and a number of experienced academics in the field of consumer behavior. Finally, the survey questionnaire was subjected to extensive pre-testing and refinement based on a pilot study of 30 mobile phone users. Feedback from this pilot study indicated that some questions were ambiguous, difficult to understand,or irrelevant for mobile phone sector. This pilot study also served as a practical exercise for interviewers. The final questionnaire contained a total of 23 items pertaining to the CS&L. These23 items appeared to have face validity as to what should be measured. All the items were measured on 10-point scales, with anchors ranging from 1 denoting a very negative view and 10indicating a very positive view. Relying on 10-point scales enables customers to make better discriminations (Andrews, 1984).译文1．介绍在过去的二十年中，所有类型的组织都越来越多地承认了客户满意度和忠诚度的重要性。
外文文献原稿和译文
外文文献原稿和译文原稿MechanicalandRegenerativeBrakingIntegrationforaHybridElectricVehicleAbstract,namelyanelectricmotorandinternalcombustionengine,whichallowtheelimina tionofidling,,theaddedcostofthehybridelectricsystemhashinderedthesalesofth esevehicles.JapanNorth America automotive companieshavedevelopedandreleasedforsaletheirownhybridelectric unpredictablegasprices,thesalesofhybridelectricvehicleshaveincreaseddramat ically inrecentyears.2.1.1HybridConfigurationsForthepast100yearstheobjectiveofthehybridhasbeentoextendtherangeofelec tricvehiclesandtoovercometheproblemoflongrechargingtimes35.Therearethree ,par allelhybridsandseries/parallelhybrids.Eachconfigurationhasitsadvantagesanddisadvantageswhichwillbediscussedi nthefollowingsections.SeriesHybridsInserieshybridsthemechanicaloutputfromtheinternalcombustionengineisuse dto driveageneratorwhichproduceselectricalpowerthatcanbestoredinthebatteriesor highpowersystemssuchaslargetrucksorlocomotivesbutcanalsobeusedforlowerpowe rpassengervehicles18.2.1.2‘degreeofhybridization’toquantifytheelectrica lpowerpotentialofthesevehicles.ThedegreeofhybridizationrangesfromDOH=0foraconventionalvehicletoDOH=1f oranallelectricvehicle25.Asthedegreeofhybridizationincreases,asmallerICEcanbeusedandoperatedclosertoitsoptimumefficiencyforagreaterproportionoftheti me,.MicroHybrid MicrohybridshavethesmallestdegreeofhybridizationandusuallyconsistofanintegratedstartergeneratorISG2.1.31500 kg100 km/h0 km/h0 km/h50 km/h2.1.42.1.5译文混合动力电动汽车机械和再生制动的整合摘要为了减少对环境的污染和车辆的燃油消耗,混合动力电动汽车已经成为汽车工业的首选方法;混合动力电动汽车通过使用由电动马达和内燃发动机组成的混合动力系统来达到减少环境污染和燃油消耗的目的;混合动力系统消除了怠速,使发动机以一种更有效的方式运行,增加了再生制动的使用;但是,混合动力的成本的增加阻碍了这些车辆的销售;在这里提出一个更具成本效益的电液制动系统的设计;该系统使用电控机械结合的控制方式控制制动助力器产生的推动力,并有足够的时间反应;这个系统使驾驶员清楚地了解机械和再生制动力矩的混合,使再生制动力系统得到有效的控制;一个系统化的设计过程是其次,重点在于展示概念设计方案的可行性和使用虚拟和实物模型的初步设计功用;虚拟和实物模型的结合使用成为验证和开发系统的强大工具,本文将介绍和讨论在设计过程中模型所起到的作用;因为在设计过程中设计者可以获得相关的经验,提倡学生设计实物模型,以提高学生的学习经验;很明显,这正是本文所要提出的;现代混合动力电动汽车随着油价的上涨和环境保护意识的提高,消费者和政府迫使汽车行业开始生产省油和对环境污染小的汽车;一个有前景的方法就是现在实行的混合动力电动汽车;混合动力汽车指的是有两个或两个以上动力来源的车辆;混合动力汽车动力的来源可能有很多的不同,但是现在混合动力汽车最常见的布局是由内燃发动机和电动马达,能量储存系统共同输出动力,这样的车辆就叫混合动力电动汽车;汽车可以同时使用发动机和电动马达输出的动力,从而可以提高汽车的使用性能和效率,进而又可以提高燃油经济性,减少废气的排放,同时还能满足消费者对汽车性能的要求;1997年,丰田成普瑞斯为了第一款混合动力电动汽车,在日本进行了批量生产;本田公司花费了三年的时间进行混合动力电动车的生产,然后进军北美市场;丰田普瑞斯在北美发行几个月后,本田Insight紧随其后也在北美进行发行;混合动力电动车具有再生制动系统的独特优势;在制动过程,通常用于动力输出的电动马达,可以起到发电机的功用,把汽车的动能转化为蓄电池的电能,而不会转化为热能浪费掉;转换的电能可以储存到蓄电池中,然后可以作为电动马达驱动汽车使用的能量;考虑到蓄电池能量密度时,动能转换为电能这个过程就更加重要了;能量密度是指单位体积或质量下能量储存系统所储存的能量;为了说明这一点,我们可以做个对比,4.5公升的汽油通常可以维持一辆汽车行驶50千米;而要把相同的能量储存到蓄电池中,则需要一个质量约为270千克的铅酸蓄电池;这就说明了在汽车行驶过程中能够有效地储存再生制动系统产生的能量的重要性,从而可以保证在提高混合动力电能车性能的前提下,不至使能量储存系统所占体积过大;再生制动系统研究范围本文所提出的再生系统的研究范围是研究再生制动系统和机械制动系统之间相互作用的关系,目的是设计开发出一个低成本的再生制动系统,从而可以应用到未来经济型的混合动力电动汽车上;这个系统可以根据驾驶员的需要进而控制再生制动系统和机械制动系统产生的制动力矩的结合,还应该保证这个过程的平顺性和安全性;再生制动力矩是通过使用的异步电动机的矢量控制算法进行控制的;但是,独立地控制制动踏板产生的机械制动力矩,同时又要保持机械制动系在再生制动系统失效后起到备用作用,这是一个很大的难题;为了解决这个问题,需要研究一个通过减少制动主缸内制动液压来来控制机械制动系统产生的制动力矩的制动系统;混合电动汽车概述混合动力电动车已经成为了可以在短时间内减少汽车污染排放和提高燃油经济型的解决方法之一;在过去的10年几乎所有的主要汽车公司都已经向公众发行销售自己的混合动力电动汽车,混合动力电动汽车的普及和销售在这个世纪有了很明显的增长,随着不可预测的汽油价格的增长和对环境保护的关注,混合动力电动汽车的销售将在最近几年内急剧增长;2.1.1混合动力装置在过去100年来混合动力的研究目标是延长电动汽车的使用寿命,解决蓄电池的长期充电问题;在目前市场,现在主要有三种混合动力装置,这些混合动力装置为串联混合动力,并联混合动力,串并联混合动力;每一种动力装置都有其优点和缺点,这将在以后的章节进行讨论;串联混合动力串联混合动力汽车使用发动机输出的动力来驱动发电机产生电能,这些电能可以储存在蓄电池中,也可以用来驱动电动马达来驱动汽车;在串联混合动力汽车上,发动机和驱动轮之间没有直接的机械连接,串联混合动力往往在高功率系统中使用,如大型货车或火车,也可以应用到低功率的客运车辆上;发动机输出的机械能和蓄电池输出的电能可以通过电子控制器进行控制接合,然后这个电子控制器通过比较驾驶员所需的动力和汽车车速,电动马达输出的转矩,从而决定每个动力源驱动汽车行驶所要输出的能量;在制动过程中,这个电子控制装置可以使电能输出模式转换为再生模式,直接把再生制动系统产生的电能储存在蓄电池内;按照这种布置方式进行设计有很多的优点;发动机可以保持高效率的运行,使发动机产生的电能在蓄电池和驱动马达之间得到分配;发动机在其最高效率的工况下运行,排放可以大大降低,燃烧每体积的燃料可以产生更多的电能;因为串联动力装置结构简单且成本低,这种动力装置很容在汽车上落实;并联混合动力在并联混合动力汽车中,发动机输出的机械功传到变速箱中;发动机输出的机械功和电动马达输出的功在变速箱内进行机械式的接合,混合的机械功用于驱动汽车行驶;在这种混合动力装置结构中,发动机和驱动轮之间有直接的机械连接;在串联混合动力装置中,电子控制器通过比较驾驶员所需的动力和汽车车速,电动马达输出的转矩,从而决定每个动力源驱动汽车行驶所要输出的能量,以满足汽车行驶性能,获得最佳的效率;正如串联混合装置一样,并联混合动力也以相似的方法控制再生制动;并联混合动力装置通常应用到低功率的电动车中,这两种驱动力可以同时使用,提供更高的行驶性能;与串联混合动力系统相比,并联混合动力系统有很多优势;其中最重要的一项优势是效率高,因为在并联混合动力中,电能和机械能只需转换一次,而在串联混合动力中,电能和机械能需要两次转换;由于并联混合动力可以使发动机和电动马大产生的动力同时结合起来,在不损失汽车行驶性能的前提下,可以使用体积小的电动马达,同时也降低了油耗和排放;最后,并联混合动力汽车在行驶过程中只需使发动机运行,而不需要另一个发电机为蓄电池充电;串、并联混合动力串并联混合动力装置结合了串联和并联动力装置的特点;这种混合方式汽车通过使用动力分配装置来控制双动力源电动马达输出动力,发动机输出动力或者两者同时输出驱动汽车行驶;虽然这种装置形式可以获得串联混合动力装置和并联混合动力装置的优点,因为考虑到汽车实际行驶可能性,这种装置的控制算法会变得非常复杂; 2.1.2混合度现在道路上行驶的混合动力电动汽车大多是串联混合动力,并联混合动力,或者串并联混合动力,因此定义一个‘混合度’变量来评价混合动力电动汽车的电能潜能是非常有意义的;混合度变从传统车辆DOH=0到所有电动车DOH=1之间变化,随着混合度的增加,在汽车上可以使用一个比较小的发动机,同时发动机可以在最接近最佳效率的工况下运行很长的时间,这样就可以减少燃油的消耗和废气的排放;电动马达输出的功用P表emP表示;示,发动机输出的功用ice微混合动力微混合指的是最小混合度,通常是由一个连接到发动机曲轴的综合起动发电机组成;在加速和怠速过程中,综合起动发电机使发动机处于关闭状态,从而节约燃油;加速时,在燃油喷入汽缸之前,综合起动发电机使发动机的曲轴加速旋转;在加速过程中,综合起动发电机对发动机起动协助的作用,在制动过程中,综合起动发电机还可以作为发电机向蓄电池充电;和非混合动力汽车相比,微混合动力汽车的燃油经济性可以提高10%左右;轻混合动力轻混合动力和微混合动力结构相似,有一点不同的是其综合起动发电机是经过改进的,其输出的动力可以超过20KW;但是,轻混合动力的能量储存系统只能储存1KWh左右的能量;轻混合动力汽车只有一个很短的纯电动续航能力,但是可以在加速过程中给发动机提供很大的辅助作用;轻混合动力中的电子元件要比微混合动力中的电子元件复杂的多,且在汽车行驶过程中发挥着更大的作用;和非混合动力的汽车相比,轻混合动力汽车的燃油经济性可以提高20%-25%左右;全混合动力在全混合动力汽车上不再使用综合起动发电机,取代它的是一个独立的电动马达和交流发电机、起动机,这些装置也可以起到综合起动发电机的作用;电动马达可以独立驱动汽车行驶,尤其是在城市道路上走走停停的行驶;能量储存系统也得到了改进,这样就提高了汽车纯电动续航能力,减少了发动机的体积,从而提高燃油经济性和减少排放;与非混合动力汽车相比,全混合动力汽车的燃油消耗量可以减少40%-50%;插电式混合动力插电式混合动力汽车在结构上和全混合动力汽车相似,不同的是插电式混合动力汽车有一个比较大的能量储存系统,可以通过与外部电源连接进行充电;在蓄电池储存能量范围内,可以通过电动马达来驱动汽车行驶,但是当蓄电池的能量降到一定水平后,其运行形势就和全混合动力一样了;2.1.3再生制动原理混合动力电动汽车最重要的特点是可以回收大量的制动能量;在制动过程中,电动马达可以作为发电机来运行操作,将制动过程中的动能转换为电能储存到蓄电池中,这些电能就可以被汽车重复使用;但是,车辆的制动性能就将影响到汽车的安全性;在紧急制动状态下,汽车的制动距离要尽可能的短,还要保证制动时汽车有较好的方向稳定性;汽车具有较好的方向稳定性,就需要控制车轮的制动力分配;一般来说,制动时所需的制动力矩比电动马达产生的制动力矩大得多;因此,机械制动系统需要和电子再生制动系统同时存在,这就需要适当的设计以保证制动时的操作稳定性,不至于影响到汽车的安全性;制动时能量消耗由公式可得,一个质量为1500Kg的汽车以100km/h初速度制动到完全停止,需要消耗的动能;如果这些能量的25%可以通过再生制动系统进行回收,当忽略制动和加速过程中的空气阻力,机械摩擦和滚动阻力,假设电动马达的工作效率100%,利用公式可以估算出,这些能量可以使汽车从0km/h加速到50km/h.这就表明,当汽车行驶在城市道路上,汽车不停加速和制动,混合动力电动车的燃油经济性可以大大增加;需要注意的是,制动能量的回收量受到马达的型号和能量转换率的限制;2.1.4再生制动系统目前,通常使用的有两种再生制动方法;这些方法通常称为串联再生制动和并联制动,每种制动策略都有其优点和缺点,本文对此将进行具体讨论;并联再生制动在并联再生制动系统中,电动马达和机械制动系统同时工作,从而使汽车减速;因为机械制动系统不能独立的控制制动力,使制动时的能量转换为热能而不是电能,因此这不是最有效地再生制动方法;但是并联再生制动结构简单成本低,这就成为其一大优势;并联再生制动的机械制动系统只需要稍加修改,而且电动马达的控制算法也可以很容易在汽车上实现;这种制动方法还有一个额外的优势,当再生制动系统发生故障时,机械制动系统可以起到备用的作用;串联再生制动在串联再生制动中,电动马达只有在制动时才起作用;只有当电动马达和能量储存系统无法接受更多制动时所需的能量时,再生制动系统才起作用;串联再生制动需要独立的控制制动力矩,串联再生制动可以高效率的把动能转换为电能,这是其一项优势;但是它的不足之处在于,制动系统结构复杂,成本高;这种制动方式需要制动踏板模拟器,制动系统也需要重新设计,这都会增加其制造成本;因为制动系统需要装有传感器和信息处理器,这就会增加了结构的复杂度;2.1.5目前的再生制动系统目前大多数混合动力电动汽车的再生制动系统都是比较昂贵的电液制动系统;再生制动系统使用制动踏板模拟器来建立驾驶者的制动需求,这个制动踏板模拟器与液压制动电路独立分开;这样再将制动需求按照一定比例转换为再生制动和机械制动需求,然后将机械制动需求发送到由高压液压泵,蓄能器和比例控制阀的系统;比例控制阀根据制动需求,控制制动液以一定的预定值流到每个车轮的制动轮缸中;。
外文参考文献译文及原文【范本模板】
广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文系部城建学部专业土木工程年级 2011级班级名称 11土木工程9班学号 23031109000学生姓名刘林指导教师卢集富2015 年5 月目录一、项目成本管理与控制 0二、Project Budget Monitor and Control (1)三、施工阶段承包商在控制施工成本方面所扮演的作用 (2)四、The Contractor’s Role in Building Cost Reduction After Design (4)一、外文文献译文（1）项目成本管理与控制随着市场竞争的激烈性越来越大,在每一个项目中，进行成本控制越发重要。
本文论述了在施工阶段,项目经理如何成功地控制项目预算成本。
本文讨论了很多方法。
它表明，要取得成功，项目经理必须关注这些成功的方法.1。
