第二语言习得研究复习资料
二语习得复习
一、名词解释1.第二语言：指相对于第一语言来说，除儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言，在此后习得的语言就是第二语言。
2. 第一语言：指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言。
3. 母语：指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，也称作“本族语”。
4，目的语：也叫目标语，一般指学习者正在学习的语言。
5，第二语言习得：简称SLA，是指人们在获得母语(第一语言)的基础上习得另一种或几种语言的过程。
也叫“二语习得”6，语言习得机制：乔姆斯基提出人脑中存在一个“语言习得机制”（LAD），它有以下一些特点：1.具有遗传性，为人类独有。
2.能使儿童加工语言材料，判断语言体系的发展，建立抽象规则。
3.可能已经具备一些普遍的语言特征，这些特征可以在所有人类语言中找到，因此，许多语法属性可能是先天存在于人类的大脑中，无需学习。
7，工具型动机：学习者对目的语群体没有兴趣，学习目的语只是为了掌握一个工具，用来提高自己的知识水平、改善社会地位。
8，习得与学习：克拉申认为“习得”通常指在自然状态下“下意识”的语言获得，而“学习”一般是指“有意识”的语言获得。
前者称为“内隐学习”，后者称为“外显学习”9，中介语：语言学习者在学习第二语言时所拥有的一种独立的语言系统,这种语言系统在结构上既不是学习者的母语也不是目的语,而是介于两者之间。
中介语系统在语音、词汇、语法、文化等方面都有表现。
但它又不是固定不变的，而是随着学习的发展，逐渐向目的语的正确形式靠拢。
10，普遍语法：乔姆斯基认为普遍语法是由一些原则条件和规则构成的系统，这些所有人类语言共有的因素是或特性是必然的而不是偶然的，原则系统和规则系统。
11，僵化：僵化（fossilization），也叫化石化或石化，是由Selinker于1972年在其中介语理论中提出的。
僵化是存在于“潜在的心理结构”中的一种机制，表现为某种母语背景的第二语言学习者会在目的语习得的某个阶段上停滞不前，无论学习者年龄大小，也无论其是否继续学习12，外国人话语：所谓“外国人话语”并不是指外国人的话语，而是指对外国人说的话语。
二语习得复习资料
二语习得复习资料填空、判断类1.第二语言习得研究的交叉学科：语言学、心理学、心理语言学。
2.第二语言习得研究的发端：Corder在1967年发表的《学习者偏误的意义》和Selinker在1972年发表的《中介语》。
3.1984年，鲁健骥在《中介语理论与外国人学习汉语的语音偏误分析》这篇文章中，将第二语言学习者的语言“偏误”和“中介语”的概念引入对外汉语教学领域。
4.强势说强调对比分析的预测功能，认为母语干扰是造成第二语言学习者语言习得困难和错误的主要原因。
5.1957年，拉多在《跨文化语言学》中系统地阐述了对比分析的内容、理论依据和分析方法。
6.对比分析这一基本假设建立在行为主义心理学和结构主义语言学基础之上。
7.Selinker被称为“中介语之父”8.过度泛化指的是二语学习者在习得第二语言的过程中，将其一目的语的规则推广到超越所能接受的范围之外。
9.输入假说是克拉申的语言监控模式整个习得理论的核心部分。
10.克拉申的输入假说包括四个要素：输入数量、输入质量、输入方式、输入条件。
11.情感过滤假说把成功的二语习得相关联的情感因素分为三大类：动机、自信、焦虑。
12.“社会文化理论”由前苏联心理学家维果茨基创立。
主要内容包括：调节论、最近发展区理论、个体话语和内在言语、活动理论。
13.语言输入与互动的研究始于上世纪70年代14.最早提出“关键期假说”这个观点的是著名神经外科医生Penfield。
15.根据社会心理学家的观点，学习者的态度是有三个方面构成：认知、情感、意动。
16.影响学习策略选择的因素主要有学习者个人差异、学习者个人背景和情景社会因素等。
17.沉浸式教学法是采用目的语作为学校课堂教学的媒介，课堂上主要是向学习者提供目的语语言输入。
18.1945年，弗里斯在《作为外语的英语教学与学习》一书中提出了对比分析的思想。
19.在第二语言习得顺序中，主要存在以下争议：①母语迁移；②“正确顺序”是否等于“习得顺序”③第一语言习得顺序是否等于第二语言习得顺序。
二语习得复习资料
二语习得复习资料二语习得复习资料填空、判断类1. 第二语言习得研究的交叉学科：语言学、心理学、心理语言学。
2. 第二语言习得研究的发端：Corder在1967年发表的《学习者偏误的意义》和Selinker在1972年发表的《中介语》。
3. 1984年，鲁健骥在《中介语理论与外国人学习汉语的语音偏误分析》这篇文章中，将第二语言学习者的语言“偏误”和“中介语”的概念引入对外汉语教学领域。
4. 强势说强调对比分析的预测功能，认为母语干扰是造成第二语言学习者语言习得困难和错误的主要原因。
5. 1957年，拉多在《跨文化语言学》中系统地阐述了对比分析的内容、理论依据和分析方法。
6. 对比分析这一基本假设建立在行为主义心理学和结构主义语言学基础之上。
7. Selinker被称为“中介语之父”。
8. 过度泛化指的是二语学习者在习得第二语言的过程中，将其一目的语的规则推广到超越所能接受的范围之外。
9. 输入假说是克拉申的语言监控模式整个习得理论的核心部分。
10. 克拉申的输入假说包括四个要素：输入数量、输入质量、输入方式、输入条件。
11. 情感过滤假说把成功的二语习得相关联的情感因素分为三大类：动机、自信、焦虑。
12. “社会文化理论”由前苏联心理学家维果茨基创立。
主要内容包括：调节论、最近发展区理论、个体话语和内在言语、活动理论。
13. 语言输入与互动的研究始于上世纪70年代14. 最早提出“关键期假说”这个观点的是著名神经外科医生Penfield。
15. 根据社会心理学家的观点，学习者的态度是有三个方面构成：认知、情感、意动。
16.影响学习策略选择的因素主要有学习者个人差异、学习者个人背景和情景社会因素等。
17. 沉浸式教学法是采用目的语作为学校课堂教学的媒介，课堂上主要是向学习者提供目的语语言输入。
18. 1945年，弗里斯在《作为外语的英语教学与学习》一书中提出了对比分析的思想。
19. 在第二语言习得顺序中，主要存在以下争议：①母语迁移；②“正确顺序”是否等于“习得顺序”；③第一语言习得顺序是否等于第二语言习得顺序。
【外语学习】第二语言习得概论-考研复习
★1.SLA(Second language acquisition)is the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or in a classroom.★2.Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982)Acquisition implicit, subconsciousLearningexplicit, consciousformal situationsuses grammatical rulesdepends on aptitude simple to complex order of learninginformal situationsuses grammatical 'feel'depends on attitudestable order of acquisitionAcquisition refers to the learning of a language unconsciously under natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars. Learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars.3.Factors affecting SLASocial factors (external factors)Learner factors (internal factors)Social factors (external factors)Social contextLanguage policy and the attitude of the public sector;Social demandWith the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widely accepted among educators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated peopleLearner factors (internal factors)Motivation，Age，Learning strategy4.Behaviorist learning theoryBehaviorist learning theory is a general theory of learning . it applies to all kinds of learning, not just language learning).It views learning as the formation of habits.The association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit. It is formed when a particular stimulus became regularly linked with a particular response.When applied to SLA,the process of second language acquisition is regarded as a process of habit formation.The causes of errors according to behaviorism5.Differences between the first and second language create learning difficulty which results in errors.Behaviorist learning theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language.Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition.In this case errors will result.Errors,according to behaviorist theory,were the result of non-learning,rather than wrong learning.The means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists is Contrastive Analysis.6. StructuralismLanguage was viewed as a coded system consisting of structurally related elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence patterns)What is contrastive analysis (CA)7.Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language.It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be donewithin one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes.Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)8.Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in an L2 situation.According to CAH,L2errors are result of differences between the learner’s first language and the target language. The strong form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to predict all errors that will occur.The weak form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to identify some out of the total errors that actually arise.vs difficulty“Difference” is a linguistic concept,whereas “difficulty” is a psychological concept. Therefore, the level of learning difficulty cannot be inferred directly from the degree of difference between two language systems.Definition of Error analysis (EA)10.the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners(Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, .It involves collecting samples of learner language,identifying the errors in these samples, describing these errors, classifying them according to their hypothesized causes, and evaluating theirs seriousness.11. Interlingual error:deviated forms resulting from the interference of one’s L1, or the negative transfer of one’s mother tongue.Intralingual error:①deviated forms in learner language that reflect learners’transitional competence and which are the results of such learning process as overgeneralization.②confusion of L2 rulesFactors causing errors12.1. Language transfer2. Overgeneralization3. Learner differences3. Strategies in L2 learning5. Strategies of L2 communication. The two students changed eyes and eyebrows in class.Types of learner strategy13.Learning strategy,Production strategy表达策略Communication strategy:Communication strategies are employed when learners are faced with the task of communicating meanings for which they lack the requisite linguistic knowledge.Typical communication strategies are paraphrase and mime.Classifications of learning strategy(Cohen 2006)14.(2) By function:Metacognitive; Cognitive; Socio-affective(3) By skill:listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, or translation strategies.Meta-cognitive strategies15.Meta-cognitive strategy is the planning for learning,thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one’s production or comprehension,and evaluating learning after an activity is completed.Cognitive strategies16.Cognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning material.Repetition,Resourcing,Directed physical response,Translation,Grouping,Note-taking, Deduction Recombination,Imagery,Auditory representation,Key word,Contextualization,Elaboration, Transfer, InferencingIndividual learner variables17.Personal factors:group dynamics;attitudes to the teacher and course materials;learning techniquesGeneral factors:age;aptitude;cognitive style;motivation;personalityMotivation18.Integrative motivation融合型动机is present in learners who identify with the target culture, would like to resemble members of the target culture and who would like to participate in the target culture. It is assumed to be based in the personality of the learner.Instrumental orientation工具型动机refers to those cases where the learners are interested in learning the language for the possible benefits, that is, the learner’s goal is functional. Resultative motivation:因果性动机Learners’motivation is strongly affected by their achievement.Intrinsic motivation:内在兴趣动机Motivation as intrinsic interest.Motivation as a multi-componential construct:Motivation = effort + desire to achieve goal + attitudesTask motivation:the interest felt by the learner in performing different learning tasks.★Definition–interlanguage19.Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language.