Regional variation
Sociolinguistics社会语言学
5). Social dialect: language use among different social groups in a variety of
social contexts. ①～⑧
1
研究范围的大小或角度分别如下:
1.Diglossia and bilingualism
2. Standard and nonstandard language
2)The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must interact linguistically with other members of the community.
3. Five sections
1). Language variation: general introduction regarding language variation and the situational use of language.①～⑥
2). Standard and nonstandard language: examine language variation in
language variation and language use.
Contents:
1. Speech community
2. Speech variety
3. Regional variation
4. Social variation
5. Stylistic variation
6. Idiolectal variation
2) A social group: besides regionally, a social group may distinguish
社会语言学练习题及答案（final）
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies social contexts. F2. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers. F3. Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another. T4. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations. T5. The linguistic markers that characterize individual social groups may serve as social markers of group membership. T6. From the sociolinguistic per spective, the term “speech variety ” can not be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin. F7.Functional speech varieties are known as regional dialects.F8. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary. F9.Geographical barriers are the only source of regional variation of language. F10. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features. F11.Two speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in the same way. F12. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect. T13. The standard language is a better language than nonstandard languages. F14. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds. F15.Pidgins are linguistically inferior to standard languages. F16. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax. T17.The major difference between a pidgin and a creole is that the former usually has its native speakers while the latter doesn’t. F18.Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing. F19.The kind of name or term speakers use to call or refer to someone may indicate something of their social relationship to or personal feelings about that individual. T20.The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting. FII. Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given:21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech community.22. Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.23. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a dialectal variety of a language.24. Language standardization is also called language planning.25. Social variation gives rise to sociolects which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.26. Stylistic variation in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.27. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or official language of a country.28. The standard language is a superposed , socially prestigious dialect of language.29. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular languages.30. A pidgin typically lacks in inflectional morphemes.31. Linguistic taboo reflects social taboo.32. The avoidance of using taboo language mirrors social attitudes, emotions and value judgments and has no linguistic basis.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:33. Sociolinguistics is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.34. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its accent .35. Regional variation is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.36. Geographical barriers are the major source of regional variation of language.37. Language planning means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.38. Stylistic variation in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.39. A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds .40. Although pidgins are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.41. In normal situations, female speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their male counterparts with the same social background.42. A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use.IV. Define the following terms:43. sociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is the study of language in social contexts.44. speech communityThe social group isolated for any given study is called the speech community or a speech community is a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms. 45. speech varietySpeech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features.46. language planninglanguage standardization is known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling systems, across regional boundaries.47. idiolectAn idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one form or another. In a narrower sense, what ma kes up one’s idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality, pitch and speech rhythm, which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual' s speech. 48. standard languageThe standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by thegovernment and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, in cluding school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.49. nonstandard languageLanguage varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard languages50. lingua francaA lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.51. pidginA pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.52. CreoleA Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community.53. diglossiaDiglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.54. BilingualismBilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.55. ethnic dialectWithin a society, speech variation may come about because of different ethnic backgrounds . An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language, often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation.56. SociolectSocial dialects, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.57. registerRegisters are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. Format reason, registers are als o known as situational dialects.58. slangSlang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but non-standard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.59. tabootaboo, or rather linguistic taboo, denotes any prohibition by the polite society on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts.60. euphemismA euphemism, then, is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Discuss with examples that the speech of women may differ from the speech of men.In normal situations, female speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their male counterparts with the same general social background. For example, standard English forms such as "I did it" and "he isn' t" can be found more often in the speech of females, while the more colloquial "I done it" and "he ain' t" occur more frequently in the speech of males.Another feature often associated with so-called women' s language is politeness. Usually, tough and rough speeches have connotations of masculinity and are not considered to be desirable feminine qualities. In general, men's language is more straightforward, less polite, and more direct, and women's language is more indirect, less blunt, and more circumlocutory. This phenomenon of sex-preferential differentiation is also reflected in the relative frequency with which males and females use the same lexical items. For example, certain words that are closely associated with women may sound typically feminine as a result of that association. For example, some English adjectives like "lovely", "nice", "darling" and "cute" occur more often in female speeches and therefore cause feminine association. Females have also been shown to possess a greater variety of specific color terms than males, in spite of the fact that men do not necessarily possess less acute color perception than women. On the other hand, males have the reputation of possessing a larger vocabulary in traditionally male-dominated domains such as sports, hunting and the military.A request in English such as " Close the door when you leave" can be phrased in a number of ways ranging from a harsh command to a very polite request:a. Close the door when you leave.b. Please close the door when you leave.c. Would you please close the door when you