新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 8 Language and society
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics?Scientific study of language.Interpretation:①try to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language;②linguistics studies not any particular language but language in general;③scientific study because based on systematic investigation of linguistic data.The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic.Some important distinctions in linguisticsWhat is languageDefinitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Characteristics:①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well;③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound;④language is human -specific,different from animal communication. Design features of languageProposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal & human communication are five major design features of human language:①arbitrarinessNo logical connection between meaning and sounds(except onomatopoetic and compound words)②productivityIt makes to possible to construction and interpretation of new signal by its users.③dualityLanguage is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;④DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speakers;⑤cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language systems are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.(language is culturaltransmitted[language not mutually intelligible] while animal call system is genetically transmitted)Functions of languageThree main functions of language which distinct from each other but actually overlapping to some degree:①descriptive functionThe primary function of language;The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.②expressive functionSupply information about the user’s feeling,preference,prejudices and value, will never come to this coffee shop again.③social functionServes to establish and maintain social relations between people. How can I help you, Sir?Others:Russian-born structural linguist Roman Jakobson：six elemens (function)of a speech:Addresser-emotive (动机) addressee-conative(意动)context-referential message-poetic contact-phatic communion code-metalinguisticBritish linguistic Halliday:①ideational function(语篇功能)[included descriptive & expressive functin] is to organize the speaker’s experience of the real or imaginary world.②interpersonal function is to indicate ,establish,or maintain social relationship between people.[social function]③textual function is to organize written or spoken texts to cohere within themselves and fit to the particular situation in which they are used.The phonic medium of languageSpeech sounds produced by human speech organTwo major media of communication:speech and writing;what is phonetics?The study of phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s language.发音语言学听觉语言学)声学语言学) organs of speechPharyngeal cavity(咽喉)Nasal cavity（鼻腔）Oral cavity（口腔）Voicing:vibration of the vocal cordsh→aspiration [phonetician more interested in]classification of English speech soundsMonophthongs：phonologyphonology & phoneticsStem: believable (除掉所有的语法成份,Base：unbelievable (un的词基)Prefix:change meaningSuffix: change meaning and parts of speechInflectional morpheme:signify tense number caseWord formation:①Clipping（shortening & abbreviation）[no change of part of speech]gym expo memo disco burger quake fridge script②back-formation[change of part of speech]editor-edit hawker-hawk beggar-beg baby-sister--baby-sit Butcher-butch donation-donate orientation-orient(ate)③conversion(functional shift): N-v v-n a-v a-n④acronyms[pronounced as words]CEO B2B IT CPI IAD WTO BBS(FOR BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM)APEC AIDS UNESCO UCLA IDD⑤initialism[produced as letters]FBI EEC⑥blendingSmoke+fog=smogTaikong+astronaut=taikonaut⑦compoundingBittersweet landlady⑧onomatopoeiaBlast rustle5.SemanticsSome views concerning the study of meaning:1) the naming theory,plato,words →objectsLimitations: √N×ADJ ADV V√Concrete ×abstract2)the conceptualist viewSemantic triangle,ogden & richardswords→mind→wordsLimitations:what is the precisely link symbol and concept unclarify 3)ContextualismFirth。
英语语言学 第八章
Varieties of English: Standard
English, Cockney, lower-class New York City speech, Oxford English, legalese, cocktail party talk, and so on. Dialectal varieties Register Degree of formality
dialects, sociolects and registers.
Varieties of language
Language: what the members of a particular society speak Variety: „a set of linguistic items with similar distribution‟ (Hudson): English, French, London English, the English of football commentaries…
our origin and our background.
•The social environment can also be
reflected in language, and can often
have an effect on the structure and tder (e.g. intonation,
lexicon)
Compared
with men, women tend to use such adverbs: horridly, abominably可恶地, immensely, excessively, amazingly, so, most, etc. The overuse of these words imply that the users are sentimental, shallow and not objective enough.
