理论语言学第三章3
语言学讲义第三章
Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?•definition: It is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”:a. a physically definable unit;b. the common factor underlying a set of forms;c. a grammatical unit•a physical unit:a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks.It is wonderful.–Three words are recognized.–However, in casual speech or writing, it often becomes–It‟s wonderful.–Are they two words or three?b. the common factor underlying a set of forms•-- walk, walks, walking, walked•How many words are there? (considered only one word/lexeme walk in dictionary)•I usually have dinner at 6 but yesterday I had it at seven.•How many times did the word “have” occur?•Lexeme: the abstract and smallest unit in the lexical system of a language which can be distinguished from another smallest unit.e.g. “write” is the lexeme of the set of the following items:write wrote written writing writesc. a grammatical unit•Language is hierarchy.3.1.2. Identification of words•stability: the internal structure is the most stable e.g. chairman namirahc•relative uninterruptibility: new elements can not be inserted into a word•a minimum free form:(suggested by Bloomfield)maximum→ sentenceminimum→ word3.1.3 Classification of words•Variable vs. Invariable Words:–Variable words: write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats.–Invariable words: since, when, seldom, through, etc.•Grammatical vs. Lexical Words:–Grammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.–Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.•Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:–Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, e.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.–Open-class words: New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.•Word class: known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.Word class–Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. •Some new word class:–Particles:infinitive to,negative not,subordinate units in phrasal verbs“get by”, “look back”, etc.–Auxiliaries: do, have–Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.–Pro-form–DeterminersPro-forms•Pro-forms: substitutes for other terms.–Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyone–Pro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his.–Pro-verb: He spoke English better than she did.–Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too.–Pro-locative: He went there.Determiner•Determiner: words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has.•There are 3 classes of determiners:predeterminers: all, both, half, one-third…central determiners: this, that, every, each, either, my…post determiners: cardinal numerals, ordinal numerals, next, last, other, many, few, a great many o f…•Their positions are fixed:Predeterminers + central determiners +post determiners;•E.g. all her many good ideasP C P modifier•*their all trouble•*five the all boys•*all this boy•*all both girls3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 morpheme and morphology•Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.e.g. dis appoint ment (3)•Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components – morphemes.•Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.3.2.2 Types of morphemes•Free morphemes & Bound morphemesFree morphemes:those that may constitute words by themselves, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.Free morphemes fall into two categories:Content words (open-class words)Function words (close-class words)Compounds: polymorphemic words consisting wholly of free morphemes, e.g. mooncake Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, un-Bound morphemes are mainly affixes.(2) Root, affix and stem•Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity,e.g. friend as in unfriendliness.•Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into–prefix (dis-, un-)–suffix (-en, -ify) and–Infix( feet, goose).•Stem : it is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. A stem can be bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.E.g. friend (friends), friendship (friendships)(3) Inflectional and Derivational AffixAffixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational•Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations such as number, tense, degree, and case.•- (e) s: plurality of nouns•- (e) s: third person singular, present tense•- (e) d: past tense for all three persons•- (e) d: past participle form of verbs•- ing: progressive aspect•- er : comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs•- est: superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs•- …s: the possessive case of nouns•Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word, e.g. -tion, -ness, un-, en-, -less etc.Difference Between Roots ,Base and Stem ?