英文翻译资料
英文资料及翻译
SYSMAC CJ SeriesCJ1G/H-CPU□□H,CJ1M-CPU□□,CJ1G-CPUProgrammable ControllersOperation ManualRevised July 2002Application PrecautionsObserve the following precaution when using the PLC System.●You must use the CX-Programmer (programming software that runs on Windows)ifyou need to program more than one task. A Programming Console can be used to program only one cyclic task plus interrupt tasks.A Programming Console can, however, be used to edit multitask programs originally created with the CX-Programmer.！Warning Always heed these precautions, Failure to abide by the following △precautions could lead to serious or possibly fatal injury.●Always connect to a ground of 100Ωor less when installing the Units. Notconnecting to a ground of 100Ωor less may result in electric shock.●A ground of 100Ωor less must be installed when shorting the GR and LGterminals on the Power Unit.●Always turn OFF the power supply to the PLC before attempting any of thefollowing .Not turning OFF the power supply may result in malfunction or electric shock..●Mounting or dismounting Power Supply Units, CPU Units, or any other Units.●Assembling the Units.●Setting DIP switches or rotary witches.●Connecting cables or wiring the system.●Connecting or disconnecting the connectors.！Caution Failure to abide by the following precautions could lead to faulty operation △of the PLC or the system, or could damage the PLC or PLC Units. Always heed these precautions.●A CJ-series CPU Unit is shipped with the battery installed and the time alreadyset on the internal clock. It is not necessary to clear memory or set the clock before application, as it is for the CS-series CPU Units.●The user program and parameter area data in CJ1-H CPU Units is backed up in the CPU Unit when the backup operation is in progress. Do not turn OFF the power supply to the CPU Unit when the BKUP indicator is lit .The data will not be backed up if power is turned OFF.●If ,when using a CJ1H-CPU Unit ,the PLC Setup is set to specify using the mode set on the Programming Console and a Programming Console is not connected ,the CPU Unit will start in RUN mode .This is the default setting in the PLC Setup. ( A CS1 CPU Unit will start in PROGRAM mode under the same conditions .)●When creating an AUTOEXEC.IOM file from a Programming Device (a Programming Console or the CX-Programmer)to automatically transfer data at startup, set the first write address to D20000 and be sure that the size of data written does not exceed the size of the DM Area. When the data file is read from the Memory Card at startup, data will be written in the CPU Unit starting at D20000 even if another address was set when the AUTOEXEC.IOM file was created .Also, if the DM Area is exceeded(which is possible when the CX-Programmer is used),the remaining data will be written to the EM Area.●Always turn ON power to the PLC before turning ON power to the control system. If the PLC power supply is turned ON after the control power supply, temporary errors may result in control system signals because the output terminals on DC Output Units and other Units will momentarily turn ON when power is turned ON to the PLC.●Fail-safe measures must be taken by the customer to ensure safety in the event that outputs from Output Units remain ON as a result of internal circuit failures, which can occur in relays , transistors, and other elements.●Fail-safe measures must be taken by the customer to ensure safety in the event of incorrect , missing, or abnormal signals caused by broken signal lines, momentary power interruption, or other causes.●Interlock circuits, limit circuits, and similar safety measures in external circuits(i.e, not in the Programmable Controller)must be provided by the customer.●Do not turn OFF the power supply to the PLC when data is being transferred. Inparticular, do not turn OFF the power supply when reading or writing a Memory Card. Also, do not remove the Memory Card when the BUSY indicator is lit .To remove a Memory Card, first press the memory card power supply switch and then wait for the BUSY indicator to go out before removing the Memory Card.●If the I/O Hold Bit is turned ON, the output from the PLC will not be turnedOFF and will maintain their previous status when the PLC is switched from RUN or MONITOR mode to PROGRAM mode .Make sure that the external loads will not produce dangerous conditions when this occurs.(When operation stops for a fatal error ,including those produced with the FALS(007)instruction, all outputs from Output Unit will be turned OFF and onlu the internal output status will be maintained.)●The contents of the DM, EM and HR Areas in the CPU Unit are backed up bu aBattery.If the Battery voltage drops, this data may be lost. Provide countermeasures in the program using the Battery Error Flag (A40204) to re-initialize data or take other actions if the Battery voltage drops.SYSMAC CJ 系列CJ1G/H-CPU□□H,CJ1G-CPU□□可编程序控制器操作手册2002年7月修订应用注意事项使用PC系统时要遵循下列各注意事项。