简介调查显示,大多数项目会碰到超出预算的问……功控制预算成本.2.项目控制和监测的概念和目的Erel and Raz (2000）指出项目控制周期包括测量成……原因以及决定纠偏措施并采取行动。
监控的目的就是纠偏措施的。
.。
标范围内。
3.建立一个有效的控制体系为了实现预算成本的目标，项目管理者需要建立一……被监测和控制是非常有帮助的。
项目成功与良好的沟通密。
决（ Diallo and Thuillier， 2005）.4.成本费用的检测和控制4.1对检测的优先顺序进行排序在施工阶段，很多施工活动是基于原来的计……用完了。
第四,项目管理者应该检测高风险活动，高风险活动最有。
..重要（Cotterell and Hughes, 1995)。
4.2成本控制的方法一个项目的主要费用包括员工成本、材料成本以及工期延误的成本。
为了控制这些成本费用，项目管理者首先应该建立一个成本控制系统：a)为财务数据的管理和分析工作落实责任人员b)确保按照项目的结构来合理分配所有的……它的变化-—在成本控制线上准确地记录所有恰..。
外文文献翻译(图片版)
本科毕业论文外文参考文献译文及原文学院经济与贸易学院专业经济学（贸易方向）年级班别2007级 1 班学号3207004154学生姓名欧阳倩指导教师童雪晖2010 年 6 月 3 日目录1 外文文献译文（一）中国银行业的改革和盈利能力（第1、2、4部分） (1)2 外文文献原文（一）CHINA’S BANKING REFORM AND PROFITABILITY（Part 1、2、4） (9)1概述世界银行（1997年）曾声称，中国的金融业是其经济的软肋。
当一国的经济增长的可持续性岌岌可危的时候，金融业的改革一直被认为是提高资金使用效率和消费型经济增长重新走向平衡的必要（Lardy，1998年，Prasad，2007年）。
事实上，不久前，中国的国有银行被视为“技术上破产”，它们的生存需要依靠充裕的国家流动资金。
但是，在银行改革开展以来，最近，强劲的盈利能力已恢复到国有商业银行的水平。
但自从中国的国有银行在不久之前已经走上了改革的道路，它可能过早宣布银行业的改革尚未取得完全的胜利。
此外，其坚实的财务表现虽然强劲，但不可持续增长。
随着经济增长在2008年全球经济衰退得带动下已经开始软化，银行预计将在一个比以前更加困难的经济形势下探索。
本文的目的不是要评价银行业改革对银行业绩的影响，这在一个完整的信贷周期后更好解决。
相反，我们的目标是通过审查改革的进展和银行改革战略，并分析其近期改革后的强劲的财务表现，但是这不能完全从迄今所进行的改革努力分离。
本文有三个部分。
在第二节中，我们回顾了中国的大型国有银行改革的战略，以及其执行情况，这是中国银行业改革的主要目标。
第三节中分析了2007年的财务表现集中在那些在市场上拥有浮动股份的四大国有商业银行：中国工商银行（工商银行），中国建设银行（建行），对中国银行（中银）和交通银行（交通银行）。
引人注目的是中国农业银行，它仍然处于重组上市过程中得适当时候的后期。
第四节总结一个对银行绩效评估。
(完整版)外文翻译
外文文献原稿和译文原稿logistics distribution center location factors:(1) the goods distribution and quantity. This is the distribution center and distribution of the object, such as goods source and the future of distribution, history and current and future forecast and development, etc. Distribution center should as far as possible and producer form in the area and distribution short optimization. The quantity of goods is along with the growth of the size distribution and constant growth. Goods higher growth rate, the more demand distribution center location is reasonable and reducing conveying process unnecessary waste.(2) transportation conditions. The location of logistics distribution center should be close to the transportation hub, and to form the logistics distribution center in the process of a proper nodes. In the conditional, distribution center should be as close to the railway station, port and highway.(3) land conditions. Logistics distribution center covers an area of land in increasingly expensive problem today is more and more important. Is the use of the existing land or land again? Land price? Whether to conform to the requirements of the plan for the government, and so on, in the construction distribution center have considered.(4) commodities flow. Enterprise production of consumer goods as the population shift and change, should according to enterprise's better distribution system positioning. Meanwhile, industrial products market will transfer change, in order to determine the raw materials and semi-finished products of commodities such as change of flow in the location of logistics distribution center should be considered when the flow of the specific conditions of the relevant goods.(5) other factors. Such as labor, transportation and service convenience degree, investment restrictions, etc.How to reduce logistics cost，enhance the adaptive capacity and strain capacity of distribution center is a key research question of agricultural product logistics distribution center．At present，most of the research on logistics cost concentrates off theoretical analysis of direct factors of logistics cost, and solves the problem of over-high logistics Cost mainly by direct channel solution．This research stresses on the view of how to loeate distribution center, analyzes the influence of locating distribution center on logistics cost．and finds one kind of simple and easy location method by carrying on the location analysis of distribution center through computer modeling and the application of Exeel．So the location of agricultural product logistics distribution center can be achieved scientifically and reasonably, which will attain the goal of reducing logistics cost, and have a decision．making support function to the logisties facilities and planning of agricultural product．The agricultural product logistics distribution center deals with dozens and even hundreds of clients every day, and transactions are made in high-frequency. If the distribution center is far away from other distribution points，the moving and transporting of materials and the collecting of operational data is inconvenient and costly. costly．The modernization of agricultural product logistics s distribution center is a complex engineering system，not only involves logistics technology, information technology, but also logistics management ideas and its methods，in particular the specifying of strategic location and business model is essential for the constructing of distribution center. How to reduce logistics cost，enhance the adaptive capacity and strain capacity of distribution center is a key research question of agricultural product logistics distribution center. The so—called logistics costs refers to the expenditure summation of manpower, material and financial resources in the moving process of the goods．such as loading and unloading，conveying，transport，storage，circulating，processing, information processing and other segments. In a word。
外文文献原稿和译文
外文文献原稿和译文原稿The water level control circuit designWater source total ranks sixth in the world, per capita water resources is only a quarter of the world per capita consumption, and geographical distribution is very uneven, the vast region north of the Yangtze River, northin most parts of the medium-sized cities in the dry state, water shortage has become an important factor restricting China's economic development. Reasonable use of water resources has become an important issue for China is now facing. In order to achieve the rational use of water resources, in addition to in beefing water conservancy projects and enhance the people's awareness of water conservation efforts to improve. But more important is the application of new technical information, real-time to accurately understand and master a variety of hydrological information in order to make the right water scheduling and management, so that preventive measures to minimize water wastage . Coupled with long-standing water level measurement of water level has been an important issue in hydrology, water resources department. For the timely detection of the signs of the accident, precautionary measures in the future, economical and practical, reliable water level wireless monitoring systems will play a major role. The water level of dam safety, one of the important parameters for water drainage and irrigation scheduling, water storage, flood discharge.Provides a good foundation for the automation of monitoring, transmission and processing of the water level reservoir modernization. Need to monitor the water level in many areas of industrial and agricultural production. The site may not be able to close without the manpower to monitor, we can RMON, sitting in the control room facing the instrument can be monitored on-site, convenient and save manpower. In order to ensure the safe production of hydroelectric power station to improve power generation efficiency,Hydropower production process need to monitor the water level in the reservoir, trash rack, pressure drop and the tail water level. However, due to the different power plants with a different factual situations, have different technical requirements, and the measurement methods and location of the water level parameters and also the requirements of the monitoring equipment. This often results in the monitoring system equipment of a high degree of