(Larry Selinker)It is independent of both the learner’s first language and the target language.It suggests that learners’ language is between L1 AND L2 and that it is a continuum along whichall learners traverse.of fossilization★Fossilization refers to the state in which the second language learners stop to learning when their internalized rule system contains rules different from the target language.That is to say,the interlanguage stops evolving towards the TL.Classification of fossilization21.Temporary fossilization:the phenomenon is alterable under certain conditions.Permanent fossilizationThis means the learner’s language stops evolving forever.Because stable stage is not real fossilization, so there is no real permanent fossilization.Causes of fossilization22.Internal: Motivation;Communicative needs;Acquisition deviceExternal:Communicative pressureLack of learning opportunitiesFeedback:positive cognitive feedbacks cause fossilization ;. “Oh,I see”)negative feedbacks help to prevent fossilization.. “I don’t understand you” )Definition of UG★23.Cook(1985)summarizing the Chomskyan position,defines‘universal grammar’as‘the properties inherent in the human mind’. Universal grammar consists of a set of general principles that apply to all language rather than a set of particular rules.24. MarkednessMarkedness refers to the idea that some linguistic structures are ‘special’ or ‘less natural’ or ‘less basic’ than others.Linguists working in the Chomskyan school suggest that linguistic rules can either be part of the core grammar . the universal rules) or be part of the periphery.Core rules are considered to be unmarked and therefore easily acquired.Periphery roles are considered to be and therefore different to learn.Krashen’s Monitor Model25.Krashen’s monitor model mainly consists of the following five hypothses:(1) Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis:there are two kinds of ways of learning a second language ,., acquisition and learning.(2) Natural Order Hypothesis:SLA follows a universal route that is not influenced by factors such as the learners’first language, age, and the context (classroom or natural setting).Implications:Errors are developmental and are a natural byproduct of learning– tolerate them.Allow learners to make errors and do not correct them(3) The Input Hypothesis cIt laims a move along the developmental continuum by receiving comprehensible input. We acquire,only when we understand the structure that is“a little beyond”where we are nowComprehensible input is defined as L2input just beyond the Learner’s current L2 competence,in terms of its syntactic complexity.If a learner’s current competence is i then comprehensible input is i+1. Input which is either too simple (i) or too complex (i+2/3/4…) will not be useful for acquisition.(4) The affective filter hypothesisSLA is affected by factors like Motivation,Self-confidence,Anxiety and so on.Learners who suffer from anxiety or lack of motivation or negative attitude somehow switch off their comprehension mechanisms and so even if they are provided comprehensible input, they will not be able to process the input. Therefore a low affective filter is important.(5) Monitor hypothesisBoth language learners and native speakers typically try to correct any errors in what they have just said. This is referred to as monitoring.Krashen uses the term Monitoring (with a big M) to refer to the way the learner used learnt knowledge to improve utterances produced by means of acquired knowledge.26. language transferLanguage transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously( and perhaps imperfectly ) acquired.★D (language acquisition device)The LAD is a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn structures,and the mistakes they make as they learn.★28.critical age period hypothesisIt claims that there a period when language acquisition can take place naturally and effortlessly, but after a certain age the brain is no longer able to process language input in this. Researchers differ over when the critical period comes to an end.★29. field independent vs. field independentLearners are different in the ways of receiving,conceptualizing,organizing,and recalling information.Field dependents operate holistically . they see the field as a whole),Whereas field independents operate analytically . they see the field in terms of its component parts).★30. input vs. intakeInput refers to the language learners are exposed serves as the data which learners must use to determine the rules of the target language.However, not all available input is processed by the learner, either because some of it is not understood or because some of it is not attended to.That part of input that is processed,assimilated and fed into the interlanguage system is referred to as intake.