传感器技术论文中英文对照资料外文翻译文献
传感器技术论文中英文对照资料外文翻译文献Development of New Sensor TechnologiesSensors are devices that can convert physical。
chemical。
logical quantities。
etc。
into electrical signals。
The output signals can take different forms。
such as voltage。
current。
frequency。
pulse。
etc。
and can meet the requirements of n n。
processing。
recording。
display。
and control。
They are indispensable components in automatic n systems and automatic control systems。
If computers are compared to brains。
then sensors are like the five senses。
Sensors can correctly sense the measured quantity and convert it into a corresponding output。
playing a decisive role in the quality of the system。
The higher the degree of n。
the higher the requirements for sensors。
In today's n age。
the n industry includes three parts: sensing technology。
n technology。
and computer technology。
本科毕业设计的英文资料与中文翻译
英文资料与中文翻译IEEE 802.11 MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROLThe IEEE 802.11 MAC layer covers three functional areas：reliable data delivery, medium access control, and security. This section covers the first two topics.Reliable Data DeliveryAs with any wireless network, a wireless LAN using the IEEE 802.11 physical and MAC layers is subject to considerable unreliability. Noise, interference, and other propagation effects result in the loss of a significant number of frames. Even with error-correction codes, a number of MAC frames may not successfully be received. This situation can be dealt with by reliability mechanisms at a higher layer. such as TCP. However, timers used for retransmission at higher layers are typically on the order of seconds. It is therefore more efficient to deal with errors at the MAC level. For this purpose, IEEE 802.11 includes a frame exchange protocol. When a station receives a data frame from another station. It returns an acknowledgment (ACK) frame to the source station. This exchange is treated as an atomic unit, not to be interrupted by a transmission from any other station. If the source does not receive an ACK within a short period of time, either because its data frame was damaged or because the returning ACK was damaged, the source retransmits the frame.Thus, the basic data transfer mechanism in IEEE802.11 involves an exchange of two frames. To further enhance reliability, a four-frame exchange may be used. In this scheme, a source first issues a request to send (RTS) frame to the destination. The destination then responds with a clear to send (CTS). After receiving the CTS, the source transmits the data frame, and the destination responds with an ACK. The RTS alerts all stations that are within reception range of the source that an exchange is under way; these stations refrain from transmission in order to avoid a collision between two frames transmitted at the same time. Similarly, the CTS alerts all stations that are within reception range of the destination that an exchange is under way. The RTS/CTS portion of the exchange is a required function of the MAC but may be disabled.Medium Access ControlThe 802.11 working group considered two types of proposals for a MAC algorithm: distributed access protocols, which, like Ethernet, distribute the decision to transmit over all the nodes using a carrier-sense mechanism; and centralized access protocols, which involve regulation of transmission by a centralized decision maker. A distributed access protocol makes sense for an ad hoc network of peer workstations (typically an IBSS) and may also be attractive in other wireless LAN configurations that consist primarily of burst traffic. A centralized access protocol is natural for configurations in which a umber of wireless stations are interconnected with each other and some sort of base station that attaches to a backbone wired LAN: it is especially useful if some of the data is time sensitive or high priority.The end result for 802.11 is a MAC algorithm called DFWMAC (distributed foundation wireless MAC) that provides a distributed access control mechanism with an optional centralized control built on top of that. Figure 14.5 illustrates the architecture. The lower sub-layer of the MAC layer is the distributed coordination function (DCF). DCF uses a contention algorithm to provide access to all traffic. Ordinary asynchronous traffic directly uses DCE. The point coordination function (PCF) is a centralized MAC algorithm used to provide contention-free service. PCF is built on top of DCF and exploits features of DCF to assure access for its users. Let us consider these two