leave?d. Could you close the door when you leave?Although the above options are all available to both men and women, it is usually the more polite forms that are selec ted by female speakers. In general, females are found to use more questions than declarative statements in comparison with males.62. Discuss with examples some of the linguistic differences between Standard English and Black English.One of the most prominent phonological characteristics of Black English is the frequent simplification of consonant clusters at the end of words when one of the two consonants is an alveolar /t/, /d/, /s/, or /z/. The application of this simplification rule may delete the past - tense morpheme, so "past "and "passed "are both pronounced like "pass."Another salient characteristic of Black English phonological system concerns the deletion of some word-final stop consonants in words like "side" and "borrowed." Speakers of Black English frequently delete these word-final stops, pronouncing “side” like “sigh” and “borrowed” like “borrow.”One prominent syntactic feature is the frequent absence of various forms of the copula "be" in Black English, which are required of Standard English. Compare the following expressions in Black English and Standard English:(1) Black English Standard EnglishThey mine. They' re mine.Y ou crazy. Y ou re crazy.Another distinctive syntactic feature of Black English is the systematic use of die expression "it is" where Standard English uses "there is " in the sense of “there exists” :Is it a Mr. Johnson in this office?Another aspect of Black English is the use of double negation constructions. Whenever the verb is negated, the indefinite pronouns "something", "somebody", and "some" become the negative indefinites "nothing", "nobody", and "none", for example:He don't know nothing. (He doesn't know anything.)63. What is a linguistic taboo? What effect does it have on our use of language?A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use. Obscene, profane, and swear words are all taboo words that are to be avoided entirely, or at least avoided in mixed company.In sociolinguistics, a linguistic taboo, denotes any prohibition on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts. As language use is contextualized in particular social settings, linguistic taboo originates from social taboo. When an act is taboo, reference to this act may also become taboo. Taboo words and expressions reflect the particular social customs andviews of a particular culture.As linguistic taboo reflects social taboo, certain words are more likely to be avoided, for examples, the words related to sex, sex organs and excrement in many cultures. The avoidance of using taboo language mirrors social attitudes, emotions and value judgments, and has no linguistic basis.The avoidance of using taboo language has led to the creation of euphemisms. A euphemism is a mild, indirect or less of-fensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be hars h, unpleasantly direct, or offensive. For example, we say "portly" instead of "fat".In many cultures, people avoid using direct words that pertain to death or dying because it is the subject that everyone fears and is unpleasant to talk about. In the English-speaking world, for example, people do not “die”, but “pass away”. Euphemisms involve a wide range of fields. Although the use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones, the disassociative effect is never long-lasting. Often when the negative connotation of a word is recognized in its euphemistic form, a new euphemism will have to be sought for. However, an excessive use of euphemism may have negative effects. As a matter of fact, many euphemisms have become cliches that are to be avoided in formal speech and writing. They also tend to be wordy and to give writing a timid quality. In addition, euphemism can be evasive or even deceitful. Because they are often improperly used to obscure the intended meaning, many people find them offensive and prefer plain language.64. 众所周知，所谓"魔力之词"，如"thank you"和"please"等，普遍存在。
英语语言学chapter 7
chapter 7Ⅱ. Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given:1. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech c_________.2. Speech v_________ refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.3. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a d_________ variety ofa language.4. Language standardization is also called language p_________.5. Social variation gives rise to s_________ which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.6. S_________ variation in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.7. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or o_________ language of a country.8. The standard language is a s_________, socially prestigious dialect of language.9. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or v_________ languages.10. A pidgin typically lacks in i_________ morphemes.11. Linguistic taboo reflects s_________ taboo.12. The avoidance of using taboo language mirrors social attitudes, emotions and value judgments and has no l_________ basis.13.The four-letter words like “hell”, “shit” in English are called_________ .14.The process from pidgin to Creole is called .15.The term _________was first put forward by linguist Feuguson.16. _________is the type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation.17.British educational sociologist_________ first made the distinction between elaborated code and restricted code.18. _________is a neutral term, and it can be used instead of regional dialect, social dialect, or pidgin.19.Linguist _________published his paper “The social stratification of English in New Y ork City” in 1966.20.L.L. Zamenhof invented the artificial language .21.Gumperz divided code switching into situational code switching and_________.22. _________is the language system of an individual as expressed by the way he or she speaks or writes within the overall system of a particular language.Ⅲ.There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. _______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech ommunities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Historical linguisticsD. General linguistics2. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its _____.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemes3. ____ is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. Regional variationB. Language variationC. Social variationD. Register variation4. _______ are the major source of regional variation of language.A. Geographical barriersB. Loyalty to and confidence in one’s native speechC. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to changeD. Social barriers5. _________ means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.A. Language interferenceB. Language changesC. Language planningD. Language transfer6. _________ in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.A. Regional variationB. Changes in emotionsC. V ariation in connotationsD. Stylistic variation7. A ____ is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.A. lingua francaB. registerC. CreoleD. national language8. Although _______ are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.A. vernacular languagesB. creolesC. pidginsD. sociolects9. In normal situations, ____ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their ____ counterparts with the same social background.A. female; maleB. male; femaleC. old; youngD. young; old10. A linguistic _______ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.A. slangB. euphemismC. jargonD. taboo11. The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society is called _______.A. SociolinguisticsB. NeurolinguisticsC. MacrolinguisticsD. Microlinguistics12. Which of the followings doesn’t belong to dialectal varieties? _______.A. Regional dialectsB. SociolectC. IdiolectD. Diglossia13. The dialect which is cause by social status is _______.A. regional dialectsB. sociolectC. idiolectD. diglossia14. Standard dialect is _______.A. designated as the official or national language of a countryB. a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialectC. used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposeD. used by people who belong to the higher social status15. Sometimes, two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. This phenomenon is ______.A. bilingualismB. diglossiaC. pidginD. creole16. Which of the followings does NOT constitute the reason for regional dialect?A. Geographical