★ vs. aptitude vs. intelligenceAttitudes refer to the learner’s beliefs about factors such as the target language culture, their own culture, their teacher and the learning tasks they are given.Aptitude refers to the specific ability a learner has for learning a second language.Intelligence refers to the general ability to master academic skills.32. competence vs. performanceWhen learners acquire a L2,they internalize rules which are then organized into a system. This constitutes their competence.The actual use of this system to comprehend and produce utterances is referred to as performance.33. OvergeneralizationIt refers to the extension of some general rule to items not covered by this rule in the target language.34. foreigner talk vs. teacher talkWhen native speakers address learners, they make adjustments in both language form and language function to facilitate understanding. These adjustments are referred to as foreigner talk.When teachers address learners, they make adjustments in both language form and language function to facilitate understanding. These adjustments are referred to as foreigner talk.35. formulaic speech vs. patternsFormulaic speech consists of expressions which are learned as unanalysable wholes and employed in particular occasions.Patterns are one type of formulaic speech. They are unanalysable units which have one or more open slots, .‘Can I have a—’。
第四章第二语言习得顺序研究
第四章第二语言习得顺序研究第一节第二语言习得顺序研究的产生一、产生背景20实际70年代初，心灵学派对行为主义心理学的批评。
二、理论基础：心灵主义语言习得理论语言能力并不是通过对外在刺激的简单模仿获得的。
学习者语言习得能力是天生固有的，是通过一种普遍的语言习得机制获得的。
1. 语言是人类独有的机制。
2. 语言是认知机制的一部分，但独立于智力发展的认知机制。
3. 习得机制是天赋的内在语法规则，是母语习得的决定因素。
4. 具备一些普遍的语言特征。
5. 这种习得机制随年龄增长而退化。
三、第一语言语素习得顺序研究英语为母语的习得顺序研究1. 纵向研究Brown (1973) 通过对三名英语儿童习得14个英语语素的研究发现，三名英语儿童习得英语语素遵循着固定的习得顺序。
2. 横向研究Villiers J. and P.De Villiers (1973) 通过对21 个英语儿童习得英语语素的横向研究，发现不同母语背景、不同年龄的英语学习者，有非常相似的英语语素习得顺序。
验证了Brown 的结果。
四、第二语言习得顺序的研究范围1. 习得过程( the sequence of acquisition )学习者习得某个特定语言项目时所经历的动态发展过程。
2. 习得次序( the order of acquisition )学习者习得过个不同语言项目时的不同次序。
第二节第二语言习得顺序研究概况一、语素习得顺序研究及结论1. Dulay and Burt (1973) 被试：三组5---8岁的151名西班牙儿童。
调查内容：8个英语语素。
结果：三组西班牙儿童习得英语语素的顺序非常相似。
结论：以英语作为第二语言的儿童习得英语语素也存在着固定的习得顺序。
但这个顺序与以英语为母语的儿童习得英语语素的顺序不同。
2. Dulay and Burt (1974)被试：两组6---8 岁的儿童，一组是60 名讲西班牙语的儿童，另一组是55名讲汉语的儿童。
第二语言习得顺序研究
第三，这五个发展阶段的顺序还意味着，各阶 段之间存在着一种蕴涵关系。
SVO＜ADV＜SEP＜INV＜V-END
4．3．2 “两个维度”
4．3．3 三个言语加工策略
“典型顺序策略”是指学习者在初期阶 段保持第二语言“基本语序”（SVO） 不变的一种策略。
假设四：SLA顺序与母语习得顺序不同意味着 二者的习得机制不同。
Байду номын сангаас．3第二语言习得顺序研究的理论争议
3．3．1母语对第二语言习得顺序是否产 生影响
3．3．2“准确度顺序”是否等于“习得 顺序”
3．3．3 L1是否等于L2
四．多元发展模型
4．1 多元发展模型提出的背景 4．2 多元发展模型的数据和被试来源 4．3 多元发展模型的主要内容 ： “五个阶段” “两条线索” “三个策略”
心灵学派关于SLA过程的一些理论假设
假设一：英语语素存在一个固定的习得顺序。 表明SLA存在着一种普遍的“语言习得机制”， 这种机制支配着SLA发展过程。
假设二：不同母语背景，英语语素的习得顺序 相同。母语背景对SLA发展过程不产生影响。
假设三：不同的实验任务可能导致习得顺序不 同，但不同监控条件下的言语产出的顺序是相 同的。
（2）学习者是怎样习得一个特定的语言 规则的？也就是说，学习者习得某个特 定的语言规则是否也遵循一个固定的顺 序？
关于这个顺序的研究，通常叫做the sequence of acquisition，我们可以称其为 “习得序列”研究。
二．第二语言习得顺序研究产生的理论背景
2．1 心灵学派对行为主义学习理论的挑战 人类的语言能力是通过一种普遍的语言习
二语习得理论复习提纲
第二语言习得理论复习提纲1.什么是第二语言习得理论2.第二语言和外语3.习得和学习的区分及对这种区分的评价4.直接法、听说法、视听法、交际法几种不同学派对语言习得的认识5.第一语言习得和第二语言习得的区别6.本族语和非本族语7.目的语（目标语）8.第二语言习得研究（二语习得）的背景9.母语者和非母语者及二语教学的母语者标准10.儿童第一语言习得过程11.刺激一反应论的主要观点及评价12.先天论的主要观点及争议13.第二语言习得的主要理论和假说14.偏误分析15.对比分析假说16.中介语假说17.中介语的特点18.内在大纲和习得顺序19.词素习得研究的贡献及争议20.输入假说21.习得与学习假说22.自然顺序假说23.监控假说24.输入假说25.情感过滤假说26.普遍语法假说及其评价27.文化适应假说28.什么是偏误29.偏误分析的背景及发展30.科德的偏误分析观31.偏误分析的步骤32.偏误分析存在的问题33.整体性偏误和具体性偏误34.语内偏误和语际偏误35.显性偏误与隐性偏误36.前系统偏误、系统错误与后系统错误37.偏误的来源38.对待偏误的态度39.偏误分析的意义和局限40.汉语学习者语音偏误的造成语音偏误的原因41.汉语学习者常见的语音偏误的造成及正音方法42.欧美学生汉字偏误的情况43.日本学生容易出现的汉字偏误分析44.外国学生在学习汉语时词汇方面的偏误45.外国学生在学习汉语时的语用偏误46.外国学生在学习汉语时语法偏误的原因及类型及语法偏误的分析和解释47.对比分析假说的发展及对比分析假说的两种形式48.正迁移、负迁移和中性迁移49.对对比分析假说的评价50.语言迁移、跨语言影响和母语的作用51.制约语言迁移的因素52.母语在语言理解和语言教学中的作用53.第二语言习得顺序研究产生的理论背景54.习得顺序研究的基本观点55.SLA顺序研究的发展及理论争议56.对词素习得顺序研究的批评57.“习得顺序”和“习得序列”研究58.多元发展模型的主要内容：五个阶段、两个维度、言语加工策略59.中介语研究的理论背景60.中介语发展阶段61.中介语的形成模式及特点62.中介语石化及石化形成的原因63.中介语的变异性64.中介语研究对第二语言教学的启示65.语言输入和输出的关系66.Krashen的输入假说及争议67.课堂教学中老师如何把握语言输入和输出68.语言输入需进一步研究的问题69.学习者的个体因素及对二语习得的影响70.语言学能71.学习策略和交际策略、交际策略的类型72.元认知策略73.语言学习的动机74.影响语言学习态度的几个方面75.什么是语言环境？76.社会环境对语言学习的影响77.课堂语言环境与第二语言学习。
《第二语言习得研究》全书概要 (知识点全)
《第二语言习得研究》全书概要第一章绪论第一节第二语言习得的一般概念第二语言习得(second language acquisition)，简称SLA，是指人们在获得母语(第一语言)的基础上习得另一种或几种语言的过程。
也叫“二语习得”。
一、母语与目的语母语指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，也称作“本族语”。
目的语，也叫目标语，一般指学习者正在学习的语言。
二、第一语言与第二语言第一语言指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言，在此后习得的语言就是第二语言。