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理
Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of timein hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes throughtime3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abideby. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA isusing one letter selected from major European languages to represent onespeech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with lettersymbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letterssymbols and the diacritics.Aspirated and unaspirated1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication areall phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, somedon’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it isrepresented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme/p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in aparticular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another bycopying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in acertain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather thanto the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to anotherone.5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morphemeChapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word categorycomplementizers words which introduce the sentence complementcomplement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ssubcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.1）The naming theory(命名论)Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refersto. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation-occurrence or collocation.③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the s ituation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”．②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It isthe collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; itdeals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lilyAntonymy（反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate formsbetween the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short … 2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member ofthe pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of therelationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below … 2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by ruleseg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G.Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.s is whether the What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmaticcontext of use is considered in the study of meaningIf it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.⑴Austin’s new model of speech actsUtterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simplyin a context.Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。
新编简明英语语言学教程(重点笔记 赶考秘籍)
1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it (a) is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data. It (b) discovers the nature and rules of the underlying language system. It (c) collects language facts that display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them.The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics.phonetics(语音学): the study of soundsphonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaningmorphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form wordssyntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammaticallypermissible sentencessemantics(语义学): the study of meaningpragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language useinterdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学)Important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptive(规定性old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性modern linguistics)synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性): most linguistic studies are of synchronic descriptions,which is prior in modern linguisticsspeech and writing: speech is prior to writing in modern linguisticslangue(语言系统abstract linguistic system) and parole(话语/言语realization of langue in actualuse): Swiss linguist F. de Saussure----forefather of modern linguisticscompetence(语言能力ideal user’s knowledge of rules of his language) and performance(语言运用actual realization of this knowledge): American linguist N. Chomskytraditional grammar and modern linguistics: Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics”marked the beginning of modern linguistics1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.LAD: Language Acquisition Device -----ChomskyArbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced.Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)---higher level(words)Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned.2.1 Speech and writing are the two media for communication, of which speech ismore basic/primary.The sounds which are produced by humans through their speech organs and meaningful in communication constitute the phonic medium of language. The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, which concerned with all the sounds thatoccur in the world’s languages.articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phoneticsSpeech organs:pharyngeal; cavity---throat; oral cavity---mouth; nasal cavity---noseIPA: 国际音标diacritics: 变音符broad transcription: 宽式标音(used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)narrow transcription: 严式标音(used by phoneticians in their study)vowels(the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed)stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音)close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness)unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips)long/tense vowels----short/lax vowelsmonophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus.phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaningconcerned with sound system of a particular languagephonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech soundsA phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment.(speech sounds are all phones)a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaningA phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit.(an abstract unit of distinctive value)not particular sound, but is realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones(音位变体) of that phoneme.Rules in phonology:Sequential rules(序列规则)---rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.Assimilation rule(同化规则)---assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. for ease of articulation(清晰发音)e.g. green, screamDeletion rule(省略规则)---e.g. desi g nationSuprasegmental features(超切分特征): the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black birdtone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall toneE.g. That’s not the book he wants.3.1 Morphology: study of the internal structure of words, and rules by which words are formed3.2 open class words(开放类): new words can be added—nouns, verbs, adjective and adverbsclosed class words(封闭类): “grammatical” or “functional” words3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language.Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning.Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix)3.4 V----teachN Af----er3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素)Free morphemes Bound morphemesRoot Root Affixdog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffixgrammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional …-mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er3.6 Morphological rules determine how morphemes combine to form words. E.g. un-accept-able3.8 Another way to form words is compounding. E.g. bittersweetWord Formations: compounding, blending, backformation, shortening4.1 Syntax studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2 Category is a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular languagesuch as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories—word-level categories:major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built)---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P)minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con)Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布)A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria.Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP)phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elementsthat make up a phraseNP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complementVP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complementAP→(Deg) A (PP) ……PP→(Deg) P (NP) ……XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con XEither an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con.4.4 Phrase elements: specifiers, complements, modifiersspecifiers determiner qualifier degree wordheads N V A / Pcomplementizers (Cs)—words introducing the sentence complementcomplement clause—sentence introduced by the complementizer complement phrase(CP)matrix clause—construction in which the CP embeded嵌入As, Ns, Ps can all take CP. Adjectives: (heads) afraid, certain, awareNouns: (heads) fact, claim, belief Prepositions: (heads)over, aboutmodifiers: all lexical categories can have modifiers.AP(+Ns): precedes the head e.g. a very careful girl PP(+Vs): follows the head e.g. open with care AdvP(+Vs): precedes or follows the head e.g. read carefully/carefully readThe Expanded XP rule: XP→(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)4.5 The S rule: S→NP VP ------ Inflp (=S)→NP Infl VP ------Infl can be taken by an abstract category encodedin a verb indicating tense or an auxiliary(助动词)4.6 Transformation a special rule that can move an element from one position to anotherauxiliary movement(助动词移位) inversion: move Infl to the left of the subject NP.within larger CPs (embedded or not): inversion: move Infl to C. P53 Figure 4-8 do insertion(插入): insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position, than move Infl to C.deep and surface structure: e.g. Will the train arrive?Deep: S Surface:NP VPDet Infl Vthe train will arriveThe XP rule→D structure→transformations→S structurewh movement: move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence/the specifier position under CPP57 Figure 4-16 P58 Figure 4-18move αand constraints on transformationsmove α: general rule for all the movement rules α: any element that can be movedlimits: inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C positionno element may be removed from a coordinate structure5.1 Semantics is the study of meaning (from a linguistic point of view.)5.2 The naming theory: The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.The limitations of this theory are obvious. There’s verbs, adjectives, etc. and also abstract nouns.The conceptualist view: Words and things are related through the mediation of concepts in the mind.Contextualism: The meaning of a word is its use in the language.Behaviorism: The meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning, which are relatedbut different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features described Reference: “dog”---A said to B:” The dog’s barking.”refer to a certain dog known to both A&BMajor sense relations:synonymy---words that are close in meaningdialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall in AE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father),syn. that differ in emotive or evaluative meaning(same meaning, different emotions)collocational syn.(different usage), semantically different syn.(differ slightly in meaning) polysemy(one word may have more than one meaning)homonymy (homophones--- two words same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)hyponymy(relation between a general word—superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms)antonymy(words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. femalerelational ant.---e.g. husband vs. wife5.4 Sense relations between sentences:X is synonymous with Y. E.g. He was a bachelor all his life. / He never married….X, True—Y, True; X, False---Y FalseX is inconsistent with Y. E.g. John’s married. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F—Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false.X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALEpredication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT)6.1 Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication(meaning in a certain context).Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningUtterance is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or context, it is context-dependent.6.2 Speech act theory: aim to answer “What do we do when using language?”----John Austin in late 1950slocutionary act(言内行为—字面意思), illocutionary act(言外行为—目的), perlocutionary act(言后行为—结果) John Searle: classification of illocutionary acts---five general types of things we do with languageSpecific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point1. representatives/assertive: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be trueE.g. The earth is a globe.2. directives: trying to get the hearer to do something E.g. Close the door. / Will you close the door?3. commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g. I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4. expressive: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing stateE.g. It’s kind of you to ... / I’m sorry for the mess I’ve made.5. declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingE.g. I now declare the meeting open. / I appoint you chairman of the committee.Indirect speech act--primary speech act (goal of communication) + secondary speech act (means by which he achieves the goal) ----Searle6.3 Conventional implicature(暗示) & nonconventional implicature-----GriceCon. imp. E.g. He is rich but he is not greedy. imp. Rich people are usually greedy.The participants must first of all be willing to cooperate to converse with each other. The general principle is called the Cooperative Principle. (CP)Four maxims(准则) under CP: The maxim of quantity (informative but no more than required), quality (don’t say what you believe to be false or what you lack adequate evidence), relation (be relevant), manner (avoid obscurity or ambiguity & be brief and orderly)These maxims can be violated. (when misleading, lying, etc.)Chap. 7 Language change (diachronic 历时的) Historical linguisticsphonological changes: vowels---the most dramatic changemorphological and syntactic change:morphological: Addition of affixes (Fusion 融合word word---base +suffix /prefix +base)Loss of affixes---some are via sound changessyntactic: change of word order Old English: subject-object-verbchange in negation rule Old English: I love thee not.lexical and semantic change:lexical: Addition of new words---takes place obviously and quicklyCoinage (coin for new things and objects), Clipped words (缩略构词),Blending (combine parts of other words, e.g. brunch),Acronyms (首字构词e.g. WTO),Back-formation (subtract affixes from old words, e.g. donate---from “donation”)Functional shift /Conversion (shift without adding affixes, e.g. to knee/cool; a reject)Borrowing (borrow from other languages, e.g. bonus from Latin, cycle from Greek…)Loss of words---takes place gradually over several generationsSome words are short-lived because of the discontinuation of the object they name.semantic: three processes of semantic change---semantic broadening: e.g. holiday = holy day in the past, but any rest day todaysemantic narrowing: e.g. girl = young person of either sex in the pastsemantic shift: e.g. nice = ignorant a thousand years agorecent trends: moving towards greater informality, influence of American English,influence of science and technology (space travel, computer and internet lang. etc.) causes of language change: development of science &tech., social & political changes and needs,the way children acquire language, grammar simplification, elaboration &complication, etc. No single causeChap. 8 Language and societySociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of languagelive. (社会语言学) Halliday & HudsonLanguage is used to communicate meaning, and to establish and maintain social relationships.Social background determines the kind of language one uses, and language reflects one’s info.speech community---the social group that is singled out for any special studyVarious social groups exist within a speech community. A social group may distinguish itself fromthe rest of the community by the educational background, the occupation, the gender, the age ,of the ethnic affiliation of its members.speech variety(变体)---any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakersthree types of speech variety of special interest: regional dialects, sociolects, registersTwo approaches to sociolinguistic studies: macro-sociolinguistics & micro-sociolinguisticsThe varieties of language are related to the users and the use to which the language is put.Dialectal varieties: regional dialect (linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region---geographical barrier), sociolect (characteristic of a particular socialclass---different social conditions), language and gender (female speech is less assertive andthus sounds more polite), language and age (old people are more conservative and like usingold words more), idiolect (personal dialect), ethnic dialect (social dialect of a languagecutting across regional differences e.g. Black English)Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation linguistic repertoire---the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individualthree social variables that determine the register(the features appropriate to the situation): field of discourse (语场purpose and subject-matter of communication non-technical or technical, determines the vocabulary used and the phono. & gramm. features), tenor of discourse (语旨who the participants are and the relationship between them determines the formality and the level of technicality),mode of discourse(语式the means of communication)E.g. a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField: scientific (biological) Tenor: teacher—student (formal, polite) Mode: oral (lecturing) Degree of formality: intimate—casual—consultative—formal—frozenStandard dialects (employed by government, used by mass media, taught in edu. institutions, based on a selected variety of lang., usually local speech of political or commercial centers,for official purposes or any formal occasions)Pidgin (a variety that mixes or blends languages) and Creole (a pidgin becoming the primary lang.of a speech community of which the children acquire the pidgin as native lang.)Chap. 9 Language and culture are interdependent on each other and have evolved together.Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, & behavior. (material & spiritual cult.) Relationship between lang. &cult. : Language symbolizes cultural reality, plays a major role in perpetuating of a culture, is related to what the culture is and affects a culture’s way ofthinking. Language is to culture what part is to whole.discourse communities--- members of the social group use similar lang. to meet their needsdiscourse accents---unique uses of each group’s language, the ways and the style of their talking Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH): Language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences.Language reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.Context is important in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Any linguistic sign has a denotative (指示意义—内含), connotative (暗涵意义—外延), or iconic(图像意义) kind of meaning. All these types of meanings are bound with cultural encodings orassociations.some cultural differences in language use: greeting and terms of address, gratitude and compliments, color words, privacy and taboos(禁忌), rounding off numbers, words andcultural specific connotations, cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphors Culture contact--- acculturation(文化移入political conquests and expansions), assimilation (吸收immigration), amalgamation (合并ethnical mix / synthesis rather than the elimination orabsorption)Cultural overlap (文化重叠owe to similarities in natural environ. and human psychology)Cultural diffusion (文化扩展e.g. loan words gradually and unceasingly)cultural imperialism (文化帝国主义)---owe to linguistic imperialismspecial language policy protecting the purity of their languages---linguistic nationalism Chap. 10 Language acquisition---child’s acquisition of his mother tongueThree theories: the behaviorist (行为主义语言习得观), the innatist(语法天生…),the interactionist (互动主义…)Behaviorist: language is a kind of behavior, language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. Children imitate words selectively and according to their ownunderstanding of the sounds or patterns, which is based on what the children have alreadyknown instead of what is “available” in the environment. This theory fails to explain howthey acquire more complex grammatical structures of the languageInnatist: LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” existing somewhere in the human brain.It is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages.Universal Grammar: innate knowledge of basic grammatical systemChildren ‘s acquisition of grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate UG.Interactionist: language is a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.child directed speech (CDS)(slow rate, high pitch音高, rich intonation抑扬, shorter andsimpler sentence structure)The cognitive development relates to language acquisition mainly in two ways:First, as children’s conceptual development leads to their language development, theirlanguage development also helps in the formation and enhancement of the concept.Second, the cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic systemhimself instead of what meanings the child perceives (理解) and expresses.Two factors remarkably relevant to children’s language developmentLanguage environment is essential in providing input for language acquisition:Behaviorist: language environment plays a major roleInnatist: environment is a stimulus that triggers the pre-equipped LADInteractionist: call for the quality of the language samples available in the ling. environmentAge they start to learn the language:Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH): LAD works successfully only when it’s stimulated at the righttime—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition (Eric Lenneberg)Two versions of CPH: strong one—children must acquire their first language by pubertyweak one—language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty ----consensus: there’s a critical period for first language acquisitionStages in child language development:Phonological development—children must pass one stage before proceeding to the nextVocabulary development—under-extension, over-extensionVocabulary development goes together with the child’s knowledge of the environment.Children may under-extend or overextend it when learning a new word.under-extension: e.g. child gets confused hearing the color of white used for paper when he first thought it as the word for snowover-extension: a child takes a property of an object and generalizes it. likely to occur later Grammatical developmentPragmatic developmentAtypical development (非典型发展)hearing impairment (听力损伤), mental retardation (智力缺陷), autism (孤独症), stuttering(口吃), aphasia (失语症), dyslexia (诵读困难), dysgraphia (书写困难)Chap. 11 Second language acquisition (SLA) is the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language (NL/L1).Whether the target language (TL) to be learnt is called a second language (SL/L2) or a foreignlanguage (FL) depends on its status as a second language or foreign language in the country.Contrastive Analysis (CA)--1960s :positive/negative transfer: the former facilitate target language learning, the latter interfereCA compares the forms and meanings across two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so as to predict the possible learning difficulty.It was soon found problematic: uninformative, inaccurateError Analysis (EA): independently describe the learners’ interlanguage (their version of the target language and the target language itself), and compare the two forms to locate mismatches.It gives less consideration to learner s’ native language than CA. reach heyday in 1970sTwo main sorts of errors: interlingual errors (语际错误result from cross-linguistic interferenceat different levels—phonological, lexical…), intralingual errors (语内错误result from faultyor partial learning of the TL, independent of the NL e.g. learning strategies-based error)Overgeneralization—the use of previously available strategies in new situationsCross-association—interference of two words similar in meaning, spelling and pronunciationEA was criticized for its neglect of learners’ role as active participants in learning. (mid-1970s)Interlanguage: Three important characteristics—systematicity (系统性), permeability (渗透性), fossilization (石化a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become apermanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. fossilized pronunciation leads to accent) Input Hypothesis---Krashen: two independent means or routes of second language learning: acquisition: subconscious process learning: conscious effortsLearners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensible input”. ”i+1”It received criticism later, for he mistook “input” as “intake”.Individual differences: language aptitude (天资), age of acquisition, personalitymotivation----instrumental motivation (for external goal), integrative motivation (for the wish toidentify with the target culture), resultative motivation (for external purposes), intrinsicmotivation (for pleasure),learning strategies (motivation plays an important role in use of learning strategies)----cognitive strategies (认知策略involved in analyzing, synthesizing(合成) and internalizing(内在化) what has been learned), metacognitive strategies (元认知策略the techniques inplanning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning), affect/social strategies (deal with theways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native)Chap. 12 Language and the brainneurolinguistics (神经语言学): study of language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. lateralization (侧化)—cognitive functions controlled by either side of the brainThe brain is divided into two sections:the lower section—brain stem(脑干shared by all animals to keep the body alive by maintaining the essential functions)the higher section—cerebrum(大脑differs in different species, not essential for life)cerebellum—at the rear of the brain , beneath the cerebrum, behind the brainstemneuron神经元Neurons form the cortex(脑皮层the surface of the brain)The cortex has many wrinkles: a ridge (hills) called sulcus, a deep and prominent sulcus called fissure The cortex is the decision-making organ of the body and “storehouse” of “memory”, it makes human distinctive in the animal world—animals have no cortex.The cortex is separated by the longitudinal fissure into the left and right cerebral hemispheres, the。
《新编简明英语语言学》重点总结
一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and itmakes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑴ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑴DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑴DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑴Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
戴炜栋新编英语语言学判断正误题集
Chapter I IntroductionT 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.F 2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.F 3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.T 4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.T 5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.T 6. General linguistics, which relates itself to(in contrast to) the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.T 7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.F 8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.T 9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.F 10. Syntax(rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in L) is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.T 11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.F12. Both semantics(L is used to convey meaning- the study of meaning) and pragmatics( the study of meaning is conducted in the context of language use) study meanings.T 13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.T 14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.T 15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.F 16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.T 17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.F 18. A diachronic历时（it changes through time）study of language is the description of language at some point in time. Synchronic 共时F 19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the spoken language.F 20. The distinction between competence语言能力and performance语言运用was