variety, interchangeability is not conducive to the maintenance of equipment will increase the equipment design, production, installation complexity. Therefore, on the basis of the actual situation and characteristics of the comprehensive study of hydropower water level monitoring, the use of modern electronic technology, especially single-chip technology and non-volatile memory technology, designed to develop a versatile, high reliability, easy maintenance, the applicable a variety of monitoring the environment, multi-mode automatic water level monitoring system has important practical significance. The subject according to the reservoir water level measurement needs, design a remote microcontroller water level monitoring system, the system automatically detects the water level, time processing, Data GPRS remote upload function. The design of the monitoring system will be significant savings in manpower and resources, low-power 24 hours of continuous monitoring and upload real-time control reservoir water level, to better adapt to the needs of the modern water level measurement, the safety of the dam reservoir, impoundment spillway to provide a basis.Microcontroller embedded microcontrollers are widely used in industrial measurement and control systems, intelligent instruments and household appliances. In real-time detection and automatic control of microcomputer application system, the microcontroller is often as a core component to use. The basic requirements of the water tower water level control system in the case of unattended automatic limit automatically start the motor to reach the water level in the water level in the water tower to the water tower water supply; water tower water level reached the water level upper limit is automatically off the motor to stop water supply. And unusual time to sound the alarm and troubleshooting in the water supply system at any time to ensure that the towers of the external normal water supply role. The water tower is often seen in daily life and industrial applications, water storage devices, external water supply through the control of its water level to meet the needs of its waterlevel control is universal. Regardless of socio-economic rapid water plays an important role in people's normal life and production. Once off the water, ranging from great inconvenience to the people's living standards, weight is likely to cause serious accidents and losses, and thus a higher demand of water supply system to meet the timely, accurate, safe and adequate water supply. If you still use the artificial way, the labor-intensive, low efficiency, safety is hard to guarantee the transformation of the automated control system, which must be carried out. In order to achieve sufficient amount of water, smooth water pressure, water towers, water level automatic control design low-cost, high practical value of the controller. The design uses a separate circuit to achieve high and low warning level processing, and automatic control, save energy, improve the quality of the water supply system.SCM is an integrated circuit chip, VLSI technology with data processing capability of the central processing unit CPU random access memory RAM, read only memory ROM, and a variety of I / O port and interrupt system, timers / timer other functions (which may also include a display driver circuit, pulse width modulation circuit, analog multi-channel converter, A / D converter and other circuit) integrated into a silicon constitute a small computer system. The basic features are as follows: the chip is small, but complete, SCM is one of the main features. Its internal program memory, data memory, a variety of interface circuit. Large processor speed is higher, the median more of the arithmetic unit, processing ability, but need to be configured in the external interface circuit; microcontroller clocked generally 100MHZ less suitable for small products for independent work, cited pin number from a few hundred. The application is simple, flexible, and free assembly language and C language development of SCM products. The working process of the microcontroller: microcontroller automatically complete the tasks entrusted to it, that is, single-chip implementation of the procedure for a section of the instruction execution process, the so-called directive requirements for single-chip implementation of the various operations used in the form of the command is to write down , which corresponds to a basic operation of designers assigned to it by the instruction set, an instruction; Full instructions can be executed by the microcontroller, the microcontroller instruction set, the different types of single-chip, and its instruction set is also different. So that the microcontroller canautomatically complete a specific task, the problem to be solved must be compiled into a series of instructions (these instructions must be selected microcontroller to the identification and implementation of the Directive), a collection of this series of instructions to become the program, the program need to pre- stored in the components - memory storage capabilities. Memory is composed by a number of storage units (the smallest unit of storage), like a large building has many rooms composed of the same, the instructions stored in these units, the instruction fetch unit and perform like the rooms of large buildings, each assigned to only a room number, each memory cell must be assigned to a unique address number, the address is known as the address of the storage unit, so as long as you know the address of the storage unit, you can find the storage unit that stores instructions can be removed, and then be executed. Programs are usually executed in the order, instruction program is a sequential storage, single-chip in the implementation of the program to be able to a section of these instructions out and be implemented, there must be a component to track the address of instruction where this part the program counter PC (included in the CPU), the start of program execution, endowed the address where the first instruction of the program to the PC, and then made for each command to be executed, the PC in the content will automatically increase, increase The amount is determined by the instruction length of this article may be 2 or 3, to point to the starting address of the next instruction to ensure the implementation of the instruction sequence.Microcontroller tower water level control system is the basic design requirements: inside the tower, we have designed a simple water level detection sensor used to detect the three water level, the low water level, the normal water level, water level. Low water to give a high single-chip, driven pumps and water, the red light; water level in the normal range, the pump add water, the green light; high water when the pump without water, the yellow light. The design process using the sensor technology, microcomputer technology, and light alarm technology and weak control the strong power of technology. Technical parameters and design tasks: 1, the use of the MCU to control the water level on the tower;, the water level in the water level detection sensor probe was the tower to give the microcontroller in order to achieve the water pump and water system and display system control; 3, the light alarm display system circuit, pumps and hydropower route relaycontrol;, analysis is drawn on the working principle of the system structure and a system block diagram using the microcontroller as a control chip, the main work process when the water in the tower low water level, water level detection sensor gave a high microcontroller, microcontroller-driven pump to add water and display system so that the red light lit; pump add water when the water level within the normal range, the green light, when the water level in the high-water mark, The microcontroller can not drive the water pump to add water, the yellow light. Light alarm circuit, the relay control circuit it works: When the water level in the low water, low water level detection sensor line is not +5 V power supply guide pass into the regulator circuit is treated in the output of the voltage regulator circuit has a high level, into the P1.0 port of the microcontroller, another high voltage circuit output of the microcontroller P1.1 port SCM After analysis, the P1.2 port outputs a low red light, drive, P1. 