•Some linguists consider the base to be the equivalent to the term root; that is, the base form of a word or that part of the word left when all the affixes are moved .•Some other linguists maintain that the base is any part of a word when an affix is added to a root or stem.( in the word unhappiness, unhappy may be the base, happy is the root )•A stem is the main part of a word to which inflectional affixes are added and it can be a bound root, afree morpheme, or a derived form itself. The stem and the root often coincide( stars: root=stem); 1 stem=2 root/free morphemes (motherlands)3.2.3 Inflection and Word FormationThere are 2 fields Morphology concerns:the study of Inflections (Inflectional Morphology) andWord Formation ( Lexical or Derivational Morphology).•Inflection: adding inflectional affix, such as number, person, case, (tables, opens, boy’s ) do not change the grammatical class of the stems•Derivation: shows the relations between roots and affixes, e.g.lengthen, foolish, (word class changed)nonsmoker, disobey (word class unchanged)(2) Word Formationi. compound•Compounds: two or more free roots combine to make a new word.–Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill–Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit–Adjective compounds: gray-haired,insect-eating, dutyfree–Preposition compounds: into, throughout•Endocentric & exocentric compounds•Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg–self-control: a kind of control–armchair: a kind of chair•E xocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, eg–scarecrow: not a kind of crow–breakneck: not a kind of neck•Written forms of compounds–Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguard–Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-length–Open: coffee table, washing machine•Free variation:–businessman, business-man, business man–winebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottle–no one, no-one, nooneii. Derivation•Word class changed:–N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard–N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless–V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant–V>A: acceptable, adorable–A>N: rapidness, rapidity–A>V: deafen, sweeten–Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly•Word class unchanged:–N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife, booklet–V>V: disobey, unfasten–A>A: grayish, irrelevant3.3 lexical change3.3.1 lexical change proper3.3.2 Morphosyntactic change3.3.3 Semantic change3.3.4 Phonological change3.3.5 Orthographic change3.3.1 lexical change proper1. Invention (coinage)one of the least common process of word formation in English. The invention of totally new terms.e.g. kodak, nylon2. BlendingTwo words are blended by joining the initial part of the first one and the final part of the second, or by joining the initial part of the two parts, e.g.–transfer +resistor>transistor–smoke+fog>smog–motorist+hotel>motel–breakfast+lunch>brunch–modulator+demodulator>modem–dance+exercise>dancercise–advertisement+editorial>advertorial–education+entertainment>edutainment–information+commercial>infomercial3. Abbreviation/ Shortingwords can be formed by the reduction of other words or phrases.•(1)initialism•(2)acronym•(3)clipping•Initialism–AI: artificial intelligence–a.s.a.p.: as soon as possible–ECU: European Currency Unit–HIV: human immunodeficiency virus–PC: personal computer–PS: postscript–RSVP: répondez s‟il vous plait (…please reply‟ in French)•4. Acronym–AIDS, Aids: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome–ASAP: as soon as possible–CD-ROM: compact disc read-only memory–WASP: white Anglo-Saxon protestant–dink(y): double income, no kids–nilk(y): no income, lots of kids•Clipping–Back-clippings: ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), lab(oratory), piano(forte), reg(ulation)s–Fore-clippings: (ham)burger, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quake–Fore-and-aft clippings: (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive)5. Back-formationa word of one type is reduced to form another word of a different type, e.g--diagnose < diagnosis–enthuse < enthusiasm–laze < lazy–liaise < liaison–reminisce < reminiscence–statistic < statistics–televise < television6. Analogical Creation–From irregular to regular:old new•work: wrought > worked•beseech: besought > beseeched•slay: slew > slayed•go: went > goed???7. Borrowing (loan words)•French: administration, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, officer, peace, •Latin: admit, client, conviction, discuss, equal, index, library, medicine, minor•Greek: catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasy•Spanish and Portuguese: banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, chocolate, cigar, cocaine, cockroach, cocoa, guitar, mosquito, negro, potato, tank, tobacco, tomato, vanilla•Italian: aria, bandit, broccoli, casino, concerto, duet, finale, influenza, mafia, malaria, paparazzi (singular paparazzo), piano, pizza, solo, soprano, spaghetti, studio, umbrella, volcano •Dutch: boss, brandy, cookie, cruise, deck, dock, dollar, freight, gin, kit, knapsack, landscape, luck, sketch, slim, smuggle, snap, trek, yacht•Arabic: admiral, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, alkali, almanac, assassin, candy, hazard, lemon, magazine, safari, sofa, zero•Indian: bungalow, cashmere, curry, ginger, jungle, mango, polo, pyjamas (or pajamas), shampoo, swastika, thug, yoga•Chinese: chop suey, chow, chow mein, ginseng, gung-ho, ketchup (or catchup or catsup), kung fu, tea, tofu (via Japanese), typhoonTypes of loan words•Loanwords: both form and meaning are borrowed.–au pair, encore, coup d‟etat, kungfu, sputnik•Loanblend: part of the form is native and part is borrowed, the meaning is fully borrowed.–coconut: coco (Spanish) + nut (English)–Chinatown: China (Chinese) + town (English)•Loanshift: form is native, meaning is borrowed.–bridge: meaning as a card game borrowed from Italian ponte•Loan translation, or calque: each morpheme is translated in the equivalent morpheme in another language–free verse < L verse libre–black humor < Fr humour noir–found object < Fr objet trouvé8. CompoundingCompounding : to join two separate words to produce a single form.•(1) When the two words are in the same grammatical category ,the compound will be in this category :N + N = N : boyfriend ,elevator-operator, fighter-bomber, landlordAdj. + Adj. = Adj. icy-cold, red–hot•(2) When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound:N. + Adj. = Adj.: headstrong ,watertight, lifelongV. + N. = N. : daredevil, sawbones•Compounds formed with a preposition are in the category of the nonprepositional part of the compound:Overtake: prep + v. = v.Hanger-on: n. + prep. = n.Uplift: prep. + v. = v.Sit-in: v. +prep. = v.•(3)Though two-word compounds are the most common in English , it would be different to state an upper limit: e.g.Three-time loserFour-dimensional space-timeA middle-income-familyThe one –child-family policyA sentence in Washington post reads:“The air force is bei ng weaned away from the bomb-them-into-the-stone-age-with-the-biggest-fiercest-planes-imaginable-philosophy9. Derivationshow the relation between roots and affixes, e.g. nation, national, nationalize, nationalization, international;•Class-changing:–N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard–N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless–V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant–V>A: acceptable, adorable–A>N: rapidness, rapidity–A>V: deafen, sweeten–Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly•Class-preserving:–N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife–V>V: disobey, unfasten–A>A: grayish, irrelevant10. Conversiona change in the function of a word,e.g a noun is used to be a verb: to dust11. Onomatopoeia•The use of words that sound like the thing that they are describing, like hiss, boom…3.3.2 morpho-syntactical change•Morphological change:–third person singular present tense:-(e)th: do(e)th, goeth, hath, findeth >-(e)s: does, goes, has, finds–the campus of the university >the university‟s campus•Syntactical change:–He saw you not. > He d idn‟t see you.–I know not where to hide my head. > I don‟t know where to hide my head.•Fusion/blending:–equally good + just as good > equally as good–It‟s no use getting there before nine + There‟s no use in getting there before nine > There‟s no use getting there before nine.3.3.3 Semantic change•1) Broadening:–holiday: holy day (religion) > day for rest–bird: young bird > any kind–task: tax > work•2) Narrowing:–meat: food >–girl: young person > young woman–deer: beast > a special kind of animal•3) Meaning shift:•bead: prayer > the prayer bead > small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood•4) Class shift: conversion to other word classes–engineer: person trained in engineering > to act as an engineer (N>V)•5) Folk etymology: a popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrase .–history: Old French < Latin < Greek historia, meaning 'knowledge through inquiry, record, or narrative'.–his story > herstory•Fake etymology: a kind of folk etymology–Manhattan: man with hat on–MBA: married but available–PhD: perhaps have divorced–golf: Gentlemen Only; Ladies Forbidden3.3.4 phonological change•phonological change: refers to changes in sound leading to changes in forms.•Types: (1) loss(2) addition(3) metathesis 换位(4) assimilation 同化•Loss of sound:–loss of sound in fast speech, eg cabinet, laboratory –and > ‟n in connected speech, eg rock-‟n-roll •Addition of sound:–L. studium > O.F. estudie, Sp. estudio, Port. estudo –English: strike > sutoraiki (Jap.) •Metathesis: changing the sequence of sound–O.E. brid > bird, O.E. ox/ax > ask •Assimilation:–impossible, immovable–irregular, irresponsible–illogical, illegal3.3.5 Orthographic change•Change of spelling:–Iesus > Jesus–sate > sat–Sunne > Sun。