barrier.B. Loyalty to one’s native speech.C. The existence of standard dialect.D. Physical and psychological resistance to change.17. Which of the following statements is not the concern of sociolinguists?A. The language a person uses reveals his social background.B. There exist social norms that determine the type of language to be used on a certain occasion.C. How does the human mind work when they use language.D. To investigate the social aspects of language.18. The word “language” is someti mes used to refer to the whole of a person’s language. This is called ________.A. scientific languageB. idiolectC. colloquial languageD. formal language19. The form of a given language used in a certain geographical space is called ______.A. styleB. dialectC. registerD. pidgin20. According to Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, which of the following is NOT true?A. Different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around.B. Language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences.C. Language patterns determine or influence people’s thinking and behavior.D. Language structure people habitually uses hows no influence on people’s behavior.21. Which of the following about the relationship between language and culture is NOT true?A. Language use is tinted with its culture.B. Language expresses cultural reality.C. The relationship is analogous to that of structures and processes.D. The relationship of language to cultures that of part to whole.22. The famous line “My love is a red, red rose”, stirs up vividly the imagination of a beautifullady. This is the ________meaning of “rose”.A. denotativeB. connotativeC. iconicD. dictionary23. The meaning that can be found in the dictionaries the _______ meaning of a word.A. denotativeB. connotativeC. iconicD. culture24. In English, “green” in the phrase “green-eyes” is associated with _______.A. unhappy feelingsB. high social positionsC. envy or jealousyD. negative qualities25. France has made special efforts to protect its language from being corrupted by other languages especially American English. This is a kind of ______.A. linguistic imperialismB. linguistic nationalismC. cultural imperialismD. cultural diffusion26. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is about_______.A. language and thoughtB. language and translationC. grammatical structureD. second language acquisition27. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is also known as linguistic ________.A. reliabilityB. relativityC. reversibilityD. reach ability28. Which of the following statements about nonverbal communication is NOT true?A. Nonverbal communication and culture are similar in that both are learned, both are passed on from generation to generation, and both involve shared understandings.B. Studying nonverbal behavior can lead to the discovery of a culture’s underlyi ng attitudes and values.C. Nonverbal actions always occur in isolation.D. Nonverbal communication has five basic functions: to repeat, to complement, to substitute for a verbal action, to regulate, and to contradict a communication event.29. Which statement is NOT right in describing the behaviorists’ view?A. Behaviorists view stresses imitation, stimulation and reinforcement.B. Behaviorists offer a reasonable account of how children acquire some of the regular and routine aspects of the language.C. Behaviorists hold that children learn the language gradually in much the same way as habit-forming.D. Behaviorists’ accounts are convincing especially when it is used to explain children’s acquiring complex system.30. According to Chomsky, the Universal Grammar is ______.A. got through imitation and practiceB. acquired through the interaction with the environmentC. pre-equipped in children’s brainsD. gained specifically for each language31. Which of the following statement is true?A. All normal children plays equal ability in learning their first language.B. Linguistic environment plays an important role in first language learning.C. A child can begin his first language acquisition at any time.D. It is easy for parents to teach their children grammar.32. The child may get confused at hearing the color of white used for paper when he/she first thought is as the word for snow. This is an example for ______.A. under-extensionB. over-extensionC. hearing impairmentD. mental retardation33. Around the age of two, children begin to produce two-word utterances such as “mommy sock”, which of the following statements about this is NOT true. (B)A. This kind of speech is called telegraphic speech.B. This kind of speech is called caretaker talk.C. There are content words in the speech.D. There are not function elements in the speech.34. The children know the taboo words, the polite forms of address during______. (A)A. Pragmatic developmentB. Atypical developmentC. Grammatical developmentD. V ocabulary development35. The theory of universal grammar was proposed by _______.A. Noam ChomskyB. FirthC. F.D. Saussure D. Sapir。
文体学
一、Outline of this course:The name of this book is English Stylistics. Generally it is about the study of styles in language and variations in language, but in this course, we focus on modern stylistics, which has two branches, literary stylistics and general stylistics. The course introduced us an influential theoretical framework of stylistics and applied the theory in the concrete analysis of the main varieties of Modern English.二、Terms definition.Stylistics: Stylistics is a b ranch of linguistics which applies the theory and methodology of modern linguistics to the study of the style. It studies the use of language in specific contexts and attempts to account for the characteristics that mark the language use of individuals and social groups.Style: 答案一：Style can be taken as the language habits of a person or group of persons in a given situation. (老师课堂讲授)答案二：Style may be seen as the various characteristic uses of language that a person or group of persons make in various social contexts.(个人整理)Variety: Variety can be taken as the different types or styles of a language.Dialect: Dialect is the language variation that is associated with different users of the language. Register:答案一：Register is the language variation that is associated with different use to which they are put. (教材)答案二：①Register can be taken as the varieties in which different situations with different situations with different occupational or social group.②Register can be taken as the distinctive varieties of a language used in different types of situation.(老师课堂讲授)答案三：Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects. (个人整理)四、This term we covered Chapter1、2、3、4、5 and 9.In Chapter1(the aims and concerns of stylistics), we talked about the definitions of stylistics, modern stylistics, language, speech act, variety and style, 3 terms in language use, 4 influencing factors (regional variation, social variation, situational variation, topic variation), 5styles of formality.In Chapter 2(the necessity for stylistic study), we gave an introduction and analyzed the 3 need for stylistic study, i.e. stylistic study helps cultivate a sense of appropriateness; stylistic study sharpens the understanding and appreciation of literary works; stylistic study helps achieve adaptation in translation.In Chapter 3(the classification of varieties of English), we revealed two main kinds of situational varieties: dialectal varieties(dialects) and diatypic varieties(registers). We’ve 5 categories of the former, they are individual dialect(personal linguistic features); temporal dialect(dialect of time/ age/ epoch); regional dialect(origin of birth and grown-up) and social dialect(social groups and social background) and standard dialect. As to the latter, the field, mode and tenor of discourse and their relationships were covered.In Chapter 4(the levels of linguistic description & the content and procedure of stylistic analysis), we mentioned the aim of stylistics in linguistic description, which is to give an analytical tool. We also covered the 3 levels language, namely the level of phonology (to study the writing system);lexis (to study words choice) and grammar (morphology to study word formation and syntax to study words into sentences); semantics(to study meanings). Besides, the 3 levels of linguistic description were also included; they are level of phonology and graphology; level of lexis and grammar; level of semantics.In Chapter 5(the formal and informal language and the relationship between its participants), we covered types of tenor, degrees of formality and their relation. Martin Joo's 5 classifications (frozen style, formal, consultative, casual, intimate) are efficient in many ways, but the situations are so complicated that the degree of formality can fall in any point. 5 elements in speech situation (setting, purpose, audience, social relation and topics) and linguistic features (vocabulary, phonology, syntax, semantics) are mentioned, so do their relations with formality. Besides, we also covered co-occurrence restriction, degree of involvement and the inter-relationship between 3 functions of language (ideational/interpersonal/textual function) and 3 components of a text (field, mode, tenor).In Chapter 9(the English of advertising), we talked about the function of advertising and the function of the language of advertising. What’s more, we covered the graphological features of display advertising, i.e. full use of grephological contracts, prominent use of pictures, clear identification of the advertiser.括号内扩展内容仅助于理解，不必全部写在试卷上。