sub-layers in turn.MAClayerFigure 14.5 IEEE 802.11 Protocol ArchitectureDistributed Coordination FunctionThe DCF sub-layer makes use of a simple CSMA (carrier sense multiple access) algorithm, which functions as follows. If a station has a MAC frame to transmit, it listens to the medium. If the medium is idle, the station may transmit; otherwise the station must wait until the current transmission is complete before transmitting. The DCF does not include a collision detection function (i.e. CSMA/CD) because collision detection is not practical on a wireless network. The dynamic range of the signals on the medium is very large, so that a transmitting station cannot effectively distinguish incoming weak signals from noise and the effects of its own transmission.To ensure the smooth and fair functioning of this algorithm, DCF includes a set of delays that amounts to a priority scheme. Let us start by considering a single delay known as an inter-frame space (IFS). In fact, there are three different IFS values, but the algorithm is best explained by initially ignoring this detail. Using an IFS, the rules for CSMA access are as follows (Figure 14.6):Figure 14.6 IEEE 802.11 Medium Access Control Logic1. A station with a frame to transmit senses the medium. If the medium is idle. It waits to see if the medium remains idle for a time equal to IFS. If so , the station may transmit immediately.2. If the medium is busy (either because the station initially finds the medium busy or because the medium becomes busy during the IFS idle time), the station defers transmission and continues to monitor the medium until the current transmission is over.3. Once the current transmission is over, the station delays another IFS. If the medium remains idle for this period, then the station backs off a random amount of time and again senses the medium. If the medium is still idle, the station may transmit. During the back-off time, if the medium becomes busy, the back-off timer is halted and resumes when the medium becomes idle.4. If the transmission is unsuccessful, which is determined by the absence of an acknowledgement, then it is assumed that a collision has occurred.To ensure that back-off maintains stability, a technique known as binary exponential back-off is used. A station will attempt to transmit repeatedly in the face of repeated collisions, but after each collision, the mean value of the random delay is doubled up to some maximum value. The binary exponential back-off provides a means of handling a heavy load. Repeated failed attempts to transmit result in longer and longer back-off times, which helps to smooth out the load. Without such a back-off, the following situation could occur. Two or more stations attempt to transmit at the same time, causing a collision. These stations then immediately attempt to retransmit, causing a new collision.The preceding scheme is refined for DCF to provide priority-based access by the simple expedient of using three values for IFS:●SIFS (short IFS):The shortest IFS, used for all immediate responseactions，as explained in the following discussion●PIFS (point coordination function IFS):A mid-length IFS, used by thecentralized controller in the PCF scheme when issuing polls●DIFS (distributed coordination function IFS): The longest IFS, used as aminimum delay for asynchronous frames contending for access Figure 14.7a illustrates the use of these time values. Consider first the SIFS.Any station using SIFS to determine transmission opportunity has, in effect, the highest priority, because it will always gain access in preference to a stationwaiting an amount of time equal to PIFS or DIFS. The SIFS is used in the following circumstances：●Acknowledgment (ACK): When a station receives a frame addressed onlyto itself (not multicast or broadcast) it responds with an ACK frame after, waiting on1y for an SIFS gap. This has two desirable effects. First, because collision detection IS not used, the likelihood of collisions is greater than with CSMA/CD, and the MAC-level ACK provides for efficient collision recovery. Second, the SIFS can be used to provide efficient delivery of an LLC protocol data unit (PDU) that requires multiple MAC frames. In this case, the following scenario occurs. A station with a multi-frame LLC PDU to transmit sends out the MAC frames one at a time. Each frame is acknowledged after SIFS by the recipient. When the source receives an ACK, it immediately (after SIFS) sends the next frame in the sequence. The result is that once a station has contended for the channel, it will maintain control of the channel until it has sent all of the fragments of an LLC PDU.