语言学纲要第三章 语音和音系
舌尖: 舌头卷起，舌尖向后顶住前腭，可以发出舌尖后音或
卷舌音。汉语拼音zh[t ] ch [t h] sh[ ]。 舌尖抵住上齿龈，可以发出舌尖前音。汉语拼音的
d/[t] t[th] n[n] l[l] z[ts] c [tsh] s[s]. 舌尖抵住上下齿之间，就可以发出齿间音。如英语
第三章 语音和音系
语音是语言的物质外壳。 一、语音的单位 音节：一般人能够自然感觉到的语音单位。音节是
一个自然的响度单位。 “短”是几个音节？begin是几个音节？
音素：最小的语音单位。 “打”包含几个音素？ 世界上的语言所用的音素不过二百个左右。
二、记录语音的符号 语音的描写
“低”
1. 舌尖顶住上齿后齿龈， 使得气流受到阻塞， [t]
舌根（舌面后）：与软腭配合发出的音是舌 根音 g[k] k[kh] h [x]。
舌面中：和硬腭后半部（中腭）配合发出的音 叫舌面中音。 yes[j] 舌面中半元音。湖南韶 山方言的“奚”[çi]中的[ç]是舌面中擦音。
舌面前：与中腭配合发出舌面前音。汉语拼音 的 j [t ] q [t h] x[ ]
陪音的不同，跟共鸣器有很大关系。发音体的振动 是复杂的，同时产生许多不同频率的振动，共鸣器 有自己的振动频率，它在发音体发出的声音的不同 频率成分中选择一定的频率成分发生共鸣，加以放 大，同时又抑制或吸收另一些频率成分。共鸣器的 这种作用在语音音质的区分上起着非常重要的作用。
说话时声带振动，产生基音的频率通常叫基频，用 F0表示。被共鸣腔特别强化的陪音在语音分析中叫 共振峰，用F1，F2，F3等表示。基频决定整个音的 音高，由声带振动决定，共振峰决定整个音的音质， 这取决于器官的形状。
修订版《语言学纲要》第三章
第三章语音和音系一、名词解释语音四要素一一音高、音重（强）、音长、音质。
音素一一是从音质的角度划分出来的最小的线性的语音单位音位一一具体语言中有区别词的语音形式的作用的最小的语音单位。
也是按语音的辨义作用归纳出来的音类，从语言的社会属性划分出来的语言单位音位变体一一处在互补关系中的相似的音素彼此不对立，即不起区别词的语音形式的作用，我们可以把它们归并为一个音位。
如果它们被归并为一个音位，则处于互补关系中的各个音素就被看成为同一音位在不同位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，所以我们把它们叫做音位变体。
非音质音位一一非音质音位指具有区别词的语音形式的作用的音高、音重、音长等。
例如汉语普通话声调中的阴平、阳平、上声、去声，是由音高的变化形成的而不是音质变化形成的，就是非音质音位。
区别特征一一具体语言中有区别音位的作用的发音特征，叫做该语言的区别特征。
每一个音位都可以分解为几个不同的区别特征。
运用区别特征比较容易说清楚音位在具体语言中的特点和具体语言语音系统的组织方式。
音节一一由音位组成的语音中最小的结构单位，也是从听觉上感受到的最自然的单位。
语流音变一一音位和音位组合的时候，由于受说话时快慢，高低、强弱的不同和邻音的影响，可能发生不同的临时性的变化。
这种变化，我们叫做语流音变。
音步一一语言的一种节奏中，语流是大致每隔两个音节就有一次小的轻重、高低、长短或松紧的交替，形成语流中大致等距离出现的两音节的节奏单元。
这种节奏单元叫做音步。
二、填空或简答1、画一张元音舌位图，用国际音标标出八个基本元音。
八个基本元音[i][e][ ][a][u][o][ ][a]前央不圆唐圆唇后2、按音位特征用国际音标注出相应的音素。
(1)双唇浊鼻音m(2)舌尖前浊擦音z(3)舌面前送气清塞擦音用‘(4)后低不圆唇元音a(5)前半高不圆唇元音e(6)后半高圆唇元音。
3、列出现代汉语普通话辅音音位的至少四对区别特征并各举一对儿对立音位。
语言学第三章笔记和习题
Chapter 3 MorphologyLexicon is the collection of all the words of a Ianguage. It is synonymous with “vocabulary ”Words are the focus of the study of lexicon, so the emphasis of this chapter falls upon words,., the an alysis and creati on of words.Linguists define the word as the smallest free form found in Ianguage. The features of wordWordis meaningful; word is a grammatical unit; word can be used independently; word is relatively stable and unin terruptible.Morphology refers to the study of the in ternal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.The total nu mber of words stored in the brain is called the lexic on. _________Words are the smallest free un its of Ian guage that un ite sounds with meaning.Morphology is a branch of lin guistics, whereas lexic on is a comp onent of Ian guage in stead of a branch of lin guistics.Open class word and closed class wordOpen class words----content words of a Ian guage to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, . beatnik(a membeiof the Beat Generation), hacker, email, intern et, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chin ese.Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles,prepositi on and pronouns.Morpheme-the minimal unit of meaning. The smallest meaningful unit of Ianguage is called a morpheme.Words are composed of morphemes. Words may con sist of one morpheme or more morphemes,.1- morpheme 2- m orpheme 3- m orpheme 4- m orpheme 5- m orpheme 7-morpheme boy, desireboy+ish, desir(e)+bleboy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+itygen tle+ma n+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity un+ge ntle+ma n+li+ness an ti+dis+establish+me nt+ari+a n+ismMorph: whe n people wish to dist in guish the sound of a morpheme from the en tire morpheme, they may sued the term. It is the pho netic realizati on of a morphemeAllomorph: A morpheme may be represe nted by differe nt forms, called allomorphs. It is the phon etic varia nt of a morpheme.Some morphemes have a sin gle form in all con texts, such as “ dog, bark, cat ” ,etc. In otherin sta nces, there may be some variati on, that is, a morphememay have alter nate shapes or ph on etic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morphememaybe represented by:map----maps_ [s]dog----dogs _[z]watch----watches [iz]mouse----mice [ai]ox----oxen_[ n]tooth----teethsheep——sheep_Each of the un derl ined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.AffixPrefix ---- morphemes that occur on ly before others,.un-, dis, an ti-, ir-, etc.Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others,.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.Root: The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity.A root may be free or bound (such as mit, tain, cur,ceive). An affix is naturally bound.Free morpheme & bound morphemeFree morpheme----is one that may con stitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dan ce, etc.Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not sta nd by themselves, such as -s in dogs , al in national , dis - in disclose , ed in “recorded ” , etc.Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.Other morphemes are n ever used in depe nden tly in speech and writ ing. They are alwaysattached to free morphemesto form new words. These morphemesare called bound morphemes. The distinction between a free morphemesand a bound morphemeis whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.Free morphemesare the roots of words, while bound morphemesare the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).Derivatio nal morpheme & in flect ional morphem eDerivati onal morphemes---- the morphemes which cha nge the category, or grammatical class of words, . modern---moder ni ze, length---len gthe n, fool---foolish, etc.Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemeswhich are for the most part purely grammatical markers,sig nifying such con cepts as ten se, nu mber, case and so on; they n ever cha nge their syn tactic category, n ever add any lexical meanin g,.a) number: tables apples cars _ _b) pers on, fin ite ness and aspect: talk/talks/talk in g/talkedc) case: Joh n/John 'sInflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.Derivati onal morphemes are bound morphemes added to exist ing forms to con struct new words.En glish affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.Some Ian guages have in fixes, bound morphemes which are in serted into other morphemes.Noun+ -' s, -s/es [possessive; plural] Verb+ -s/es, -ing, -ed, -ed/-en [3 rd person singular; present participle; past tense, past participle] Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative]In flecti onal morphemes n ever cha nge the grammatical category of a wordIn flecti onal morphemes in flue nee the whole category;Derivati onal morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivati onal + in flect ionalCon clusi on: classificati on of morphemesMorphemesFree morphemesBound morphemesIn flexi onalDerivati on al: affixesPrefixesSuffixesMorphological rulesThe rules that govern the formation of words, . the “ un- + ---- ” rule.un fair un thi nkable un acceptable …Compo unding is ano ther way to form new words,.Ian dlady rain bow un dertake …The process of putt ing affixes to existi ng forms to create new words is called derivati on Words thus formed are called derivatives.Compo undsNoun compo undsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V)callgirl (V+N) wi ndmill (N+N)Verb compo undsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)Adjective compo undsma neat ing (N+Vi ng) heartfelt (N+Ved)dutyfree (N+adj.)Prepositi on compo undsinto (P+P)throughout (P+P)Some points about compo undsWhenthe two words are in the samegrammatical category, the compoundwill be in this category, postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue- black …When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compo un d, . head- stro ng, pickpocket …Compo un dsiave differe nt stress patter ns from the non-compo un dedword seque nee, . red coat, gree n house…The meaning of a compo und is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Formati on of new words1. 1 nflectio n: it is the mani festatio n of grammatical relati on ships through the additi on of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.2. Derivati onDerivation forms a word by addi ng an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend , we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of addi ng more tha n one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation. ________ Derivati on is also con stra ined by pho no logical factors.Some En glish suffixes also cha nge the word stress.3. CompoundingCompounding is ano ther com mon way to form words. It is the comb in ati on of free morphemes.The majority of En glish compo un dsare the comb in ati on of words from the three classes -nouns, verbs and adjectives - and fall into the three classes.In compo un ds, the rightmost morpheme determ ines the part of speech of the word.The meaning of compo unds is not always the sum of meaning of the comp onen ts.4. Conv ersi on (inven