5 out a signal so that the optocoupler GDOUHE guide through so that the relay is closed, so that the water pump to add water; when the water level in the normal range, water pump plus P1.3 pin to a low level, so that the green light; when the water level in the high-water zone, the sensor of the two detection lines are conduction, are +5 power conduction into the SCM, SCM After analysis, the P1.4 pin out of a low yellow light, The optocoupler guide a low out of the P1.5-side can not pass, so that the relay can not be closed, the pump can not add water; failure when three flashing light indicates the system.译文水位控制电路设计中国水之源总量居世界第六位，人均占有水资源量仅为世界人均占有量的四分之一，并且在地域上分布很不平衡，长江以北的广大地区，特别是北方大、中城市大部分地区处于缺水状态，水资源短缺已成为制约我国经济发展的一个重要因素。
外文文献原稿和译文(模板)
北京化工大学北方学院毕业设计（论文）——外文文献原稿和译文（空一行） 外文文献原稿和译文 （空一行） 原□□稿（空一行） IntroductionThe "jumping off" point for this paper is Reengineering the Corporation, by Michael Hammer and James Champy. The paper goes on to review the literature on BPR. It explores the principles and assumptions behind reengineering, looks for commonfactors behind its successes or failures, examines case studies, and presents alternatives to "classical" reengineering theory. The paper pays particular attention to the role of information technology in BPR. In conclusion, the paper offers somespecific recommendations regarding reengineering. Old Wine in New Bottles The concept of reengineering traces its origins back to management theories developedas early as the nineteenth century. The purpose of reengineering is to "make all your processes the best-in-class." Frederick Taylor suggested in the 1880's that managers use process reengineering methods to discover the best processes for performing work, and that these processes be reengineered to optimize productivity. BPR echoes the classical belief that there is one best way to conduct tasks. In Taylor's time, technology did not allow large companies to design processes in across-functional or cross-departmental manner. Specialization was the state-of-theart method to improve efficiency given the technology of the time.（下略）之上之下各留一空行，宋体，三号字，居中，加粗。
外文文献原稿和译文
2014届毕业设计（论文）外文文献原稿和译文姓名：陈立贺专业：升会计班级： 12.2 学号： 20122804020203 指导教师：刘丽颖外文文献原稿和译文原稿COST MANAGEMENT AND PRODUCTIONCONTROL FOR CONSTRUCTION COMPANIESMarchesan, P.R.C.; Formoso, C. T.ABSTRACTConstruction, like other industries, has been experiencing profound changes involving both the business environment and internal organization. In this context, new cost management information that provides better understanding and helps managing increasingly turbulent and complex production processes is needed. Activity-based costing (ABC) has been suggested as the leading contender method to replace traditional cost accounting systems, due to its capability to make the processes and activities performed in the organization more transparent and observable.This paper reports the main results of a research project which aimed to develop a cost accounting system capable of providing useful information to manage production processes in construction and devise a model that integrates this system to the Production Planning and Control process, based on the new operations management paradigm and on the ABC ideas. The study involved three case studies, a series of interviews with construction managers and the development of prototype software.The main conclusions of this research work are that the cost information provided by the proposed management accounting system (a) makes the production processes more transparent; (b) helps to identify production inefficiencies; (c) encourages managers to introduce corrective actions; and (d) allows the evaluation of corrective actions to be undertaken. The study also indicated that the proposed model has contributed to establishsystematic procedures for production control concerned not only with time management but also with cost management.KEY WORDS：Cost management, activity-based costing, lean construction, production control.1. INTRODUCTIONOver the last decades, many industrial sectors have been experiencing profound changes involving both the business environment and the internal organisation. This process has been so deep and radical as to suggest that a new operations management paradigm has emerged (Bartezzaghi, 1999; Koskela, 2000). In this new competitive and turbulent environment, effective cost management information has become extremely important to drive improvement efforts (Johnson & Kaplan, 1987).However, besides the environmental, managerial and technological changes occurred in the last thirty years, the existing traditional cost management systems are very similar to the ones that have been used since the mid Twenties (Johnson & Kaplan, 1987). In the face of all these changes, traditional cost account information has become mostly irrelevant and even dangerous for managerial purposes (Ploss, 1990). According to Johnson & Kaplan (1987), traditional management accounting information tends to be too late, too aggregated and too distorted to be relevant for production planning and control.The failings of the traditional management accounting systems have three important consequences. Firstly, these systems cannot provide accurate product cost. Costs are distributed to products in a simplistic and arbitrary way that usually does not represent the real demand imposed by each product on the company's resources (Johnson & Kaplan, 1987). Secondly, traditional management accounting systems fail to stimulate decisions that can affect the overall production result. Managers are sometimes encouraged to accomplish short-term goals by reducing expenses with training and investment, or even produce to stock. Although effective in short term, these decisions can seriously affect future results (Goldratt & Cox, 1992). Finally, the cost management information provided by the traditional systems is of little help to managers in their effort to improve production performance. The information provided is past-oriented and too aggregated to be useful inplanning and control decisions, because these systems are developed mostly to satisfy fiscal and financial needs. The lack of transparency allied with the lack of timeliness prevents the traditional cost information to help in the identification and correction of production flow inefficiencies.Particularly in the construction industry, the inadequacy of cost accounting systems has resulted in the dissociation between the cost management and the Production Planning and Control processes. In general, construction cost control consists basically of monitoring actual performance against cost estimates and identifying variances. According to Ballard (2000), the traditional control methods based on the detection of variances appears to assume that the causes of deviation will be apparent and the appropriate corrective action obvious. As a result, the traditional cost control systems has been much more useful to manage contracts than production (Howell & Ballard, 1996; Koskela, 2000).Since the Eighties, some alternatives for traditional cost accounting systems have been developed, aiming to regain the managerial relevance of cost information. One of these alternatives is the Activity-Based Costing (ABC) method, which has been suggested as the leading contender to replace traditional cost accounting methods due to its capability to make the processes and activities performed in an organisation transparent and observable. Over the past decades, ABC has helped many manufacturing and service organisations to improve their competitiveness by enabling them to make better decisions based on cost information.2. BACKGROUND FOR THE RESEARCHConstruction cost control systems has been the subject of a myriad of studies. Despite their relevance in terms of both improving the cost estimate structure and integrating cost and schedule, they have hardly contributed to the integration of cost management and production control systems. Besides the fact that construction cost control systems have not changed much since the Seventies, cost management and productioncontrol are still treated independently, as separated systems.From a managerial point-of-view, the effort to develop, implement and operate a cost system is justifiable only when the cost information provides effective support for decision making (Johnson & Kaplan, 1987; Krieger, 1997).Activity-Based Costing has been increasingly adopted in many industrial and service firms as a method to improve cost management in complex production systems. Despite some similarities to the cost centre method or other traditional costing methods (Horngren & Foster, 1990), the underlying philosophy of ABC is considerably different. ABC is a costing system that is based on the idea that activities consume resources and product /services consume activities.The method is basically a two-stage approach for allocating indirect costs to products based on cost drivers of various levels. In the first stage, resource costs (labour, equipment and power) are assigned to those activities performed in the organisation. During the second stage, activities costs are assigned to the cost objects based on selected cost drivers (e.g., machine set-up, quality inspection and material handling activities), which express a causal relation between the activity demand and the cost object considered. Besides the fact that ABC permits to directly trace manufacturing costs to products, it is possible to determine the costs related to objects different from products, e.g., product family, services and clients.However, the main contribution of ABC to the operations management area is the process view incorporated by the method. The information produced by ABC cost systems can increase process transparency, providing guidance to identify non-valueadding activities and take the necessary corrective actions (Kaplan & Cooper, 1995).Notwithstanding the benefits of its application, ABC presents some drawbacks when compared to traditional cost systems. Perhaps, the most important one is the larger amount of data usually needed in ABC systems. Indeed, according to some authors (Krieger, 1997; Cokins, 1999), the excessive level of detail is a major cause of unsuccessful ABC implementations. This problem can be even worse when one considers unstable and complex production processes, such as those observed in the construction industry.Despite its wide utilisation in manufacturing companies and its capability to increase the transparency of production processes, ABC has been poorly discussed in the construction literature. The few existing studies usually restrict the discussion of ABC concepts to academic applications (Maxwell et al., 1998). Therefore, there is a clear need to discuss the use of ABC concepts and principles in the construction environment. As othermanufacturing concepts and practices transferred to construction, ABC has to be translated and adapted (Lillrank, 1995).3. AN APPLICATION OF ACTIVITY-BASED CONCEPT IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRYThis paper suggests an integrated model of cost management and production control for construction companies, which is strongly based on concepts related to production planning and control proposed by Laufer & Tucker (1987) and Ballard & Howell (1998). In this model, four subprocesses are identified: the preparation, the production planning and control process itself, the evaluation process and, finally, the cost management system.The information generated by the cost system is introduced into two different control cycles (figure 1) - one is continuous and the other is intermittent. The first is a continuous feedback for long and medium term planning. The aim is to encourage a process of continuous improvement to happen, enabling the managers to identify and correct problems in real time. In the intermittent cycle, cost information is used in the planning evaluation process, aiming to improve the production planning and control process and support decisions to be taken in future projects.Figure 1: An Integrated model for cost management and production control inconstruction companies.ABC was chosen as the conceptual basis of the proposed system for its capability to provide a better understanding about the processes and the activities performed, as well as for its affinity with the new operations management ideas.There are two basic groups of resources that are involved in production: those that perform the work - named production resources -and those that are the object of work typically materials. Production resources are those that can add value to the products. Considering that the cost management of materials is an issue much discussed in literature, this paper focuses on the application of ABC to the management of production resources.Construction production processes tend to be extremely variable. This variability involves not only that caused by manual labour, but also the variability of the process configuration itself. In such a context, the use of a classical ABC structure would demand too many activities, overburdening the cost system.For that reason, a different cost allocation structure was proposed. As shown in figure 2, activities were decomposed into tasks and operations. Resources are consumed by operations and the operations are demanded by different tasks. Differently from typical ABC structures, a restricted set of operations is employed to describe and analyse any construction production process. However, in practice, some resources, such as employees or subcontractors, are typically assigned to tasks. For such resources, cost assignment is made upstream, i.e., from tasks to operations.Figure 2: Cost Allocation Model - adapted from ABCOne of the main challenges in the application of the proposed cost allocation model is the definition of an adequate set of operations. Firstly, the conceptual difference between process and operation must be observed (Shingo, 1988). Briefly, process refers to the material flow and operations refers to the human and the equipment flow. The cost system presented in this work is focused on the operations axis, i.e. the subjects that perform the work.Secondly, the existence of different process types should be recognised (Shingo, 1988). Despite the fact that any process - essential, contributory or preparation, and post-adjustment (figure 3) -consists of the same categories of activities -waiting, inspection, moving and processing -the nature and the purpose of an operation differ considerably in each of those process types.Figure 3: Classification of processes (adapted from Shingo (1988)).In this