optimize的美式和英式写法
optimize的美式和英式写法标题：Optimize: A Comparison between American English and British EnglishIntroduction:Optimization refers to the process of improving something to make it as efficient, effective, and productive as possible. Language is no exception when it comes to optimization. English has evolved differently in different regions, leading to variations in spelling, grammar, and vocabulary. This article aims to explore the differences in optimizing English between American English (AE) and British English (BE).I. Historical Background:1. Separation and Independence:The colonization of America by the British in the 17th and 18th centuries laid the foundation for the differences in AE and BE. Despite the initial similarities, the growing independence of the American colonies led to linguistic divergence.II. Spelling Optimization:1. Simplifying or Standardizing?AE tends to favor simplified spellings, aiming for efficiency and ease of use. Examples include "color" instead of "colour" and "center" instead of "centre." This streamlining facilitates the learning process and reduces unnecessary complexity.2. Preserving Tradition:On the other hand, BE adheres more closely to traditional spellings. BE proponents argue that preserving historical spelling reflects cultural heritage and maintains a stronger connection to the language's roots.III. Grammar Optimization:1. Regularizing Verb Forms:AE has achieved greater optimization by regularizing certain verb forms. For instance, "learned" is used as both the past tense and past participle of "learn," while BE maintains the distinction between "learnt" and "learned." The simplification in AE eliminates confusion and simplifies language usage.2. The Defence of British Rules:BE strictly follows established grammar rules. While some may argue that this adherence results in a more complex system, BEenthusiasts contend that it ensures clarity and precision in communication.IV. Vocabulary Optimization:1. Innovations in AE:AE frequently embraces innovative vocabulary adaptations that reflect the changing needs and trends of society. For example, "smartphone" has replaced "mobile phone" in AE. This optimization helps to maintain linguistic relevance and expedites the communication process.2. Preservation of British Vocabulary:BE, on the other hand, places more emphasis on preserving its vocabulary, derived from its deep historical and literary traditions. This preservation protects the nuance and cultural significance of certain words, even if they may seem archaic or outdated to some.V. Regional and Contextual Optimization:1. American Regional Variation:Due to its vast size and diverse cultural landscape, AE exhibits regional variations in vocabulary, pronunciation, and even grammar. These regional optimizations often emerge due to cultural andgeographical influences.2. British Contextual Variation:BE undergoes optimizations depending on the specific context of usage. For example, while British English spoken in England may use certain terms, the same terms may have different meanings or usage in Scotland or Wales. These contextual adaptations optimize communication within specific regions.Conclusion:Both American English and British English have optimized their language in different ways to suit their respective cultural, historical, and geographical contexts. AE tends to prioritize simplicity and efficiency, while BE maintains a stronger connection to tradition and cultural heritage. Despite their differences, both language variations continue to evolve and adapt, contributing to the richness of the English language as a whole.。
三月三PPT课件用英文
Colorful parades are held in many cities, with participants dressed in traditional costumes, carrying flags, and displaying floats that celebrate the history and culture of the region.
Modern Evolution
In modern times, the March 3rd Festival has become more diverse and inclusive, incorporating elements of modern feminism and global perspectives on gender equality. It now includes various activities such as public speeches, talent shows, and community gatherings aimed at celebrating women's contributions to society.
The rapid development of technology brings new challenges to the promotion and development of traditional festivals.
Limited Resources
Cultural Diversity
The festival is a way of honoring and remembering ancestors, who are an important part of Chinese culture and tradition. It is a time for paying respects to those who have gone before us and keeping their memories alive in the family.
英语语言学9到11单元课后答案
Unit 9 the Use of English(II)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.2. Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication3. Maxim of quantity requires one to provide as much information as possible.4. In order to be polite, one needs to cooperate in all possible ways.5. Every normal speaker needs to mind his own and others’ face.6. Politeness is a matter of degree.7. Cultures vary as far as politeness issues are concerned.8. “Do not say what you believe to be false” falls into the maxim of quality.9. “To avoid obscurity” belongs to the maxim of relation.10. “Make your contribution such as is re quired, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.” This was said by G. N. Leech.1.F2.F3. F 4 F 5 T 6 T 7 T 8 T 9. F 10. FIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. _________ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context. A. Pragmatics B. Semantics C. Sense relationD. Concept2. Which of the following is true?A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.3. __________ is advanced by Paul Grice A. Cooperative Principle B. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle4. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicatures5. Which of the following utterances below is performative?A. I command you to put out that cigarette.B. I warned you not to go.C. Put your toys awayD. I envy you1. A2. B3. A4. D5. AUnit 10 The Varieties of English (I)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.2. The kind of name or term speakers use to call or refer to someone may indicate something of their social relationshipto or personal feelings about that individual.3. Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group toanother, and even from one individual to another.4. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speechcommunities and in different social situations.5. The linguistic markers that characterize individual social groups may serve as social markers of group membership.6. The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usuallylong-lasting.7.Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies social contexts.8.Two speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in the same way.9.Geographical barriers are the only source of regional variation of language.10. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features1. F2.T3.T4.T5. F6.F7.F8.F9.F 10. FIII.There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. The meaning of language was considered as something _______ in traditional semantics.A. contextualB. behaviouristicC. intrinsicD. logical2. _______ are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situation.A. SlangB. Address termsC. RegistersD. Education varieties3. ________ is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. Regional variationB. Language variationC. Social variationD. Register variation4. A ____ is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguisticbackgrounds.A. lingua francaB. registerC. CreoleD. national language5. Although _______ are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any humanlanguage.A. vernacular languagesB. creolesC. pidginsD. sociolects6. Probably the most widespread and familiar ethnic variety of the English language is _______.A. British EnglishB. American EnglishC. Black EnglishD. Australian English7. In normal situations, ____ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their ____ counterparts with the same socialbackground.A. female; maleB. male; femaleC. old; youngD. young; old8. _______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Historical linguisticsD.General linguistics9. _______ in a person’s speech, or writing, usually ranges on a continuum from casual to formal according to the typeof communicative context.A. Regional variationB. Social variationC. Stylistic variationD. Idiolectal variation10. _________ means that certain authorities, such as the government, choose a particular speech variety, standardize itand spread the use of it across regional boundaries.A. Language interferenceB. Language changesC. Language planningD. Language transfer1. C2. C3.A4.A5. C6.C7.A8.B 9D 10.CUnit 11 The Varieties of English (II)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. In the most bilingual communities, two languages have the same in speech situations known as domains.2. A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety of that language.3. The standardization of a particular dialect in relation to one or more vernaculars is the result of a deliberate government policy.4. A pidgin is not a native language of a particular region.5. When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages concerned, he is converting one mode of thinking into the other.6. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary7. The standard language is a better language than nonstandard languages.8. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds.9. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower languagein their phonology and occasionally syntax.10. African-American Vernacular English is an inferior dialect of English.11. Pidgin English no longer exists today.12. Some people speak a Creole as their mother tongue.13. British English and American English are identical in grammar but different in vocabulary.l.F 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.F 6.F 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F 11. F 12. T. 13. FIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. _______ are the major source of regional variation of language.A. Geographical barriersB. Loyalty to and confidence in one’s native speechC. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to changeD. Social barriers2. A linguistic ____ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use. A. slangB. euphemismC. jargonD. taboo3. _______ is not a typical example of official bilingualism.A. CanadaB. FinlandC. BelgiumD. Germany4. In a speech community people have something in common _______ --a language or a particular variety of language and rulesfor using it.A. socially B. linguistically C. culturally D. pragmatically5. _______ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified by shared linguistic system.A. A speech community B. A race C. A society D.A country6. The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in _______and vocabulary.A. diglossiaB. bilingualismC. pidginizationD. blending7. _______ is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashyand often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech.A. Language taboo B. Slang C. Address terms D. Register varietyIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. _______ are the major source of regional variation of language.A. Geographical barriersB. Loyalty to and confidence in one’s native speechC. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to changeD. Social barriers2. A linguistic ____ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use. A. slangB. euphemismC. jargonD. taboo3. _______ is not a typical example of official bilingualism.A. Canada B. Finland C. Belgium D. Germany4. In a speech community people have something in common _______ --a language or a particular variety of language and rulesfor using it.A. socially B. linguistically C. culturally D. pragmatically5. _______ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified by shared linguistic system.A. A speech community B. A race C. A society D.A country6. The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in _______ and vocabulary.A. diglossiaB. bilingualismC. pidginizationD. blending7. _______ is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashyand often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech.A. Language taboo B. Slang C. Address terms D. Register variety。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》测试题精华(附答案)
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society[注：第六章无测试题]I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. _______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. General linguistics2. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its __________.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemes3. __________ is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. Regional variationB. Language variationC. Social variationD. Register variation4. _______ are the major source of regional variation of language.A. Geographical barriersB. Loyalty to and confidence in one’s native speechC. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to changeD. Social barriers5. _________ means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.A. Language interferenceB. Language changesC. Language planningD. Language transfer6. _________ in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.A. Regional variationB. Changes in emotionsC. Variation in connotationsD. Stylistic variation7. A ____ is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.A. lingua francaB. registerC. CreoleD. national language8. Although _______ are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.A. vernacular languagesB. creolesC. pidginsD. sociolects9. In normal situations, ____ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their ____ counterparts with the same social background.A. female; maleB. male; femaleC. old; youngD. young; old10. A linguistic _______ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.A. slangB. euphemismC. jargonD. tabooII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.12. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations.13. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety” can no t be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin.14. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.15. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping inf luence on his choice of linguistic features.16. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect.17. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds.18. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax.19. Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing.20. The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech __________.22. Speech __________ refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.23. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a __________ variety of a language.24. Language standardization is also called language __________.25. Social variation gives rise to __________ which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.26. __________ variation in a person’s speec h or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.27. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or __________ language ofa country.28. The standard language is a __________, socially prestigious dialect of language.29. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or __________ languages.30. A pidgin typically lacks in __________ morphemes.