ti on)Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.Conv ersi on is usually found in words containing one morpheme.5. Clipp ing (abbreviati ons) front, back, front and backClipping is a process that shorte ns a polysyllabic word by delet ing one or more syllables.Clipped words are in itially used in spoke n En glish on in formal occasi ons.Someclipped words have becomewidely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus) , vet (veterinarian) , gym (gymnasium), fridge(refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form.6. BlendingBlending is a process that creates newwords by putting together non-morphemic parts of existi ng words. For example, smog(smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morni ng, replaci ng both breakfast and lun ch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also aninteresting word in the textbook for junior middle school students —“ plike ” (a kind of mach ine that is like both a pla ne and a bike).7. Back-formati onBack-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television . Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix —sion in English indicating nouns. Then peopleconsider the - sion in the word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verbtelevise .Acronyms are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.Acro nyms can be read as a word and are usually Ion ger tha n abbreviati ons, which are read letter by letter.This type of word formatio n is com mon in n ames of orga ni zati ons and scie ntific termi no logy.Eponyms are words that origi nate from proper n ames of in dividuals or places. For example, the word san dwich is a comm onnoun orig in at ing from the fourth Earl of San dwich, who put his foodbetwee n two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambli ng.10. Coi nageCoin age is a process of inventing words not based on exist ing morphemes.This way of word formatio n is especially com mon in cases where in dustry requiresa word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola .11. Borrowing: English in its development has managedto widen its vocabulary by Borrowingwords from other Ianguages . Greek, Latin, French, Arabic and other Ianguages have all played anactive role in this process, such as “atom, electricity ” from Greek, “cancer, tumour” from Latin,“violin, pizza ” from Italian.12. Onomatopoeia: it is a way of creating words by imitating the sounds of the outside world. Supplementary Exercises Chapter 3 : MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:I. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. are the smallest meanin gful un its of Ian guage.3. Just as a phon eme is the basic unit in the study of phono logy, so is a morpheme the basic unitin the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes in clude two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories suchas nu mber, ten se, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that gover n which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed accordi ng to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second eleme nt receives sec on dary stress.II. Fill in each bla nk below with one word which beg ins with the letter give n:11. M ___ is the smallest meanin gful unit of Ian guage.12. The affix “- ish ” in the word boyish conveys a g ______ meaning.13. B __________ m orphemes are those that cannot be used in depe nden tly but have to be comb inedwith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d _________ affixes.15. D ______ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s _____ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it maycase change its part of speech.17. C ________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d _____________ can be viewed as the addition of affixesto stems to form new words.20. A s _____ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivationalaffix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme“vision ” in the common word “television ” is a(n) ___________ .A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore ” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound _______________________ .A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compoundsis generally determined by the part of speech of _______________ .A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _____ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _______ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rulesby which words are formed.A. SyntaxC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is ______ .A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that __________ .A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. __ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of theoriginal word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _______ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s ” in the word “books ” is ____________ .A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root43.What are the main features of the English compounds? 