三、习得与学习克拉申（Krashen）认为成人L2学习者有两种独立的语言获得方式，两者在获得方式、心理过程、所获得的知识类型、作用等方面都不同Krashen认为，习得的知识与学得的知识是相互独立的两种知识。
学得的知识无法转换成习得的知识。
即所谓“无接口观点”(non-interface position)。
自然习得研究的证据表明，在习得情况下并未发生学习的过程，有时候，学习者可以先学会某个规则，但是并没有习得这个规则。
也就是说学习过程并不一定导致习得过程的发生。
无接口观点的证据：Seliger（1979）的证据：他让在课堂上让学习者描述一些图片，然后分析这些学习者使用冠词a与an的情况；此外，他让这些学习者陈述关于冠词用法的相关规则。
调查分析表明，学习者的实际语言表达与其元语言知识不相关。
也就是说，“习得”与“学习”的确是彼此独立的。
第二语言习得是指学习者在目的语国家学习目的语。
外语习得指学习者所学的语言在本国不是作为整个社团的交际工具，而且学习者所学的语言主要是在课堂上学习的。
五、自然的第二语言习得与有指导的第二语言习得：前者指在自然的社会环境下以交际的方式获得第二语言；后者指在课堂教学环境中以教学指导的方式获得第二语言。
语言能力是一种反映交际双方语言知识的心理语法。
语言表达指交际双方在语言的理解与生成过程中对其内在语法的运用。
一、第二语言习得研究与语言学：语言学是一个古老的学科，第二语言习得研究则是一个年轻的学科。
二语习得复习资料
二语习得复习资料填空、判断类1、第二语言习得研究得交叉学科:语言学、心理学、心理语言学。
2、第二语言习得研究得发端:Corder在1967年发表得《学习者偏误得意义》与Selinker在1972年发表得《中介语》。
3、 1984年,鲁健骥在《中介语理论与外国人学习汉语得语音偏误分析》这篇文章中,将第二语言学习者得语言“偏误”与“中介语”得概念引入对外汉语教学领域。
4、强势说强调对比分析得预测功能,认为母语干扰就是造成第二语言学习者语言习得困难与错误得主要原因。
5、 1957年,拉多在《跨文化语言学》中系统地阐述了对比分析得内容、理论依据与分析方法。
6、对比分析这一基本假设建立在行为主义心理学与结构主义语言学基础之上。
7、 Selinker被称为“中介语之父”。
8、过度泛化指得就是二语学习者在习得第二语言得过程中,将其一目得语得规则推广到超越所能接受得范围之外。
9、输入假说就是克拉申得语言监控模式整个习得理论得核心部分。
10、克拉申得输入假说包括四个要素:输入数量、输入质量、输入方式、输入条件。
11、情感过滤假说把成功得二语习得相关联得情感因素分为三大类:动机、自信、焦虑。
12、“社会文化理论”由前苏联心理学家维果茨基创立。
主要内容包括:调节论、最近发展区理论、个体话语与内在言语、活动理论。
13、语言输入与互动得研究始于上世纪70年代14、最早提出“关键期假说”这个观点得就是著名神经外科医生Penfield。
15、根据社会心理学家得观点,学习者得态度就是有三个方面构成:认知、情感、意动。
16、影响学习策略选择得因素主要有学习者个人差异、学习者个人背景与情景社会因素等。
17、沉浸式教学法就是采用目得语作为学校课堂教学得媒介,课堂上主要就是向学习者提供目得语语言输入。
18、 1945年,弗里斯在《作为外语得英语教学与学习》一书中提出了对比分析得思想。
19、在第二语言习得顺序中,主要存在以下争议:①母语迁移;②“正确顺序”就是否等于“习得顺序”;③第一语言习得顺序就是否等于第二语言习得顺序。
第二语言习得概论-考研复习
★1. SLA (Second language acquisition)is the process by which a language other than the mother t o n g u e i s l e a r n t i n a n a t u r a l s e t t i n g o r i n a c l a s s r o o m.★2. Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982)pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars.Learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars.3. Factors affecting SLASocial factors (external factors)Learner factors (internal factors)Social factors (external factors)Social contextLanguage policy and the attitude of the public sector;Social demandWith the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widely accepted among educators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated people Learner factors (internal factors)Motivation ，Age ，Learning strategy4.Behaviorist learning theoryBehaviorist learning theory is a general theory of learning (i.e. it applies to all kinds of learning, not just language learning).It views learning as the formation of habits. The association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit. It is formed when a particular stimulus became regularly linkedwith a particular response.When applied to SLA, the process of second language acquisition is regarded as a process of habit formation.5. The causes of errors according to behaviorismDifferences between the first and second language create learning difficulty which results in errors. Behaviorist learning theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language. Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition. In this case errors will result.Errors, according to behaviorist theory, were the result of non-learning, rather than wrong learning. The means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists is Contrastive Analysis.6. StructuralismLanguage was viewed as a coded system consisting of structurally related elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence patterns)7. What is contrastive analysis (CA)?Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be done within one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes. 8. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in an L2 situation.According to CAH, L2 errors are result of differences between the learner’s first language and the target language. The strong form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to predict all errors that will occur. The weak form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to identify some out of the total errors that actually arise.9.difference vs difficulty“Difference” is a linguistic concept, whereas “difficulty” is a psychological concept. Therefore, the level of learning difficulty cannot be inferred directly from the degree of difference between two language systems.10. Definition of Error analysis (EA)the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners (Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, p.96).It involves collecting samples of learner language, identifying the errors in these samples, describing these errors, classifying them according to their hypothesized causes, and evaluating theirs seriousness.11. Interlingual error: deviated forms resulting from the interference of one’s L1, or the negative transfer of one’s mother tongue.Intralingual error:①deviated forms in learner langu age that reflect learners’ transitional competence and which are the results of such learning process as overgeneralization.