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Lingua franca32. Regional dialect33. Register34. SociolinguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Is American English superior to African English Why or why not （中国人民大学，2003）36. If we take it as rule that language is intimately related to culture, then how do the kinship words, such as uncle and aunt, reflect the cultural differences between English and Chinese （东北师范大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)the differences between registers and regional/social dialects. Give examples if necessary. （东北师范大学，2005）答案~5 BCAAC 6~10 ~15 FTFFF 16~20 TFTFF. community 22. variety23. dialectal . sociolects 26. Stylistic27. official 28. superposed29. vernacular 30. inflectional. Lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speaks different native languages or dialects.32. Regional dialect: Regional dialect, also social or class dialect, is a speech variety spoken by the members of a particular group or stratum of a speech community.33. Register: Register, also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particular speech situations on which degrees of formality depends.34. Sociolinguistics: Defined in its broadest way, sociolinguistics, a subdiscipline of linguistics, is the study of language in relation to society. It is concerned with language variation, language use, the impact of extra-linguistic factors on language use, etc.English is not superior to African English. As different branches of English, African English and American English are equal. Similar as they are, they are influenced by their respective cultural context and thus form respective systems of pronunciation, words and even grammar.36. In China, Chinese has a more strict and complex relationship system. So in Chinese there are a lot more kinship words than in English..(Omit.)Chapter 8 Language in UseI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive4. Which of the following is trueA. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.5. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century6. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act7. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs8. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about9. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.13. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.14. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.15. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.16. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of __________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an __________.23. The meaning of a sentence is __________, and decontexualized.24. __________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.25. __________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.26. A(n) __________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.27. A(n) __________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.28. A(n) _________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.29. A(n) ________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of __________, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Conversational implicature32. Performative33. Locutionary act34. Q-principle (Horn)V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Explain the following remarks with examples or make some comments.“Both semantics and pragmatics are concerned with meaning, but the difference between t hem can be traced to two different uses of the verb mean: (a) What does X mean (b) What did you mean by X” （东北师范大学，2006）36. Do you think B is cooperative in the following dialogue Support your argument with Cooperative Principle. （南开大学，2004）A: When is the bus coming？B: There has been an accident further up the road.VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. What is the function of context in communication Try to explain the following utterances rather than just state facts.(1) The room is messy.(2) It would be good if she had a green skirt on.Key:~5 DBCBA 6~10 ~15 FTTFF 16~20 FFFTT. context 22. utterance 23. abstract 24. Constatives25. Performatives 26. locutionary 27. illocutionary 28. commissive 29. expressive 30. quantity. Conversational implicature: In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from one another. However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.32. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warning).33. Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.34. Horn’s Q-principle: (1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity); (2) Say as much as you can (given R).. Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.36. Yes, B is cooperative. On the face of it, B’s statement is not an answer to A’s question. B doesn’t say “when.” However, A will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “I don’t know” or “I am not sure.” Just assume that B is being “relevant” and “informative.” Given that B’s answer contains relevant infor mation, A can work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “traffic jam,” and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming.” Thus, B’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus comes”; it contains an implicature concerning “when th e bus comes.”occurs before and / or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc.The context may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used.(1) a. A mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room.b. In a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy.”c. The room was wanted for a meeting.(2) a. A mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady’s appearance.b. A regret that the customer had not taken the dress.c. That she wore a red shirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion.Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The person who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” is __________..A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Chomsky2. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of __________.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. system3. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is __________.A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris4. Generally speaking, the __________ specifies whether a certain tagmeme is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.A. SlotB. ClassC. RoleD. Cohesion5. __________ Grammar is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussing Indo-European languages.A. TraditionalB. StructuralC. FunctionalD. Generative6. __________ Grammar started from the American linguist Sydney M. Lamb in the late 1950s and the early 1960s.A. StratificationalB. CaseC. RelationalD. Montague7. In Halliday’s view, the __________ function is the fun ction that the child uses to know about his surroundings.A. personalB. heuristicC. imaginativeD. informative8. The rheme in the sentence “On it stood Jane” is __________.A. On itB. stoodC. On it stoodD. Jane9. Chomsky follows __________ in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.A. empiricismB. behaviorismC. relationalismD. mentalism10. TG grammar has seen __________ stages of development.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. sixII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.12. The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and rheme contrast.13. London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.14. According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play at some point ina linguistic structure.15. American Structuralism is a branch of diachronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.16. The Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.17. American descriptive linguistics is empiricist and focuses on diversities of languages.18. Chomsky’s concept of linguistic performance is similar to Saussure’s concept of parole, while his use of linguistic competence is somewhat different from Saussure’s langue.19. Glossematics emphasizes the nature and status of linguistic theory and its relation to description.20. If two sentences have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they would be the same in terms of textual coherence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The Prague School practiced a special style of __________ Linguistics.22. The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between __________ and phonology.23. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was __________.24. Halliday’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the the ory behind his Functional Grammar is __________.25. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) __________ oriented functional linguistic approach.26. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of __________.27. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950 is also known as __________ Age.28. __________ in language theories is characteristic of America.29. The starting point of Chomsky’s TG gra mmar is his __________ hypothesis.30. Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements, that is a __________, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. FSP 32. Cohesion33. LAD34. Case GrammarV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modern linguistics？36. What is behaviorism What is behaviorism in linguistics What is the relationship between linguistics and behaviorism according to Bloomfield Does behaviorism have any limitations If yes, what are they？VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Can you make a brief introduction to some important schools and their influential representatives in modern linguistics？Key:~5 BACAA 6~10 ABDCC ~15 FFTTF 16~20 FTTTF. synchronic 22. phonetics23. J. R. Firth 24. systemic25. sociologically 26. distribution27. Bloomfieldian 28. Descriptivism29. innateness 30. hypothesis-maker. FSP: It stands for Functional Sentence Perspective. It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.32. Cohesion: The Cohesion shows whether a certain tagmeme is dominating other tagmemes or isdominated by others.33. LAD: LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a device effectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is constructed. 34. Case Grammar: It is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. It is a type of generative grammar developed by C. J. Fillmore in the late 1960s.Chapter 7 Exercises for Language, Culture and SocietyI . Fill in the blanks.1. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or_________ , language.2. A speech _________ is a group of people who share the same language or a particular variety of language.3. Wherever the standard he’s). Black English can language can use a contraction (he + is _________ the form of “be”._________ superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language.5. A_________ language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communities.6. A linguistic_________ refers to a word or the "polite" society from general use.7. Taboo and _________ are two faces of the same communicative coin.8. Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on _________.9. Language itself is not sexist, but its use may reflect the _________ attitude connoted in the language that is sexist.10. An ethnic _______(dialect is spoken mainly by a less experienced privileged population that has experienced some sort of social isolation, such as_________ discrimination.11. In terms of sociolinguistics, _________ is sometimes used to refer to the whole of a person's language.12. In many societies of the world, we find a large number of people who speak more than one language. Asa characteristic of societies, _________ inevitably results from the coming into cultures and different languages. (bilingualism)II. . Choose the best answer.13. _________ are language varieties for use in particular speech situations.A. SlangB. Address termsC. RegistersD. Education varieties14. In sociolinguistics, _________ refers to situations typically constrained by a commonset of behaviour rules.A. domainB. . situationC. societyD. community15. _________ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified by shared linguistic system.A. A speech communityB. A raceC. A societyD. A country16. _________ variation of language is the most discernible and definable in speech variation.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Idiolectal17. _________ is not a typical example of official bilingualism.A. CanadaB. FinlandC. BelgiumD. Germany18. _________ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straight forward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A. Lingua francaB. CreoleC. PidginD. Standard language19. The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in __________ and vocabulary.A. diglossiaB. bilingualismC. pidginizationD. blending20. _________ is a causal use of language that nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, coinages and figures of speech.A. Language tabooB. SlangC. Address termsD. Register variety21. _________ variety refers to speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Ideolectal22. In a speech community people have something in common __________ a language or a particular variety of language and rules for using it.A. sociallyB. linguisticallyC. culturallyD. pragmatically23. Probably the most wide-spread and familiar ethnic variety of the English language is_________.A. British EnglishB. American EnglishC. Black EnglishD. Australian English24. __________ in a language or a particular variety of language in a person's speech, or writing, usually ranges on a from casual to formal according to the type of communicative context.A. Regional variationB. American EnglishC. Stylistic variationD. Ideolectal variationII. . Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false[F]. In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same speech situations known as domains.__________ 25. In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same in speech situation known as domains._________ 26. A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety of that language._________ 27. The standardization of a particular dialect in relation to one or more vernaculars is the result of a deliberate governmental policy._________ 28. A pidgin is not a native language of a particular region._________ 29. When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages concerned, he is converting one mode of thinking into the other._________ 30. Pidgins are rule-governed, like any human language._________31. According to the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, speaker's perceptions deternune language and pattern their way of life._________ 32. Diglossia is a universal phenomenon._________ 33. Diglossia refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers._________ 34. The sentences "He crazy" and "He be sick all the time" are both acceptable in Black English vernacular because copula deletion and habitual be are two famous features of Black English._________ 35. Speakers of different languages are capable of distinguishing and recognizing experiences of the same objective world according to their respective different linguistic coding system._________ 36. There are words of more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects. Explain the following terms.37. Register 38. Pigin39. Slang 40. Communicative competence41. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 42 . Lingua franca43. Diglossia 44. Sociolect45. Sociolinguistics 46. Speech community47. Standard language 48: Speech variety questions.V. Answer the following questions.49. What is the difference official language？50. What distinction, if any, can you draw between standard language, national languageKeysI . Fill in the blanks.1. vernacular2. community3. delete4. standard5. creole6. taboo7. euphemism8. language9. social 10. racial 11. idiolect 12. bilingualismII . Choose the best . C 14. A 15. A 16. A 17. D19. C 20. B 21. A 22. B 23. C 24. DIII. Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false [ F ] .25. [F] They have a fairly clear functional differentiation, i. e. one language or a particular variety of language and rules for using it.26. [F] It is not justifiable to say that one variety of a language is better than any other.27. [F] The standardization is not necessarily the result of a governmental policy, but of a historical and cultural tradition.28. [T]29. [F] When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages, he is making transitions between the two linguistic coding systems.30. [Tl,31.[F] The true statement is "According to the strong version of the Sapir¬Whorf hypothesis, language determines speaker's perceptions and patterns their way of life.32. [F] Diglossia is not a universal phenomenon.33. [F] Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.34. [F] Only "he crazy" is acceptable in Black English vernacular because of copula deletion.35. [T] 36. [T]。
regional environmental change分区
regional environmental change分区
根据地理位置和气候条件的不同，可以将地球的环境变化分为不同的区域，以下是一些常见的区域环境变化分类：
1. 气候变化：根据纬度和海拔高度等因素，将地球划分为不同的气候带，包括热带、温带和寒带，每个带有不同的气候特征和变化趋势。
2. 水资源变化：根据水资源的分布和变化情况，将地球分为不同的水域区域，包括河流流域、湖泊地区、海洋和沿海地区等，每个区域的水资源变化受到降水、蒸发等因素的影响。
3. 土地利用变化：根据人类活动和自然力量对土地利用的影响，将地球分区为城市化地区、农业地区、森林地区、草原地区等，每个区域的土地利用变化受到城市扩张、农业扩张、森林砍伐等因素的影响。
4. 生物多样性变化：根据生态系统类型和物种分布情况，将地球划分为丛林、草原、沙漠、海洋等不同生态系统，每个生态系统的生物多样性受到环境变化、人类活动和物种迁移等因素的影响。
这些是一些常见的区域环境变化分类，并不能穷尽地球的各种环境变化情况。
不同的区域环境变化有各自特定的原因和影响，需要通过科学研究和综合分析来深入了解和应对。
地方变化的英语作文