44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Suggested answers to supplementary exercises Chapter 3IV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemesare the morphemeswhich are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independentlybut have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixesmanifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to anexisting form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but theyusually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:IV. Define the following terms:31. morphology 33. derivational morphology 35. free morpheme 37. root 39. prefix 41. derivation V. Answer the following questions:32. inflectional morphology 34. morpheme 36. bound morpheme 38. affix 40. suffix 42. Compounding Morphology43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book- ” in the word “bookish ”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish ” in “bookish ”. Boundmorphemescan be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene -” in th e word“generate ”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “ -s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are ad ded to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform ”. Derivational affixes can also be dividedinto prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as word “dislike ”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “friendless“dis- ” in the -less ” in the word。
第三章 语言学习理论
第三章语言学习（习得）理论本章我们将讨论语言学习（习得）问题，介绍语言学习（习得）理论。
有关第二语言习得的理论和假说现在已不下数十种，本章着重介绍影响较大的对比分析假说、中介语假说、内在大纲假说和习得顺序假说、输入假说、普遍语法假说及文化适应假说。
最后对第一语言习得和第二语言学习做一对比。
第一节语言学习与语言习得1．学习与习得的定义从上世纪60年代开始，西方一些学者就提出区分语言的学习（learning）与习得(Acquisition)这两种不同的学习。
70年代中期美国语言教学理论家克拉申（S.Krashen）又进一步系统地提出了学习与习得假说。
那么什么是习得，什么是学习呢？（第一）语言“习得”通常指的是儿童不自觉地自然地掌握、获得第一语言（通常是母语）的过程和方法。
所谓不自觉地自然地，是指儿童有一种内在的语言学习能力，他是在潜意识地、不知不觉的过程中获得一种语言，对语言规则的掌握是无意识的；他在自然的语言环境中（不是在课堂里），为了生存和发展的需要去学习并运用一种语言，他不注意语言形式（不自觉地掌握），只注重意义的沟通；获得语言的过程是由不自觉到自觉（比如入学后）。
（第二）语言“学习”通常指的是在学校环境（即课堂）中有意识地掌握第二语言的过程和方式，比如成人在学校学习第二语言。
所谓有意识地，是指为了某种目的，自觉地去学习第二语言，掌握第二语言的规则系统并加以运用，尤其注重语言形式的学习；其过程是从自觉到不自觉（指熟能生巧、自动化后）。
在使用学习与习得这两个术语时，一般的用法是：广义的学习包括习得和上述狭义的学习。
也有的学者主张把狭义的学习称为“学得”，以示与其上位概念的学习相区分，既包括学得与习得。
还有人把习得称为“获得”。
学习与习得这两种获得语言的途径，并非完全隔绝或相互排斥，而是相互交叉、相辅相成。
正因为第二语言学习中也包含有习得的因素，越来越多的人把第二语言学习也称为第二语言习得。
在第二语言学习理论的研究中，特别是西方学者的研究文章中已出现用术语“习得”代替“学习”的趋向。
语言学概论--第三章 语汇
答：语汇中基本语汇以外的词构成语言的一般语汇。一般语汇的特点是不为全民常用、使用范围窄、产生历史较短、构词能力较弱。一般语汇所包含的词的数量大大超过基本语汇的数量，内容也非常复杂。一般语汇对社会的变化很敏感，社会的发展变化首先反映在一般语汇中。一般说来，新词、古语词、外来词及行业用语、科技术语、方言俚语等都属于一般语汇。基本语汇和一般语汇的关系是相辅相成的，一般语汇中大量的词都是在基本词的基础上构成的，反过来，一般语汇又不断地充实基本语汇。
24. 简答离合词和词组词。
答：离合词和词组词是形式上或人们感觉上像词，但在结构性和意义的搭配性上又接近词组的特殊的语汇单位。由于可以插入或扩展，所以它们有相当于一般词组的特征；但在未插入和扩展的情况下又跟一般双音节词的长度差不多，所以至少在插入和扩展的情况下还是可以看作词，这就是所谓的“离合词”（可以插入某些成分的词）和“词组词”（可以进行较大扩展的词）。
21. 解释“重叠构词”。
答：重叠构词就是词根语素通过重叠形式而构成一个新词。这样得到的合成词叫重叠式合成词，即重叠词。汉语的重叠词包括：（1）名词性重叠词。（2）副词性重叠词。（3）多重重叠词。重叠词重叠以后既增加某些语法意义，也不改变重叠词本身的词类。
22. 简答后缀语素与词尾语素的区别。
第三章 语汇
1. 解释“语汇”。
答：语汇是语言结构系统的一个要素，语汇也可以叫词汇。语汇或词汇作为语言学的术语是一个特定的集合概念，是词和语的汇集。它只能指一种语言中全部词和语的整体，而不能指具体的一个一个的词或词语。
2. 简答语汇的性质和特点。
答：（1）语言在产生时既有任意性又有理据性。任意性和理据性是统一的：任意性是语汇得以产生的途径，理据性是语汇不断丰富的手段。（2）语汇在表达上既有普遍性又有民族性。语汇的普遍性和民族性是统一的：语汇的普遍性使得各种语言的语汇能表达大量共同的概念，而民族性则使得某种语言的语汇又能体现一些独特的认识。（3）语汇在变化中既有活跃性，又有稳定性。语汇的活跃性和稳定性是统一的：活跃性使得语汇的个体元素不断增加和更替，这是为了满足社会生活的变化的需要；但稳定性又使得语汇的基本成分和整体系统保持固定和平衡。
语言学概论(第三章)
四、音位与音系
音位和音位变体
2.最小对立体：除出现在同一位置上的一个音外，其余的音都相同的两个词 pill[pil]---bill[bil] /p/和/b/ 布[pu]---铺[phu] /p/和/ph/ 最小对立集：只在同一个语音位置上有差别的几个词 pill[pil]、bill[bil]、till[til]、dill[dil]、kill[kil]、gill[ɡil] /p/、/b/、/t/、/d/、/k/、/ɡ/ 布[pu]、铺[phu]、目[mu]、富[fu]、肚[tu]、兔[thu]、怒[nu]、路[lu] /p/、/ph/、/m/、/f/、/t/、/th/、/n/、/l/ beat[bi:t]、bit[bit]、bat[bæt]、bet[bet]、but[bʌt] /i:/、/i/、/æ/、/e/、/ʌ/ 梨[li]、炉[lu]、驴[ly]、拉[la] /i/、/u/、/y/、/a/
一、语音和音系的区别与联系
国际音标 一个音素只用一个音标表示，一个音标只表示一个音素
1. 将国际音标与汉语拼音的字母区分开来 2. 国际音标有严式标音和宽式标音两种方法
二、从声学看语音
语音四要素
1.音高 声波振动频率的高低 2.音强 声音的强弱 3.音长 声波振动持续时间的长短
4.音质 音质指声音的品质、特色
四、音位与音系
音位和音位变体
3.音位变体 /p/ /a/
[p] [ph] [a] [ɑ] 1）条件变体 英语/p/在/s/后是不送气的[p]：speak[spi:k] sport[spɔ:t] 英语/p/在其他位置是送气的[ph]：peak[phi:k] port[phɔ:t] 汉语/a/在韵尾[i]、[n]之前是[a]：来[lai] 安[an] 汉语/a/在[u]、[ŋ]之前是[ɑ]：老[lɑu]、亮[liɑŋ] 2）自由变体 汉语：[n]和[l] （南、兰） [s]和[ʂ]（山、三） 英语：[e]和[I] economics[Ikə„nɔmiks]、[ekə'nɔmiks]
理论语言学第三章4
子:
B. 第三种情况（clash）产生会话涵义的例
（3）a. Where does C live? b. Somewhere in the south of France. 例中（3a）问的是C居住的具体的地方，但 是（3b）的回答却没有提供C居住的确切地址， 明显违反了会话合作原则的“数量准则”。原因 可能答话者自己也不知道C的确切的住址，或者 是知道但不能告诉问话者。在这种情况下，他要 么整体上违背合作原则（即上述违背合作原则的 第二种情况），要么选择（3b）这样的话语形式。 而选择前一种策略的代价无疑大于后者，这是其 一。其二，一旦选择后二种策略，那么问话人就 可以从中推导出相应的会话含义：答话人要么不 知道C的确切的地址，要么知道了但不便于告知。