study, essential processes were defined as those that add a permanent component or prefabricate a permanent component to the owner-specified facility (Pregenzer et al., 1999). Clearly, the definition of what is essential or contributory could be different depending on who classifies the process: owner, contractor, subcontractor or layman. Preparation, post-adjustment and contributory tasks are necessary for the execution of essential activities, but do not directly add a permanent component to the facility, i.e. do not directly add value for the owner. For example, using current methods, formwork must be built for a concrete column to be cast, but the construction of the formwork itself doesnot add a permanent component to facility and, therefore, does not add value for the owner.The following set of operations was defined for the proposed cost system:·Processing: a conversion operation that intersects an essential process. It is a conversion activity that adds a permanent component or prefabricates a permanent component of the owner specified facility, e.g. pouring concrete on slabs, bricklaying, electrical wire installation. Only processing may add value to the final product from the owner point of view;· Pre-processing: a conversion operation that intersects a contributory process, which is a prerequisite of an essential process. Pre-processing operations are considered to be non-value adding, because it does not add a permanent component to the final product, e.g., formwork construction, and scaffolding assembling;·Post-processing: also a conversion process that intersects a contributory process, which, in this case, is subsequent to an essential process, e.g. formwork and scaffolding disassembling;·Moving: an operation in which any material is moved. This operation may belong to either essential or contributory processes;·Cleaning: an operation dedicated to remove rubbish and waste materials from workstations or from construction sites. It belongs to preparation and post-adjustment processes;·Adjustments and corrections: a conversion operation related to both the correction of defects (rework) and the adjustments required by the different production methods;·Travelling: an operation in which a workman travels from one point to another. This operation does not belong to any process, i.e., it does not intersect any material flow;·Waiting: it corresponds to those idle times caused by inclement weather, production disruptions or physiological needs. Like travelling, it does not belong to any process.This set of eight operations has been specifically proposed for this study, considering its objectives and the resources available. In other studies, a different set could be suggested, depending on the cost-benefit analysis of data collection and processing.3.1 DATA GATHERING AND ANALYSISDespite the fact that it is possible to collect data on site, the perception of managersand employees was used in this study to evaluate the intensity which each operation is demanded by each different task. This decision was made due to the difficulty of incorporating objective methods, such as work sampling and work study, in small and medium sized construction companies as systematic procedures for measuring the time spent performing each operation. Moreover, the relative short duration of several construction tasks would imply in the need of making a great number of observations during a very short period of time – sometimes about half a day – in order to get statistical validity.According to Drucker (1995), it is necessary to rely on assessment and judgement rather than on direct measurement when objective measures are nearly impossible to obtain. Furthermore, perception has been successfully used with such purpose in several cases of ABC implementation (Brimson, 1991). Although the use of perception is a limitation of this study, objective measures might be used when the processes are reasonably stable and the proper resources are available. In such situations, objective time measurements can also be used to validate data collected through the perception-based measurement.In general terms, the procedure adopted in this study consisted of measuring the total amount of resources spent in each task (total man-hour) and then determining the intensity that each task demanded from each operation. The time demanded by each operation was evaluated by the managers and the foremen through the assignment of an index (0 to 10) which express the relative intensity of each operation.To illustrate the data gathering and analysis process, consider the example provided in table 1. The table represents a daily register of the tasks performed in a construction site. Each line in the table corresponds to a specific task, defined as a unique combination of an action (e.g. casting, assembling or digging) to be performed on a physical element (e.g. beams, columns, windows or pipes), located in a zone (e.g. a building, a level, an apartment, or a room). For each task, the total cost is given by the multiplication of labour cost per hour and the task duration. For example, assuming that each worker (JJ) cost $40,00 per hour, the task of "pouring concrete on the 14th floor's slab" costed $160,00.Table 1: Cost System Input Data – ExampleThe second step consists of distributing the task cost among the set of operations considered. For every tasks an intensity index is assigned to each operation based on the perception of managers and employees. Accordingly to the assigned index, a share of the task cost is allocated to each operationFinally, the cost assignment to cost objects depends on how these are defined. A cost object might be defined as an element, as a zone, or as a combination of both element and zone. Once defined the cost object, the costs of all those tasks that match the cost object definition are summed up to determine its total cost.CONCLUSIONSThis paper reports the main results of a research project which investigated the application of ABC concepts to improve process transparency in construction cost control.A cost allocation model was suggested aiming to translate and adapt the method for the construction industry context. The need to integrate the cost management information in the production planning and control process was also stressed. Three case studies were carried out, in which the proposed cost system was successfully implemented.The main contributions of this paper are presented below:·The proposed cost system has demonstrated the capability of providing relevant information for production management. Its implementation has increased production processes transparency, making visible important aspects usually neglected by traditional cost systems. The cost information encouraged discussion and reflection about the way production process are managed and performed. In this way, it helped to identify production inefficiencies, as well as to evaluate the corrective actions that were undertaken. The great benefit of the proposed cost system, when compared with operational analysis techniques such as first run studies, work sampling and craftworker questionnaires is that it enables toquantify and evaluate processes costs distribution in a systematic way. The proposed system can be continuously operated by the construction companies, allowing them not only to identify but also to quantify waste, so that corrective actions can be properly evaluated before hand in terms of cost.;· the adoption of ABC concepts in the construction industry demands the translation and adaptation of such concepts in order to create a manageable cost system. The cost allocation model suggested in this paper uses "operations" as the main unit for process analysis. Instead of hundreds of activities, a restricted set of operations, which incorporates the flow and value views by differentiating the value adding from the non-value adding operations, is employed to describe and analyse any production process;· the integration of cost information in the production planning and control process is essential so that systematic procedures for production control concerned not only with time but also with costs can be established.REFERENCESBrimson, J. A. 