proposed by F. de Saussure. N. ChomskyChapter 2：Phonology1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. (T)2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution. （F）3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. （F）4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not. （F）5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. （T）6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. （T）7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph. （F）8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest. （F）9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing. （T）10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest. （F）11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar. （F）12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. （T）13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels. （F）14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme. （F）15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning. （F）16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories. （F）17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. （T）18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast. （F）19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific. （T）20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.（T）Chapter 3：Morphology1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（T）2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language. （F）3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.（T）4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.（T）5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.（T）6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.（T）7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.（T）8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.（F）9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.（F）10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.（T）Chapter 4： 1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words. （F）2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.（T）3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.（F）4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence. （T）5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number ofsentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. （T）6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. （T）7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.（T）8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.（F）9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. （F）10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.（T）11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.（F）12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.（T）13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.（T）14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.（T）Chapter 5 Semantics1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. （F）2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. （F）3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. （T）4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience. （F）5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. （T）6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. （T）7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components. （F）8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality. （T）9. “it is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument. （T）10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. （T）Chapter 6：Pragmatics1.Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication（F）2.Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. （F）3.It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered. （T）4.What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. （T）5.The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. （F）6.The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent. （F）7.The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable. （F）8.Utterances always take the form of complete sentences （F）9.Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. （F）10.Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.（T）11.Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. （T）12.Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.（F）Chapter 10&11：（Second）Language Acquisition1.L1 development and L2 development seem to involve the same processes. （F）2.The capacity to acquire one's first language is a fundamental human trait that all human beings are equally well possessed with. （T）3.All normal children have equal ability to acquire their first language. （T）4.Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of language development across cultures, though there is an idiosyncratic variation in the amount of time that takes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar. （T）5.Humans can be said to be predisposed and biologically programmed to acquire at least one language.6.Some languages are inferior, or superior, to other languages. (T)nguage acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the vocabulary and the meaning of language.(F)8.Human beings are genetically predetermined to acquire language, this genetic predisposition is a sufficient condition for language development. (F)9.Children who grow up in culture where caretaker speech is absent acquire their native language more slowly than children who are exposed to caretaker speech. (F)10.In mother tongue acquisition, normal children are not necessarily equally successful. (F)11.For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and require little conscious instruction on the part of adults. (T)12.The available evidence to date indicates that an explicit teaching of correct forms to young children plays a minor role at best. (T)13.Correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development as they were claimed to be. (T)14.Imitation, plays at best a very minor role in the child's mastery of language. (T)15.Observations of children in different language areas of the world reveal that the developmental stages are similar, possibly universal, whatever the nature of the input. (T)16.A child's babbling seems to depend on the presence of acoustic, auditory input. (F)17.In general, the two-word stage begins roughly in the second half of the child's first year. (F)18.Children's two-word expressions are absent of syntactic or morphological markers. (T)19.Children first acquire the sounds in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in late stages acquire the more difficult sounds. (T)20. Language acquisition begins at about the same time as lateralization does and is normally complete, as far as the essentials are concerned, by the time that the process of lateralization comes to an end. (T)Chapter12：language & brain (Psycholinguistics)1.The linguistic ability of human beings depends primarily on the structure of the vocal cords. （F）2.Human beings are the only organisms in which one particular part of the left half of the brain is larger than the corresponding part of the right half. （T）3.The case of Phineas Gage suggests that if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it is not situated right at the front. （T）4.In general, the right side of the brain controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the