②confusion of L2 rules12. Factors causing errors1. Language transfer2. Overgeneralization3. Learner differences3. Strategies in L2 learning5. Strategies of L2 communicatione.g. The two students changed eyes and eyebrows in class.13. Types of learner strategyLearning strategy, Production strategy 表达策略Communication strategy:Communication strategies are employed when learners are faced with the task of communicating meanings for which they lack the requisite linguistic knowledge. Typical communication strategies are paraphrase and mime.14. Classifications of learning strategy(Cohen 2006)(2) By function: Metacognitive; Cognitive; Socio-affective(3) By skill: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, or translation strategies.15. Meta-cognitive strategiesMeta-cognitive strategy is the planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one’s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed. 16. Cognitive strategiesCognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning material.Repetition, Resourcing, Directed physical response, Translation, Grouping, Note-taking , Deduction Recombination, Imagery, Auditory representation, Key word, Contextualization, Elaboration, Transfer, Inferencing17. Individual learner variablesPersonal factors:group dynamics; attitudes to the teacher and course materials; learning techniques General factors:age; aptitude; cognitive style; motivation; personality18. MotivationIntegrative motivation 融合型动机is present in learners who identify with the target culture, would like to resemble members of the target culture and who would like to participate in the target culture. It is assumed to be based in the personality of the learner.Instrumental orientation工具型动机refers to those cases where the learners are interested in learning the language for the possible benefits, that is, the learner’s goal is functional. Resultative motivation:因果性动机Learners’ motivation is strongly affected by their achievement. Intrinsic motivation:内在兴趣动机Motivation as intrinsic interest.Motivation as a multi-componential construct:Motivation = effort + desire to achieve goal + attitudesTask motivation: the interest felt by the learner in performing different learning tasks.★19. Definition –interlanguageInterlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language. (Larry Selinker)It is independent of both the learner’s first language and the target language.It suggests that learners’ language is between L1 AND L2 and that it is a continuum along which all learners traverse.★20.Definition of fossilizationFossilization refers to the state in which the second language learners stop to learning when their internalized rule system contains rules different from the target language. That is to say, the interlanguage stops evolving towards the TL.21. Classification of fossilizationTemporary fossilization: the phenomenon is alterable under certain conditions.Permanent fossilizationThis means the learne r’s language stops evolving for ever. Because stable stage is not real fossilization, so there is no real permanent fossilization.22. Causes of fossilizationInternal: Motivation; Communicative needs; Acquisition deviceExternal: Communicative pressureLack of learning opportunitiesFeedback:positive cognitive feedbacks cause fossilization ;(e.g. “Oh,I see”)negative feedbacks help to prevent fossilization.(e.g. “I don’t understand you” )★23. Definition of UGCook(1985) summarizing the Chomskyan position, defines ‘universal grammar’ as ‘theproperties inherent in the human mind’. Universal grammar consists of a set of general principles that apply to all language rather than a set of particular rules.24. MarkednessMarkedness refers to the idea that some linguistic structures are ‘special’ or ‘less natural’ or ‘less basic’ than others.Linguists working in the Chomskyan school suggest that linguistic rules can either be part of the core grammar (i.e. the universal rules) or be part of the periphery.Core rules are considered to be unmarked and therefore easily acquired.Periphery roles are considered to be and therefore different to learn.25.Krashen’s Monitor ModelKrashen’s monitor model mainly consists of the following five hypothses:(1) Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis:there are two kinds of ways of learning a second language ,i.e., acquisition and learning.