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外文文献原稿和译文原稿About Programmable Logiccontrollers（PLCs）PLCs (programmable controller) is used in a variety of automatic control system and process control hub.They contain multiple input and output, input and output is used to transistors and other circuit, analog switch and relay to control the equipment.PLC software interface, standard calculator interface, specialized language programming and network equipment.Programmable logic controller I/O channel rules including all input output contact and contact, to expand capacity and the largest number of channels.Contact number is the sum of input and output points.PLC can specify any combination of these values.Extension units can be stack or connected to each other to increase the total control.The largest number of channels are in an extension system, the total number of maximum input and output channels.PLC system rules include scanning time, number of instructions, data storage and storage program.Scan time is used to monitor input and output module of PLC need time.Standard operation instruction is used in PLC software.Data storage is the ability to store data.Program memory is the ability to control software.Used for programmable controller input devices including DC, AC, intermediate relay, thermocouple, RTD, frequency or pulse, transistors and interrupt signal input;Output devices include DC, AC, intermediate relay, frequency or pulse, transistor, three-terminal two-way thyristor switch components;PLC programming equipment including control panel, handle and computer.Programmable control is used to control a variety of software programming language.These languages including iec61131-3, sequential table (SFC), action block diagram (FBD), ladder diagram (LD), and the structure of the text (ST), instruction sequences (IL), relay ladder diagram (RIL), flow charts, C language and Basic language.Iec61131-3 programming environment can support five languages, with international standards to regulate, SFC, respectively, FBD, LD, ST and IL.This allows more vendor compatibility and a variety of languages.SFC is a kind of graphlanguage, it provides the programming in order to cooperate, can support the order selection and tied for choice, to choose between them.Runtime FBD with a big, established the complicated process, in the form of graphs.Standard mathematical and logical operation can be combined with user interaction and interface operation.LD is suitable for discrete control and interlock logic diagram language.It is fully compatible with FBD on discrete control.ST is a kind of text language, used for complex mathematical and computational process, language is not applicable to chart.IL is similar to the combination of coding low-level languages.It is used in relatively simple logical instructions.Relay ladder diagram and ladder diagram is used for programmable controller is an important programming dder diagram programming is designed to relay logic diagram representation of the program.Flow chart is a graphic language, for use in a controller or operations described in the order of application software, it is used to establish a standard component of recycled runtime.C language is a high-level programming language, suitable for processing the most complicated calculation, a continuous data acquisition task.It typically run in PC debugging.BASIC language is used to handle the number of consecutive data acquisition and interface operation of high-level language.Programmable controller also specification of many computer interface equipment, network rules and characteristics.PLC energy equipment and running environment is also very important.The development history of programmable controllerIn 1968, general motors (GM), according to the needs of the development of the market situation and put forward the "many varieties, small batch, new car brand model" strategy.To implement this strategy, relying on the original industrial control device obviously not, and there must be a kind of new industrial control device, it can be with the change of the products, flexible and easily change control scheme to difficult to meet the different requirements of control.In 1969, the famous American digital equipment corporation (DEC) according to the function requirements of GM, developed the new industrial control device, and the GM of a vehicle to run automated production line for the first time to succeed.According to this new type of industrial control devices can be programmedto change control scheme this characteristic, and the situation of the specialized for Logic control, says the new industrial control device for the Programmable control (Programmable Logic Controller), hereinafter referred to as PLC.From 1968 to now, the PLC has experienced four generation: most of the first generation of PLC with a machine development, with the core memory storage, only the logic control function.In the second generation of PLC products for 8-bit microprocessor and semiconductor memory, PLC product seriation.The third generation of PLC product with high performance microprocessor and chip is used in great quantities in the PLC CPU, PLC speed greatly improved, thus enabling it to develop in the direction of multi-function communications and networking.The fourth generation of PLC products not only comprehensive use 16-bit and 32-bithigh-performance microprocessors, high-performance slice microcontroller processor, RISC (Reduced instruction set computer) Reduced instruction system CPU and other advanced CPU, and more than one processor in a PLC configuration, multi-channel processing.Also produced a large number of embedded microprocessor module, only makes the fourth generation of PLC product has the function of logical control, process control, motion control, data control, networked control functions really worthy of the name of multi-functional controller.At the same time, the PLC network composed of PLC has also been rapid development.PLC and industrial control of PLC network in factory enterprises become the preferred device, composed of PLCmulti-stage distributed PLC network become indispensable fundamental part of CIMS system.People spoke highly of the importance of PLC and its network, it is one of the three pillars of modern.Selecting machine modelMarket popular PLC products manufacturer in China with the following companies:(1) schneider company, including the introduction of early from Modicon company by the tianjin instrument instrument and meter plant products, products are now Quantum, Premium and Momentum;(2) rockwell company (including AB company) PLC products, products are now SLC and Micro Logix Control Logix etc.