●Clear to Send (CTS):A station can ensure that its data frame will getthrough by first issuing a small. Request to Send (RTS) frame. The station to which this frame is addressed should immediately respond with a CTS frame if it is ready to receive. All other stations receive the RTS and defer using the medium.●Poll response: This is explained in the following discussion of PCF.longer than DIFS(a) Basic access methodasynchronous trafficdefers(b) PCF super-frame constructionFigure 14.7 IEEE 802.11 MAC TimingThe next longest IFS interval is the: PIFS. This is used by the centralized controller in issuing polls and takes precedence over normal contention traffic. However, those frames transmitted using SIFS have precedence over a PCF poll.Finally, the DIFS interval is used for all ordinary asynchronous traffic.Point C00rdination Function PCF is an alternative access method implemented on top of the DCE. The operation consists of polling by the centralized polling master (point coordinator). The point coordinator makes use of PIFS when issuing polls. Because PI FS is smaller than DIFS, the point coordinator call seize the medium and lock out all asynchronous traffic while it issues polls and receives responses.As an extreme, consider the following possible scenario. A wireless network is configured so that a number of stations with time, sensitive traffic are controlled by the point coordinator while remaining traffic contends for access using CSMA. The point coordinator could issue polls in a round—robin fashion to all stations configured for polling. When a poll is issued, the polled station may respond using SIFS. If the point coordinator receives a response, it issues another poll using PIFS. If no response is received during the expected turnaround time, the coordinator issues a poll．If the discipline of the preceding paragraph were implemented, the point coordinator would lock out all asynchronous traffic by repeatedly issuing polls. To prevent this, an interval known as the super-frame is defined. During the first part of this interval, the point coordinator issues polls in a round, robin fashion to all stations configured for polling. The point coordinator then idles for the remainder of the super-frame, allowing a contention period for asynchronous access.Figure l4.7 b illustrates the use of the super-frame. At the beginning of a super-frame, the point coordinator may optionally seize control and issues polls for a give period of time. This interval varies because of the variable frame size issued by responding stations. The remainder of the super-frame is available for contention based access. At the end of the super-frame interval, the point coordinator contends for access to the medium using PIFS. If the medium is idle. the point coordinator gains immediate access and a full super-frame period follows. However, the medium may be busy at the end of a super-frame. In this case, the point coordinator must wait until the medium is idle to gain access: this result in a foreshortened super-frame period for the next cycle.OctetsFC=frame control SC=sequence controlD/I=duration/connection ID FCS=frame check sequence（a ） MAC frameBitsDS=distribution systemMD=more data MF=more fragmentsW=wired equivalent privacy RT=retryO=orderPM=power management (b) Frame control filedFigure 14.8 IEEE 802.11 MAC Frame FormatMAC FrameFigure 14.8a shows the 802.11 frame format when no security features are used. This general format is used for all data and control frames, but not all fields are used in all contexts. The fields are as follows:● Frame Control: Indicates the type of frame and provides contr01information, as explained presently.● Duration/Connection ID: If used as a duration field, indicates the time(in-microseconds) the channel will be allocated for successful transmission of a MAC frame. In some control frames, this field contains an association, or connection, identifier.●Addresses: The number and meaning of the 48-bit address fields dependon context. The transmitter address and receiver address are the MAC addresses of stations joined to the BSS that are transmitting and receiving frames over the wireless LAN. The service set ID (SSID) identifies the wireless LAN over which a frame is transmitted. For an IBSS, the SSID isa random number generated at the time the network is formed. For awireless LAN that is part of a larger configuration the SSID identifies the BSS over which the frame is transmitted: specifically, the SSID is the MAC-level address of the AP for this BSS (Figure 14.4). Finally the source address and destination address are the MAC addresses of stations, wireless or otherwise, that are the ultimate source and destination of this frame. The source address may be identical to the transmitter address and the destination address may be identical to the receiver address.