以下（3）中乙话语的后半句表面上是违背相关准则的，其 会话涵义是（4）： （3）甲：你有什么了不起，能把我吃了？ 乙：不能，我是回民。 （4）你是猪。 而由（2）尤其是其中乙话语推导（3）的过程如下： （i）S说了我是回民（p）； （ii）没有理由认为S不遵守各项准则，或至少S不会违 背大的合作原则； （iii）S说了我是回民（P），又遵守了准则，S必定想 表达q“你是猪”； （iv）S知道谈话双方都清楚，如果认为S是合作的，必 须假设意义q为“你是猪”，因为只有做这样的假定才可能与以 下两个命题信息产生相关： A、回民是不能吃猪（肉）的。 B、我不能吃你。 （v）S无法阻止H考虑“你是猪”这个意义； （vi）因此可以认定，S的意图是让H考虑“你是猪”这 个意义，并在说“我是回民”的同时传达出“你是猪”这个意义。
2.会话合作原则的四条准则 A. 量准则[1]（Quantity maxim）
语言学纲要6第三章语音和音系第三节
• 2．决定辅音音质的因素： • 刚才我们复习决定元音音质时讲，决定元 音音质的主要有三个方面的因素，舌位的 高低（例如［i］和［a］的区别），舌位的 前后（例如[y］和［u］的区别），嘴唇的 圆展（例如［i］和［y］的区别）。那么， 决定元音音质的主要因素有几个呢？一般 认为，决定辅音音质的两个方面的因素， 一是是发音部位，二是发音方法。下面我 们分别来介绍。
• 二、元音和辅音及其区别 • 语言当的音可以分为元音和辅音两大类。 • 一般说来，元音和辅音的区别可以从下面几个 方面来考虑： • 1．从功能上来讲，元音往往能自成音节，辅 音一般不能独立地构成音节。 • 2．在物理属性方面，元音基本上由乐音构成， 辅音则有一定的噪音。 • 3．在听觉上，发元音时，声带振动，比较响 亮；发辅音时，有的声带不振动，自然不够响亮， 有的声带即使振动，但由于在声腔中受到某种阻 碍，还是不如元音响亮。 • 4．在生理属性方面，主要有三个方面的区别：
• 第一，发辅音的时候，发音器官的某一部 位形成阻碍，气流在只有克服阻碍才能发 出来；发元音的时候，气流通过生门使声 带发生振动，气流在其通道上不受到阻碍， 只受到各种共鸣。 • 第二，发辅音时，因为要克服某种阻碍， 气流就比较强；发元音时，因无需克服阻 碍，气流就比较弱。 • 第三，发辅音时，因为要有一定的阻碍， 阻碍部位的发音器官就明显地紧张；发元 音时，发音器官的紧张度并不集中于某个 部位，发音器官的各部位均匀紧张。
• 2.喉头和声带 • 喉头由软骨构成，呈圆筒形，下接气管，上通咽 腔。 • 喉头的外表是喉结，当中有一对声带。声带是两 片很小的薄膜，长度只有13－14毫米，前后两端 粘附在软骨上，中间的通路叫声门。 • 发a,i,u,m,n,l的时候，声门就闭拢，气流冲击声带， 使它发生振动，于是发出元音（纯粹的乐音）和 带乐音成分的辅音。 • 不说话，或发f,s等音的时候，声门是张开的，气 流可以只有通过，声带不振动。 • 见教材58页。
语言学概论[第三章语言是符号系统]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
第三章语言是符号系统1．符号符号就是全体社会成员共同约定用来表示某种事物或意义的标志(记号、标记）。
它具有两个特点：一、它由形式和意义两个要素组成，即每一个符号都是一定的形式和一定的内容的统一体，二者不可偏废；二、符号与符号所指称的事物(意义）之间没有必然的联系，是约定俗成的.它共有视觉符号、听觉符号、触觉符号和嗅觉符号四类。
征候就是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物,可以让我们通过它来推知事物.它不是符号。
如洪水和驼铃声分别代表下暴雨和骆驼走，它们之间的联系是自然的，其本身就是事物的特征，不需要大家来规定它们。
一般理解征候与符号的区别。
2．语言符号语言是一种符号，因为它能用来表示某种事物或意义.语言符号是一种音义结合的符号，即它由语音和语义两个要素构成。
语音是语言符号的物质表现形式，语义是语言符号的表现内容.只有音没有义，或者只有义而没有音的语言符号是不存在的.语言符号具有任意性、约定俗成性和线条性特点，语言符号一旦形成又具有强制性特点.3．语言符号与一般符号第一，语言符号是声音和意义的结合体，它是一种以听、说、读等形式作为人类交际的重要工具。
语言的声音是有意义的声音，是信息量非常大的声音，是用最少的音符任意排列表达出最丰富、最复杂意思的声音,受距离、光线、气候等因素的影响较小;在表达思想时，语音非常便捷，基本不需要什么附加工具,可以用语音边交流边工作。
其他符号的物质表现形式多是借助于色彩、线条、姿势等比较直观的媒介，使用上不如语音简捷;即使像军号这种通过声音来表达内容的符号也是有很大的局限性，它们的声音所表达的内容往往都是固定的，基本没有什么变化，表达的内容也比较枯燥,表达的效果还要受到距离等因素的影响。
第二，一般符号的构成比较简单，而语言符号是非常复杂的,它既是一个层级装置，又是一个符号系统.语言符号单位最多，上层是音位层，下层是符号层，符号层又能够分出语素、词、句子三层，每一层次都有相当数量的符号单位，另外语言符号系统又可分为语音系统、语义系统、语法系统、词汇系统等，各个子系统又有自己的系统。
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第三章 第二节语用学
三、指示和指示语
（一）指示
1、什么是“指示”？ 2、“指示”的功能 3、指示的手段
（二）指示语
1、什么是“指示语”？ 2、指示语的分类
（三）分析指示和指示语需要注意的问题
（一） 指示
1 . 什么是“指示”？ “指示”（deixis）是运用某种非语言的 手段或语言的手段把当前话语与当下情境 （immediate situational context）联系起来的 语言运用机制。 指示的具体表现就是运用各种体态姿势指 明当前话语中具有变量性质的词语在当下情景 中的所指物，以便听话人或话语解码者能够迅 速识别词语与所指物之间的对应关系。
（二）指示语
1. 什么是“指示语”？
所谓“指示语”（deictic expressions，indexical expressions），是指依赖于语境才能确定其含义的词语。 任何一种语言中都有大量的本身不含有确定语义的 词语，其中有些词语如“我/你”、“现在/一会儿”、 “这里/那里”等，在被用到实际话语之中后，其具体 的所指对象必须结合说话人和听话人所处的具体的情景 语境才能加以确定。这样的一些词语我们称之为指示语。
〔二德子，一位打手，恰好进来，听见了常四爷的话。 二德子 （凑过去）你这是对谁甩闲话呢？
常四爷 （不肯示弱）你问我哪？花钱喝茶，难道还教 谁管着吗？ 松二爷（打量了二德子一番）我说这位爷，您是营里当 差的吧？来，坐下喝一碗，我们也都是外场人。 二德子 你管我当差不当差呢！ 常四爷 要抖威风，跟洋人干去，洋人厉害！英法联军 烧了圆明园，尊家吃着官远和近
顾城
你 一会看我 一会看云 我觉得 你看我时很远 你看云时很近
1980年6月
松二爷 您喝这个！ 常四爷 您喝这个！（然后，往后院看了看） 松二爷 好象又有事儿？ 常四爷 反正打不起来！要真打的话，早到城外头去啦； 到茶馆来干吗？
〔别的茶客依旧进行他们自己的事。王利发急忙跑过来。 王利发 哥儿们，都是街面上的朋友，有话好说。德爷，您后边 坐！
二德子 甭说打洋人不打，我先管教管教你！（要动手）
〔二德子不听王利发的话，一下子把一个盖碗搂下桌去， 摔碎。翻手要抓常四爷的脖领。 常四爷 （闪过）你要怎么着？ 二德子 怎么着？我碰不了洋人，还碰不了你吗？ 马五爷 （并未立起）二德子，你威风啊！ 二德子 （四下扫视，看到马五爷）喝，马五爷，您在这儿哪？ 我可眼拙，没看见您！（过去请安） 马五爷 有什么事好好地说，干吗动不动地就讲打？ 二德子 嗻!您说的对!我到后头坐坐去。李三，这儿的茶钱我候 啦！（往后面走去） 常四爷 （凑过来，要对马五爷发牢骚）这位爷，您圣明，您给 评评理！ 马五爷 （立起来）我还有事，再见！（走出去） 常四爷 （对王利发）邪！这倒是个怪人！
指示语例证分析（一）
王天成想了一下说：“这样吧，你晚上把 他带到我在东州宾馆的住处，我和他详细聊聊， 看他能不能造就。按我的经验，狂的人都有点别 人不具有的本事，我现在需要的就是有点真本事 的人，我们机关里培养的四平八稳的人太多了， 就像工厂里批量生产的标准件，没有棱角，但也 没有多大用处，有没有都一样，这个和那个都一 样。从他讲课的效果看，这个人的知识面很广， 至少目前市委机关没有这样的人。我再给他一次 机会，我们当领导的，现在和群众接触的机会越 来越少了，发现一个人才不容易。如果他真有本 事，我们也不能埋没了他。” [1]
指示语例证分析（二）
他生平最怕领导，不知道在领导面前该怎么说 话才算得体，每次领导召见，他都提心吊胆，单 是领导对他的称呼，就够他思索半天。经验告诉 他，倘若领导称他为“白天明同志”，这便意味 着一场严肃的谈话，领导准会又向他提出他的一 些该去掉的毛病，或者应该注意加紧改造的问题； 倘若称他为“白天明”，那就糟糕，说不定接下 去就是一场批评；而倘若称他为“老白”，这便 是说，领导已经认可他属于地地道道的人民一分 子，而且还有了点成绩让领导高兴；再倘若称他 为“天明”，这便是他的幸福。[1]
I、功能分析：有哪些功能，这些功能中有 无特殊功能，等等。比如,有的指示语除了指示 功能外还可能起到篇章连贯的作用。 II、合适性条件分析：达成或执行特定功能 的合适性条件是什么。 III、语境中指示语变换研究：不同语境下 指示语有无变换；如有，为什么会发生这样的变 换，等等。 5、注意指示和指称的区别。 广义的指称包括回指（前指）、反指（下指） 和外指。其中的外指就包含指示（或略等于指 示）。狭义的指称仅局限于上下文中的回指和反 指。
2. 指示语的分类
I、身势指示和象征指示 II、指示的功能分类： 人称指示语、空间指示语、时间指示语、话语指示 语、社交指示语。
（三）需要注意的问题
1. 有的指示语兼属多个以上的类别。比 如“您”，既属于人称指示，有属于社交 指示。 2.分析指示语应与语境相结合，尤其是 与社会历史文化语境特点相结合。 3.分析的过程中要与语用学的其他理论 结合在一起进行。 4.分析的重点应该放到以下几个方面上 来：
2. 指示的手段
I、语言手段，典型的如指示代词、人称代词， 称谓名词、一些具有指示意义的副词（刚刚、正在）， 等等。 II、副语言手段，如说话人的体态姿势等。
3. “指示”的功能 指明: I、谁在说话，说给谁听的， II、说话的时间、地点以及场合， III、说/听者身份、地位以及社会关系， IV、所说的话在在整个话语中的当前位置 等。