(3) of Siemens PLC products, products are now 400/300 / S7-200 series;(4) ge PLC products;(5) the company's products such as omron, mitsubishi, Fuji, panasonic, one of the most popular is the mitsubishi FX series.The basic principle of PLC selection is: in the input/output quantity meet the requirements under the premise of should choose the most reliable, maintenance, and use the most convenient and cost-effective optimal products.Selecting I/OPLC is an industrial control system, the control object is industrial production equipment or the production process of industrial products, working environment is the industrial production field.It connects the industrial production process is achieved by I/O interface module.PLC has a lot of I/O interface module including switch input module, the switch output module, analog input module and analog output module and special module, we should use according to the characteristics of their implementation options.(1) determine the number of input/outputAccording to the requirements of the control system, determine the number of input/output required, should increase the spare quantity of 10% 20%, in order to increase control function in any time.(2) the switch quantity input/outputSwitch input/output interface and can take the signals from the sensors and switches and control equipment.A typical 24-240 - v ac input/output signals, 5-240 - v dc input/output signals.(3) the analog input/outputAnalog input/output inte rface can accept the signal generated by thesensor.These interfaces can be used to measure turnover rate, temperature and pressure, and thus to control the voltage or current output device.Range for these interfaces - 10-10 v, + 0 to 10 v, 4-20 ma, or 10 to 50 ma.Some manufacturers on the PLC design special dedicated analog interface, so it can receive low level signal.In general, this interface module can be used to receive different types of thermocouple and RTD mixed signal.(4) special function input/outputWhen selecting a PLC, user may faced some special types of input/output and some because of the location of the limited input/output and fast response and frequency problem caused by the non standard input/output.Now, the user should consider whether to accept by the market or manufacturers to provide a special module, through a dedicated part of the module and dispose data, so as to reduce the use of the CPU, improve the efficiency of the task processing, to minimize failure caused by high limit control.PLC statusIn a PLC, the lack of keyboard and other input and output devices is a very worthy of attention.In PLC front usually have a certain amount of status ually indicates that:The start-up - as long as the PLC charged, it will be started.Program is running - this will indicate whether running or if no program is running. Error display - when PLC has a large hardware or software errors, it will be displayed. These lights are usually used for debugging.A certain number of button will also be provided to the PLC hardware.The most common button is a run/programming selection switch, when in keeping the state, it will be transferred to the programming;When the production status, it will be transferred to the operation.A PLC system almost no start closing switch or reset switch at the front.It needs to be designed into the system the rest.The state of the PLC can also be ladder logic diagram.Test whether the program implemented is very common for the first time.'first scan input in ladder diagram by scanning for the first time, will is right, and in the rest of the time when the scanning is wrong.In this case, the PLC - 5 'first scan' address is' S2:1/14 '.According to the example of the logical relationship, the first scan will seal the 'light' until the 'clear' is started.So the light will be start brighter in the PLC, but after the "clear" is launched, it will shut down and remain in the closed position.'first scan module is mentioned in the "first pass" module.PLC application domainAt home and abroad at present, the PLC has been widely used in steel, petroleum, chemical, electric power, building materials, machinery manufacturing, automobile, textile, transportation, environmental protection and cultural industries with happiness and usage can be roughly divided into the following categories:(1) the switch quantity logic controlThis is the most basic, the most widely PLC applications, it replaces the traditional relay circuit, realize logic control, sequence control, can be used for control of single equipment, also can be used in many machines and automatic assembly line.Such as injection molding machine, printing machine, stapler machinery, combined machine tool, grinding machine, packaging production line, plating production line, etc.(2) analog controlIn the process of industrial production, there are a lot of continuous change, such as temperature, pressure, flow, liquid level and speed and so on are all analog.In order to make the programmable controller to deal with analog, must implement the analog quantity and digital quantity between A/D and D/A conversion module, the programmable controller for analog control.(3) motion controlPLC can be used in circular motion and linear motion control.From control mechanism configuration, early applied directly to switch the I/O module connection position sensors and actuators, now in general use special motion controlmodule.Such as driving a stepper motor or servo motor of uniaxial or multi-axis position control module.The world's major products almost all have motion control function of PLC manufacturers, widely used in all kinds of machinery, machine tools, robots, elevators, etc.(4) process controlProcess control is to point to the analog quantities such as temperature, pressure, flow rate of the closed loop control.As industrial control computer, PLC can prepare the all kinds of control algorithm procedures, complete the closed-loop control.PID control is generally be applied closed loop control system of the control rge and medium-sized PLC has PID module, at present many small PLC also has thefunction module.PID processing is generally run special PID subroutine.The process control in metallurgy, chemical industry, heat treatment, boiler control occasions has wide application, etc.(5) the data processingModern PLC with mathematical operation, data transmission, data conversion, sorting, look-up table, a function, such as the operation can complete data collection, analysis, and processing.These data can be compared with the reference value of memory, accomplish a certain number of control operation, also can send to other intelligent device, the use of communication function or printing them tabulation.Data processing is generally used in a large control system, such as unmanned control of flexible manufacturing systems;Can also be used to process control system, such as paper making, metallurgy, food industry, some of the large control system.(6) communications and networkingPLC communication with the communication between PLC and the communication between PLC and other smart devices.With the development of computer control, factory automation network is growing fast, the PLC manufacturers have attached great importance to PLC communications functions, have launched their own network systems.The newly production PLC has a communication interface, communication is very convenient.PLC application field is still in the extension, in Japan, the application of PLC has been from the traditional industrial automatic control equipment and machinery, extended to the following areas of application: small and medium-sized process control system, remote maintenance service system, the energy conservation monitoring control system, and of the relation of living machines, relationship with the environment, and all have rapidly rising trend.It is important to note that with PLC, DSC mutual penetration, both the boundaries of an increasingly fuzzy, PLC applied to discrete manufacturing industry from the traditional to the applied to the continuous process industries to expand.译文PLC介绍PLC（可编程控制器）是用于各种自动控制系统和过程的可控网络集线器。