(2) Natural Order Hypothesis:SLA follows a u niversal route that is not influenced by factors such as the learners’ first language, age, and the context (classroom or natural setting).Implications:Errors are developmental and are a natural byproduct of learning – tolerate them.Allow learners to make errors and do not correct them(3) The Input Hypothesis cIt laims a move along the developmental continuum by receiving comprehensible input.We acquire, only when we understand the structure that is “a little beyond” where we are now Comprehensible input is defined as L2 input just beyond the Learner’s current L2 competence, in terms of its syntactic complexity. If a learner’s current competence is i then comprehensible input is i+1. Input which is either too simple (i) or too complex (i+2/3/4…) will not be useful for acquisition.(4) The affective filter hypothesisSLA is affected by factors like Motivation, Self-confidence,Anxiety and so on.Learners who suffer from anxiety or lack of motivation or negative attitude somehow switch off their comprehension mechanisms and so even if they are provided comprehensible input, they will not be able to process the input. Therefore a low affective filter is important.(5) Monitor hypothesisBoth language learners and native speakers typically try to correct any errors in what they have just said. This is referred to as monitoring.Krashen uses the term Monitoring (with a big M) to refer to the way the learner used learntknowledge to improve utterances produced by means of acquired knowledge.26. language transferLanguage transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously( and perhaps imperfectly ) acquired. ★27. LAD (language acquisition device)The LAD is a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn structures, and the mistakes they make as they learn.★28. critical age period hypothesisIt claims that there a period when language acquisition can take place naturally and effortlessly, but after a certain age the brain is no longer able to process language input in this. Researchers differ over when the critical period comes to an end.★29. field independent vs. field independentLearners are different in the ways of receiving, conceptualizing, organizing, and recalling information. Field dependents operate holistically (i.e. they see the field as a whole),Whereas field independents operate analytically (i.e. they see the field in terms of its component parts).★30. input vs. intakeInput refers to the language learners are exposed to.It serves as the data which learners must use to determine the rules of the target language.However, not all available input is processed by the learner, either because some of it is not understood or because some of it is not attended to.That part of input that is processed, assimilated and fed into the interlanguage system is referred to as intake.★31.attitudes vs. aptitude vs. intelligenceAttitudes refer to the learner’s beliefs about factors such as the target language culture, their own culture, their teacher and the learning tasks they are given.Aptitude refers to the specific ability a learner has for learning a second language.Intelligence refers to the general ability to master academic skills.32. competence vs. performanceWhen learners acquire a L2, they internalize rules which are then organized into a system. This constitutes their competence.The actual use of this system to comprehend and produce utterances is referred to as performance.33. OvergeneralizationIt refers to the extension of some general rule to items not covered by this rule in the target language.34. foreigner talk vs. teacher talkWhen native speakers address learners, they make adjustments in both language form and language function to facilitate understanding. These adjustments are referred to as foreigner talk.When teachers address learners, they make adjustments in both language form and language function to facilitate understanding. These adjustments are referred to as foreigner talk.35. formulaic speech vs. patternsFormulaic speech consists of expressions which are learned as unanalysable wholes and employed in particular occasions.Patterns are one type of formulaic speech. They are unanalysable units which have one or more open slots, e.g. ‘Can I have a —’。