●Sequence Control: Contains a 4-bit fragment number subfield used forfragmentation and reassembly, and a l2-bit sequence number used to number frames sent between a given transmitter and receiver.●Frame Body: Contains an MSDU or a fragment of an MSDU. The MSDUis a LLC protocol data unit or MAC control information.●Frame Check Sequence: A 32-bit cyclic redundancy check. The framecontrol filed, shown in Figure 14.8b, consists of the following fields.●Protocol Version: 802.11 version, current version 0.●Type: Identifies the frame as control, management, or data.●Subtype: Further identifies the function of frame. Table 14.4 defines thevalid combinations of type and subtype.●To DS: The MAC coordination sets this bit to 1 in a frame destined to thedistribution system.●From DS: The MAC coordination sets this bit to 1 in a frame leaving thedistribution system.●More Fragments: Set to 1 if more fragments follow this one.●Retry: Set to 1 if this is a retransmission of a previous frame.●Power Management: Set to]if the transmitting station is in a sleep mode.●More Data: Indicates that a station has additional data to send. Each blockof data may be sent as one frame or a group of fragments in multiple frames.●WEP：Set to 1 if the optional wired equivalent protocol is implemented.WEP is used in the exchange of encryption keys for secure data exchange.This bit also is set if the newer WPA security mechanism is employed, as described in Section 14.6.●Order：Set to 1 in any data frame sent using the Strictly Ordered service,which tells the receiving station that frames must be processed in order. We now look at the various MAC frame types.Control Frames Control frames assist in the reliable delivery of data frames. There are six control frame subtypes:●Power Save-Poll (PS-Poll): This frame is sent by any station to the stationthat includes the AP (access point). Its purpose is to request that the AP transmit a frame that has been buffered for this station while the station was in power saving mode.●Request to Send (RTS):This is the first frame in the four-way frameexchange discussed under the subsection on reliable data delivery at the beginning of Section 14.3.The station sending this message is alerting a potential destination, and all other stations within reception range, that it intends to send a data frame to that destination.●Clear to Send (CTS): This is the second frame in the four-way exchange.It is sent by the destination station to the source station to grant permission to send a data frame.●Acknowledgment:Provides an acknowledgment from the destination tothe source that the immediately preceding data, management, or PS-Poll frame was received correctly.●Contention-Free (CF)-End: Announces the end of a contention-freeperiod that is part of the point coordination function.●CF-End+CF-Ack:Acknowledges the CF-End. This frame ends thecontention-free period and releases stations from the restrictions associated with that period.Data Frames There are eight data frame subtypes, organized into two groups. The first four subtypes define frames that carry upper-level data from the source station to the destination station. The four data-carrying frames are as follows: ●Data: This is the simplest data frame. It may be used in both a contentionperiod and a contention-free period.●Data+CF-Ack: May only be sent during a contention-free period. Inaddition to carrying data, this frame acknowledges previously received data.●Data+CF-Poll: Used by a point coordinator to deliver data to a mobilestation and also to request that the mobile station send a data frame that it may have buffered.●Data+CF-Ack+CF-Poll: Combines the functions of the Data+CF-Ack andData+CF-Poll into a single frame.The remaining four subtypes of data frames do not in fact carry any user data. The Null Function data frame carries no data, polls, or acknowledgments. It is used only to carry the power management bit in the frame control field to the AP, to indicate that the station is changing to a low-power operating state. The remaining three frames (CF-Ack, CF-Poll,CF-Ack+CF-Poll) have the same functionality as the corresponding data frame subtypes in the preceding list (Data+CF-Ack, Data+CF-Poll, Data+CF-Ack+CF-Poll) but withotit the data. Management FramesManagement frames are used to manage communications between stations and APs. The following subtypes are included:●Association Request：Sent by a station to an AP to request an association,with this BSS. This frame includes capability information, such as whether encryption is to be used and whether this station is pollable.●Association Response:Returned by the AP to the station to indicatewhether it is accepting this association request.