地方变化的英语作文The issue of regional variation is an important and complex one that has significant implications for individuals, communities, and societies as a whole. The differences in language, culture, customs, and even economic development between different regions can have a profound impact on the lives of people living in those areas. In this essay, I will explore the various aspects of regional variation and discuss its effects on people's lives, as well as the potential solutions to address the challenges it presents.One of the most noticeable forms of regional variation is in language and dialects. Different regions often have their own unique dialects and accents, which can sometimes make it difficult for people from different areas to understand each other. This can lead to miscommunication and misunderstandings, and can also create barriers to social and economic integration. For example, a person from the southern United States may have difficultyunderstanding the accent and dialect of someone from the northeastern United States, leading to potential communication breakdowns.In addition to language, regional variation can also manifest in cultural differences. Each region has its own set of customs, traditions, and ways of life that are often deeply rooted in history and geography. These cultural differences can lead to misunderstandings and conflicts between people from different regions, and can also create challenges for individuals who move from one region to another. For example, someone from a rural, agricultural region may struggle to adapt to the fast-paced, urban lifestyle of a big city, leading to feelings of alienation and disconnection.Furthermore, regional variation can also impact economic development and opportunities. Some regions may be more prosperous and developed than others, leading to disparities in income, employment, and access to resources. This can create a sense of inequality and injustice, as people in less developed regions may feel marginalized andneglected by the government and society at large. For example, rural areas may lack access to quality education, healthcare, and job opportunities, leading to a cycle of poverty and underdevelopment.The effects of regional variation are not limited to individuals, but can also have broader social and political implications. In some cases, regional differences can lead to social and political unrest, as people from different regions may have conflicting interests and priorities. This can create divisions and tensions within a country, and can even lead to separatist movements and conflicts. For example, the issue of regional autonomy and independence has been a source of conflict in many countries, such as Spain and the United Kingdom.In order to address the challenges posed by regional variation, it is important to take a holistic and inclusive approach that takes into account the needs and perspectives of people from all regions. This may involve implementing policies and programs that promote cultural exchange and understanding, as well as investing in infrastructure anddevelopment projects in less developed regions. It may also involve empowering local communities and giving them a voice in decision-making processes, so that their unique needs and concerns are taken into consideration.Ultimately, regional variation is a complex and multifaceted issue that requires careful consideration and thoughtful solutions. By acknowledging and addressing the differences between regions, we can work towards building a more inclusive and equitable society where everyone has the opportunity to thrive and contribute to the greater good.It is only through understanding and embracing regional variation that we can truly harness the diversity and richness of our world.。
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Regional variation
Quite often, that dialect boundary coincides with some geographical or political factor, e.g, a mountain ridge, a river, or the boundary of an old principality or diocese. Isoglosses can also show that a particular set of linguistic features appears to be spreading from one location, a focal area, into neighboring locations. Alternatively, a particular area, a relic area, may show characteristics of being unaffected by changes spreading out from one or more neighboring areas. Places like London and Boston are obviously focal areas; places like Martha’s Vineyard in New England and Devon in the extreme southwest of England are relic areas.
Regional variation
Languages differentiate internally as speakers distance themselves from one another over time and space; the changes result in the creation of dialects of the languages. Over sufficient time, the resulting dialects become new languages as speakers of the resulting varieties become unintelligible to one another. So Latin became French in France, Spanish in Spain, Italian in Italy, and so on. In this model of language change and dialect differentiation, it should always be possible to relate any variation found within a language to the two factors of time and distance alone. Eg. The British and American varieties, or dialects, of English are separated by over two centuries of political independence and by the Atlantic ocean.
Regional variation
Each area within the fan has a different incidence of stops and fricatives in these words, e.g., Dü sseldorf has /ix/, /maken/, /dorp/, and /dat/, Trier has /ix/, /maxen/, /dorf/, and /dat/. Amsterdam ik Dü sseldorf ix Cologne Trier Basle ix ix ix maken dorp maken dorp maxen dorp maxen dorf maxen dorf dat dat dat dat das
Regional variation
Dialect geographers have traditionally attempted to produce their findings on maps in what they call dialect atlases. They try to show the geographical boundaries of the distribution of a particular linguistic feature by drawing a line on a map. Such a line is called an isogloss: on one side of the line people say something one way,e.g, pronounce bath with the first vowel of father, and on the other side they use some other pronounciation, e.g, the vowel of cat. Quite often, when the boundaries for different linguistic features are mapped in this way the isoglosses show a considerable amount of crisscrossing. On occasion, though, a number coincide; i.e., there is a bndle is often said to mark a dialect boundary.
Regional variation
Very often the isoglosses for individual phonological features do not coincide with one another to give us clearly demarcated dialect areas. For example, in England the isogloss that separates stood or come pronounced with /u/ rather than /A/ runs roughly east and west ( with /u/ to the north). It intersects the isogloss that separates farm pronounced with or without the /r/, which runs roughly northwest to southeast ( with /r/ to the west, except for pockets of /r/ pronounciation in the West Midland and Northeast). This gives us the four distinct areas: /r/ and /u/; /r/ and /A/; nothing and /u/;and nothing and /A/.
Regional variation
The change of stops to fricatives , called the Second German consonant shift, appears to have spread along the Rhine from the south of Germany to the north. The area covered by the fan itself is sometimes called a transition area ( in this case, between low and high German) through which a change is progressing in contrast to either a focal or relic area.
Regional variation
One of the best known isoglossic systems in Europe is the Rhenish fan - separating Low German in the north from High German in the south. The set comprises the modern results of the pre-Germanic stop consonants p, t, k. These have remained stops /p,t,k/ in Low German but have become fricatives /f,s,x/ in high German, giving variant forms for ‘make’ /maken /, /maxen/; ‘that’ /dat/, /das/;’village’ /dorp/, /dorf/; and ‘I’ /ik/,/ix/.
Regional variation
Regional variation
Regional variation
By A Huijun Qinghai University for nationalities Email:ahj1981@
Regional variation
Language use varies in many dimensions. Three major dimensions are the following: Regional Social Functional
Regional variation
The mapping of dialects on a regional basis has had a long history in linguistics. In fact, it is a well-established part of the study of how languages change over time, i.e, of diachronic or historical lingustics. Traditionally, dialect geography has employed assumptions and methods drawn from historical linguistics, many of its results have been used to confirm findings drawn from other historical sourses, e.g, archeological findings, population studies,written records, etc.