left side of the body, whereas the left side controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body. （T）nguage functions are believed to be lateralized primarily in the left hemisphere of the brain. （T）6. The language we speak determines the way we perceive the world and therefore the nature of thought. （F）7. Human beings can not think without language, just as they can not speak without thinking. （F）8.If a language lacks a word, its speakers will not be able to grasp its concept. （F）9. Generally speaking, left hemisphere is responsible for language and speech, analytic reasoning, associative thought, etc., while the right hemisphere is responsible for perception of nonlinguistic sounds, holistic reasoning, recognition of musical melodies, etc. （T）10. Language by no means determines the ways we perceive the objective world, but by its convenience, availability, and habitual use, does influence the perceptions of human being. （T）Chapter 7：Language Change（Historical Linguistics）1.One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore methods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between languages. （T）nguage change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation. （T）3.The history of the English language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English and Modern English. （T）4.Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the British Isles from northern Europe. （F）5.In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative cases. （F）6.In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it. （T）7.A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was the revival of French as a literary language. （F）8.In general, linguistic change in grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabulary of a language. （F）9.The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and movement of sounds. （T）10.The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes. （F）11.In Old English, the morphosyntactic rule of adjective agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the head noun in case, number and gender. （T）12.The word order of Modern English is more variable than that of Old English.（F）13.Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words. （T）14.“Smog” is a word formed by the word-forming process called acronymy. （F）15.“fridge” is a word formed by abbreviation. （F）16.Modern linguists are able to provide a consistent account for the exact causes of all types of language change.（F）17.Sound assimilation may bring about the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence, as in the case of change of “Engla-land” to “England”. （T）18.Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness. （T）nguage change is always a change towards the simplification of language rules （F）20.The way children acquire the language is one of the causes for language change.（T）Chapter 8：Language and Society (Sociolinguistics)1. Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies social contexts. （F）2. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.（F）3. Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another. （T）4. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use amonga variety of speech communities and in different social situations. （T）5.The linguistic markers that characterize individual social groups may serve as social markers of group membership. （T）6. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety ” c an not be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin. （F）7.Functional speech varieties are known as regional dialects. （F）8. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary. （F）9.Geographical barriers are the only source of regional variation of language. （F）10. A person's social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features. （F）11.Two speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in the same way. (F)12. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect. (T)13. The standard language is a better language than nonstandard languages. (F)14. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds. (F)15.Pidgins are linguistically inferior to standard languages. （F）16. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax. （T）17.The major difference between a pidgin and a creole is that the former usually has its native speakers while the latter doesn't. （F）18.Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing. （F）19.The kind of name or term speakers use to call or refer to someone may indicate something of their social relationship to or personal feelings about that individual. （T）20.The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting. （F）。
[整理]新编简明英语语言学教程笔记
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新编简明英语语言学教程笔记Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?Scientific study of language.Interpretation:①try to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language;②linguistics studies not any particular language but language in general;③scientific study because based on systematic investigation of linguistic data.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic.1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1.2 What is language1.2.1 Definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Characteristics:①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for,A rose by any other name would smell as well;③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound;④language is human -specific,different from animal communication.1.2.2 Design features of languageProposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal & human communication systems.Following are five major design features of human language:①arbitrarinessNo logical connection between meaning and sounds(except onomatopoetic and compound words)②productivityIt makes to possible to construction and interpretation of new signal by its users.③dualityLanguage is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;④DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speakers;⑤cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language systems are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.(language is cultural transmitted[language not mutually intelligible] while animal call system is genetically transmitted)1.2.3 Functions of languageThree main functions of language which distinct from each other but actually overlapping to some degree:①descriptive functionThe primary function of language;The function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denial, and in some case even verified.e.g: The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.②expressive functionSupply information about the user’sfeeling,preference,prejudices and value,etc.I will never come to this coffee shop again.③social functionServes to establish and maintain social relations between people. How can I help you, Sir?Others:Russian-born structural linguist Roman Jakobson：six elemens (function)of a speech:Addresser-emotive (动机) addressee-conative(意动)context-referential message-poetic contact-phatic communion code-metalinguisticBritish linguistic M.A.K Halliday:①ideational function(语篇功能)[included descriptive & expressive functin] is to organize the speaker’s experience of the real or imaginary world.