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第一章第二语言习得研究概述埃利斯（1994）明确地将第二语言习得与外语习得的概念区分开来。
“第二语言习得”是指学习者在目的语国家学习目的语。
学习者所学的目的语在目的语国家是公认的交际工具，当然也是学习者用来交际的工具。
“外语习得”是指学习者在本国学习目的语。
学习者的目的语在本国不是作为整个社团的交际工具。
这种语言学习基本上是在课堂上进行的。
“语言能力”是由交际双方内在语法规则的心理表征构成的。
简单地说，语言能力是一种反映交际双方语言知识的心理语法。
这种语法是一种隐性的语言知识。
语言能力包括：1)能指出哪些声音或语素的组合是母语中可能存在的，哪些可能是不存在的。
2)能区别符合语法的句子和不符合语法的句子。
3)能区别出一些结构相同或相似，但实际意义却不同的句子。
4)能辨别出结构不同但意义有联系的句子。
5)能辨别出句子的歧义，即同一结构具有一个以上的释义。
6)能意识到句子之间的释义关系，即结构不同的句子具有相同的语义。
“语言表达”指的是交际双方在语言的理解与生成过程中对其内在语法的表现。
关于语言运用的知识。
理想的母语者根据“递归规则”生成无限递归的句子。
第二节二语习得研究的发展一、发展阶段（一）20世纪50-60年代：理论初创阶段（二）20世纪70年代：理论大发展阶段1.偏误分析2.中介语理论假设3.习得顺序研究4.监控模式5.文化适应模式（三）20世纪80年代中期：成熟阶段1.语言学视角2.社会语言学视角3.认知视角4.社会文化视角二、理论成熟的标志1. 调查研究的领域和涉及的领域扩大2. 由理论假设发展为理论模式3. 研究方法日益科学化三、汉语作为第二语言的习得研究的发展（一）80年代，汉语习得研究起步。
1984鲁键骥“中介语理论与外国人学习汉语的语音偏误分析”1985年，第一界国际汉语教学讨论会1987年，吕必松“加强对外汉语教学的理论研究”评价：取得了一定成果，但缺乏系统研究、分析方法不够严谨、疏于解释和评价。
（二）90年代，习得研究研究范围扩大。
1992年召开了首次语言学习理论研究座谈会。
1.偏误分析：语音、词汇、语法、句式。
2.中介语理论的探讨3. 习得过程的描写分析：“了”“不、没”（三）90年代后，汉语习得研究大发展学习者的语言系统研究汉语习得过程研究学习者本身的研究汉语认知研究海外汉语习得研究第二章对比分析与偏误分析第一节对比分析假设“对比分析”产生并流行于20世纪50年代。
60年代是对比分析的兴盛时期。
F r i e s（1945）率先提出了最有效的教材应该建立在对学习者的母语和目的语进行科学的描写和仔细的对比的基础上。
体现在他的著作：“T e a c h i n g a n d L e a r n i n g E n g l i s h a s a F o r e i g n L a n g u a g e”。
L a d o（1957）提出对比分析理论系统。
标志著作“l i n g u i s i t i c s a c r o s s c u l t u r e”。
L a d o认为，通过学习者母语、文化与其目的语、文化系统对比，可以预测造成学习者困难的语言模式。
一、对比分析的理论基础对比分析建立在结构主义语言学和行为主义心理学的迁移理论基础之上的，（一）对比分析的心理学基础行为主义学习理论认为，学习一种新的语言，就是学习一种新的行为习惯。
在学习新的行为习惯的过程中，旧的行为习惯必然会对新的行为习惯的学习产生影响。
学习第二语言是用新的习惯代替旧的习惯，旧的习惯会干扰新习惯的形成，产生偏误。
（二）语言学基础结构主义语言学把语言看成一个静态的、自足的系统，强调对语言的结构，强调对一种语言的结构进行细致描述。
对比分析对学习者的母语和目的语进行系统的描写、比较，因此语言差异受到强调。
二、对比分析的基本内容1.对比分析的基本假设：语言迁移（1）母语的语言形式、意义及其分布，连同与母语相联系的文化会迁移到第二语言系统中去。
（2）目的语与母语结构特征相似会产生正迁移，两者有差异时会产生负迁移。
这是引起困难和偏误的主要原因或者唯一原因。
（3）差异=困难，差异越大困难越大。
2.基本观点（1）学习者学习第二语言的主要困难来自于母语的干扰；（2）对比分析的任务就是把学习者的母语和他所学的目的语系统进行对比。
这种对比可以预测学习者的难点；（3）理想的教材应该建立在对比的基础之上，以减少母语干扰的影响。
2.对比分析两种观点强势说：强调预测，认为母语干扰是学习者学习困难和错误的主要原因或唯一原因。
弱势说：强调解释，通过对比来解释偏误产生的原因。
三、对比分析的步骤和难度等级1.步骤描写选择对比预测2.语言难度等级列表埃利斯（1985）对等级的描述：等级1：第一语言和第二语言的某个语言点没有差异。
等级2：第一语言的两个语言项等于第二语言的一个语言项。
等级3：第一语言中的某个语言项在第二语言中不存在。
等级4：第一语言中的某个语言项在第二语言中的等值项有不同的分布。
等级5：第二语言的语言项在第一语言中不存在。
等级6：第一语言中一个语言项，在第二语言中有两个或多个语言项与之对应。
四、对对比分析的评价（一）理论误区1.行为主义学习理论：刺激－反应的理论无法解释人类语言学习的复杂性。
模仿与强化的概念也无法说明人类语言学习的创造性。
2.结构主义语言学两种语言的表层结构是否具有可比性。
3.对比分析的“虚假命题”：命题一：语言的“差异”等于学习的“难点”；问题：“差异”是语言学层面上的问题，“难点”则属于心理层面的问题。
结论一：“难点”无法直接从两种语言差异的程度来推测。
（二）实证的不充分实证研究事实证明，母语负迁移并非造成学习者习得困难和偏误的主要原因，更不是唯一原因。
对比分析预测的难点往往并不是学生难以掌握的语言项目，预测的学习错误并没有发生，而没有预测到的错误却发生了。
并不是差别越大的语言，学习偏误越多，反而是两种相似的语言，更容易出现偏误。
另外还发现学生的母语不同，但在学习同一种外语时往往会有类似的错误。
由此得出困难和错误与对比分析预测不一定存在着本质的联系。
塞林克（1992）认为：70年代人们对对比分析采取全盘否定的态度是不公正的。
作为一种分析方法，对比分析仍然是观察和分析学习者的语言系统的一个良好起点。
学者们发展了对比分析假设，形成了更为客观、全面的看法。
第二节偏误分析二、偏误分析的理论基础心理学基础：认知理论语言学基础：乔姆斯基的普遍语法理论三、偏误分析的研究内容偏误分析是对学习者在第二语言习得过程中所产生的偏误进行系统的分析，研究其来源，揭示学习者的中介语体系，从而了解第二语言习得的过程与规律。
四、偏误分析的程序和步骤1.学习者语言样本的收集；2.偏误的鉴别；3.偏误的描写；4.偏误的解释；5.偏误的评价。
（一）关于学习者语言样本的收集语料收集通常涉及三方面的问题：语料收集的方式：自然表达、面谈、诱导、实验；横向与纵向语料收集的范围：大规模、特定规模、个案影响学习者语言偏误的因素：口语/书面语的、会话/叙述；话题的内容；学习者的年龄/学习水平/母语背景/习得的环境（三）关于学习者语言偏误的描写语言偏误的归类方法：2.表层策略分类：省略、附加、类推、错序。
3.C o r e d还根据中介语的发展过程，把偏误分为三类：①系统前偏误②系统偏误③系统后偏误（四）关于学习者偏误的解释对学习者偏误的解释需要对偏误的来源进行分析，学习者偏误产生的原因可能是心理语言学方面的，也可能是社会语言学方面的，也可能是认知方面的。
但是偏误分析主要是从心理语言学方面对偏误产生的原因进行解释。
（这是对对比分析的完善）R i c h a r d s1974从心理学角度出发，根据偏误来源把偏误分成三类：干扰偏误：主要由母语干扰形成；语内偏误：过度使用目的语规则造成；发展偏误：因语言知识有限建立的错误假设。
学者们后来归纳为两种：语际偏误语内偏误（五）关于学习者语言偏误的评价对偏误的评价涉及三个问题：（1）究竟哪类偏误问题更严重。
（2）母语者和非母语者在评价学习者偏误时是否有差别。
（3）评价的标准问题。
五、偏误分析的得与失（一）贡献1.偏误分析重要的贡献是它为70年代心灵学派与行为主义理论的论战提供了有力的证据。
突破了对比分析只强调第一语言干扰的局限，指出过度泛化等语内干扰以及学习策略、交际策略和学习环境所造成的偏误，全面分析学习者偏误及其来源并形成一套科学的偏误分析方法与程序。
2.偏误分析改变了人们对语言学习过程中出现的偏误本质的认识。
3.偏误分析对习得过程和习得规律的研究丰富了第二语言教学理论，促进了第二语言教学的发展。
（二）局限1.偏误材料的收集方式。
2.偏误分析的研究范围。
3.偏误分析的研究角度。
4.忽视了回避现象。
5.偏误分析的步骤。
第三章一、中介语理论的产生认识到偏误分析的局限之后，塞林克根据对第二语言学习者的言语行为事件的观察，提出了“中介语”这一理论构念。
中介语理论不是对对比分析、偏误分析的继承和发展。
中介语这一理论构念的提出，标志着第二语言习得研究理论的根本改变。
埃利斯评价中介语理论是第二语言习得研究的一个恰当的起点，是第一次为第二语言习得提供解释的理论。
二、早期的中介语研究“中介语”这个概念最初是塞林克提出的，但是中介语理论并非塞林克一个人建立的。
在早期的中介语理论建设中，还应提及另两位先驱，即科德和Nemser。
1.科德关于中介语的理论假设“过渡能力”和过渡方言（1971）把学习者的语言系统称为“过渡能力”系统或过渡方言。
“过渡能力”指的是学习者现时的心理规则系统。
学习者的习得过程是一个由学习者的母语系统向目的语系统过渡的过程。
通过观察学习者在习得过程中的系统偏误来推测其内在的心理规则系统。
从社会语言学角度讲，学习者的语言看成是目的语的方言，而且是具有动态性的。
总之，科德的中介语假设是建立在其偏误分析的继承上的，带有较强的偏误分析色彩。
2.Nemser关于中介语的理论假设“近似系统”（1971）“学习者在试图使用目的语时实际运用的偏离的语言系统”。
（1）不同于源语言系统和目的语系统；（2）学习者的“近似系统”是相对于目的语系统而言的；（3）学习者的近似系统是一个不断变化的动态系统。
学习者在不断地加工目的语输入的基础上，逐渐地建立起近似目的语的系统。
3.塞林克的中介语假设中介语是可观察到的语言输出中介语是高度结构化的中介语是一个独立的语言系统（2）中介语产生的心理机制他认为大部分的成年第二语言学习者是依靠一种认知结构来学习第二语言的。
这种认知结构是潜在的心理结构。
（3）“僵化”是存在于潜在心理结构中的一种机制，表现为某种母语背景的第二语言学习者会在目的语习得的某个阶段上停滞不前，无论年龄大小、是否继续学习。