②interpersonal function is to indicate ,establish,or maintainsocial relationship between people.[social function]③textual function is to organize written or spoken texts to cohere within themselves and fit to the particular situationin which they are used.2.Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of languageSpeech sounds produced by human speech organTwo major media of communication:speech and writing;2.2phonetics2.2.1 what is phonetics?The study of phonic medium of language;it is concerned with allthe sounds that occurs in the world’s language.Articulatory phonetics(发音语言学)Three branches Auditory phonetics(听觉语言学)Acoustic phonetics(声学语言学)2.2.2 organs of speechPharyngeal cavity(咽喉)Nasal cavity（鼻腔）Oral cavity（口腔）Voicing:vibration of the vocal cordsLongest historylung airglottisVocal cords2.2.3 orthgraphic representation of speech sounds :broad & narrowInternational phonetic alphabet:letter→soundsBroad(used in textbook):letter symbols [p]Narrow: letter symbols + diacritics(变音符)[p h it] [spit] h→aspiration [phonetician more interested in]2.2.4 classification of English speech sounds2.2.4.1 classification of English consonant（流音）Glides（滑音）VD w j2.2.4.2 classification of English vowelsMonophthongs：front central back close I: I U: u Semi-close e e:Semi-open e C: open ae a ^D a:2.3 phonology2.3.1 phonology & phoneticsP h o n o l o g y v s p h o n e t i c sSpeech soundsForm patters & convey meaning Produced features & classified2.3.5 suprasegmental features(phonemic features that occur above the level of segments)Stress : N & vTone：四声Intonation： different may convey different meaning even the sentences unchanged3.MorphologyGrammar that is concerned with word formation and word structureWord: the smallest free form found in languageMorpheme: the smallest unit of meaningRoot stem baseRoot: believeStem: believable (除掉所有的语法成份,留下词根和派生成份)Base：unbelievable (un的词基)Derivational morpheme:change category grammatical class of words Prefix:change meaningSuffix: change meaning and parts of speechInflectional morpheme:signify tense number caseWord formation:①Clipping（shortening & abbreviation）[no change of part of speech]I.e gym expo memo disco burger quake fridge script②back-formation[change of part of speech]I.e editor-edit hawker-hawk beggar-beg baby-sister--baby-sitButcher-butch donation-donate orientation-orient(ate)③conversion(functional shift)I.e: N-v v-n a-v a-n④acronyms[pronounced as words]CEO B2B IT CPI IAD WTO BBS(FOR BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM)APEC AIDS UNESCO UCLA IDD⑤initialism[produced as letters]C.O.D FBI EEC⑥blendingSmoke+fog=smogTaikong+astronaut=taikonaut⑦compoundingBittersweet landlady⑧onomatopoeiaBlast rustle5.SemanticsSome views concerning the study of meaning:1) the naming theory,plato,words →objectsLimitations: √N×ADJ ADV V√Concrete ×abstract2)the conceptualist viewSemantic triangle,ogden & richardswords→mind→wordsLimitations:what is the precisely link symbol and concept unclarify 3)ContextualismJ.R Firth。
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Chapter 8 Language and society语言和社会知识点：1.*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; ReceivedPronunciation2.Relatedness between language and society3.*Varieties of language4.*Halliday’s register theory5.Degree of formality6.Standard Dialect7.# Pidgin and Creole8.*#Bilingualism vs. diglossia考核目标：识记：*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received Pronunciation领会：Relatedness between language and society; Varieties of language; Degree of formality; Degree of formality; Standard Dialect; Pidgin and Creole简单应用：Bilingualism vs. diglossia综合应用：Halliday’s register theory一、定义1.Sociolinguistics 社会语言学: is s the sub-field of linguistics that studies relation between language and society, between the ues of language and the social structures in which the users of lamguage live. 社会语言学是语言学中的一个次领域，它研究语言与社会的关系，以及语言的运用和语言使用者所在的社会结构之间的关系。
2.regional dialect地域方言：is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.地域方言是指生活在同一地理区域的人所使用的语言变体。
3.sociolect社会方言：has to do with separation brough about by different social comditions.社会方言是与由不同社会条件所造成的分离相关的。
4.idiolect个人方言：is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.个人方言是个体言者的个人方言，它结合了又关地域、社会、性别和年龄的变体成分。
5.received pronunciation（RP）标准发音: in British English, which had become characteristic of upper class speech throughout the country by the 19th century. 在十九世纪成为全国上层阶级的特点。
二、知识点8.1 the scope of sociolinguistics社会与语言学的范畴8.1.1 the relatedness between language and society语言和社会的相关性There are many indications of the inter-relationshio between language and society.语言和社会之间的相互关系有许多种表现形式：1）One of them is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning ,it’s also used to establish and maintain social relationships.语言主要用来传达意义的同时，也用来确立和保持社会关系。
(e.g.“Good morning！Hi! Hows your family? Nice day today,isn’t it?这些话语的运用之中”)2）User of the same language in a sense all speak differently. Language，escipally the streucture of its lexicon, reflect both the physical and the social environments of a society.同一语言的使用者说话的方式都不尽相同。
语言，尤其是他的词汇结构，反映了社会的物质和社会环境。
（e.g.英语中只有一个词表示s“now”，但爱斯基摩人生活在多学的环境中需要对不同类型的雪作出区分的反映。
）3）As a social phenomenon, language is closely related to the structure of the socienty in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic from ia entirely social.作为一种社会现象，预言师与其所在的社会结构紧密相关的，对于语言形式的评价也完全是社会性的。
（所有的语言形式和口音，重要能完成期望中的发音那就是好的，e.g.英格兰英语发音与纽约英语发音不同。
）8.1.2speech community and speech variety言语社区和言语变体1.speech community言语社区：a group of people who have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes towards linguistic norms. 言语社区可以定义为一群实际上有机会彼此交往。
不仅共有一门语言及其相关变体，而且还对语言标准有共同看法的一群人。
(一个群体可以从教育背景，职业，性别，年龄或其成员的种族关系来与其社区的其他群体区分开来。
)2.speech variety（language variety）言语变体:refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.言语变体，又称之为语言变体，是由一位言者或一群言者所使用的任何具有区别性的言语形式。
（这些不同的特征主要反映在发音、句法规则或词汇上。
言语变体作为一种中性词语可以指标准语(standard language)、方言(dialect)、洋径浜语(pidgin)、克里奥尔语(creole)等，可以指同一语言的地域性或民族性变体，如英语中的澳大利亚英语、黑人英语等，也可以指同属一种语言的功能性言语变体，如法律语体等。
）社会语言学家尤其是对regional dialects地域变体（又称地域方言）、sociolects社会变体（又称社会方言）和registers功能变体（又称语域）感兴趣。
言语变体无论其具有何种社会属性，在社会语言学家看来它们之间没有高低之分、优劣之别,因为它们都是体系的。
8.1.3 Two approaches to sociolinguistics studies社会语言学研究的两种方法1.macro-sociolinguistics(sociology of language)宏观社会语言学（语言社会学）: we can look at society as a whole and consider how language functions in it and how it reflects the social differentiations,i.e. a bird’s eye view of the language used in society.我们可以将社会看作一个整体，考察语言是如何在其中运用的，以及它是如何反映社会差异的，即对社会中所使用的语言的一个总观。
2.micro-sociolinguistics(sociolinguistics proper)微观社会语言学（严格意义的社会语言学）:look at society from the point of view of an individual menber within it, or a worm’s eye view of language in use.8.2 varieties of language语言变体一门语言的语言变体是该语言的一般概念的实际体现。
Dialects方言：varieties related to to the user.与使用者相关的变体。
Registers 语域：varieties related to to use.与用途相关的变体。
8.2.1 Dialectal varieties方言变体8.2.1.1 Regional dialect地域方言地理障碍如高山，海洋，空间的距离等是造成语言地域变异的主要原因，除此之外，对自己地方语的“忠诚”以及对语言变化的抵触情绪也是形成地域方言的原因。
虽然语言的地域变异反映在发音、词汇和句法上，但是语言地域性变异的最显著的特征是地域口音(accent)。
e.g. regional varieties of Chinese：Shanghai dialect，Sicuan dialectregional varieties of English：British English, New Zeland English,Australia English, South Afrian English由于地域变体的存在给跨地区的交际造成障碍，语言规划(language planning)应运而生。
语言规划是政府行为。