●Reassociation Request: Sent by a station when it moves from one BSS toanother and needs to make an association with tire AP in the new BSS. The station uses reassociation rather than simply association so that the new AP knows to negotiate with the old AP for the forwarding of data frames.●Reassociation Response:Returned by the AP to the station to indicatewhether it is accepting this reassociation request.●Probe Request: Used by a station to obtain information from anotherstation or AP. This frame is used to locate an IEEE 802.11 BSS.●Probe Response: Response to a probe request.●Beacon: Transmitted periodically to allow mobile stations to locate andidentify a BSS.●Announcement Traffic Indication Message: Sent by a mobile station toalert other mobile stations that may have been in low power mode that this station has frames buffered and waiting to be delivered to the station addressed in this frame.●Dissociation: Used by a station to terminate an association.●Authentication：Multiple authentication frames are used in an exchange toauthenticate one station to another.●Deauthentication:Sent by a station to another station or AP to indicatethat it is terminating secure communications.IEEE802.11 媒体接入控制IEEE 802．11 MAC层覆盖了三个功能区：可靠的数据传送、接入控制以及安全。
洗衣机论文中英文对照资料外文翻译文献
中英文对照资料外文翻译文献Washing machinesLet’s look inside one of today’s fully automatic washing machines that use swirling water to clean the clothes. There are many types of washing machines but this Figure shows you what most of them are basically made up of.。
The reason why a washing machine like this can wash and get the water out of the clothes at the same time is because it has a double layer drum. When washing and rinsing, the pulsator spins and makes the water swirl.. To get the water out of the clothes, the inner wall f the drum spins and the water goes through theholes.These days, the “centrifugal force washing machines” are quite popular. This type of machine does not use a pulsator. Instead, the inner wall spins really quickly. When the drum spins, the dirty clothes get stuck to the wall. The water and detergent also try to escape through the holes of the wall but before they do so, they are forced to escape through the clothes. When this happens, the power of the water and detergent removes the dirt form the clothes. Another good thing about this type of machine is that clothes don’t get tangled up so you don’t have to worry about your clothes getting ripped or damaged.Next, let’s look at some different types of washing machines!Many of you probably think that the water inside washing machines goes round and round. Actually, different washing machines make water flow in different ways.Whirlpool type:This type of washing machine uses a pulsator to force the water to move like a whirlpool inside the Drum. The spinning water forces the dirt out form the clothes inside the machine. Some of the newer models of this type also make the whirlpool move up and down to make it clean clothes even better!Agitator stirring typeThis type of washing machine has something that looks like a propeller at the bottom of the tub. This Propeller spins around and stirs the water. The water then forces the dirt out from the clothes in the machine. The good thing about this type of machine is that clothes do not get tangled up and clothes get evenly washed.Drum type:This type of machine has a drum with many holes in it. There are also protrusions bumps on the wall of the drum. As the drum turns, the clothes arepicked up by the protrusions. When the clothes fall down from the top of the drum through the water, the movement removes dirt from the clothes.Centrifugal force type:As we have said before, the spinning drum pushes the water and detergent out through the wall of the inner drum. The power that comes form spinning the drum is called centrifugal force., which is where the name comes from. The water is forced through the clothes and then the holes in the inner wall. After one cycle, the water is recycled back into the tank and the process starts again. This cycle is what cleans the clothes!In Japan, people first started using machines in 1930. But then the price of a washing machine was so high that most average persons could not buy one for their homes.Looking back now, there was something strange and funny on some of the first versions of the washing machine .The machine had two rollers that were used to sandwich each shirt and other clothes to squeeze the water out of them. The rollers were turned by hand, and in fact, you needed a lot of strength to turn those things! Still, people then thought it was a really neat invention! This type of water squeezer was used for almost 30 years until something new came along. The spin drier that used “centrifugal force” to get most of the water is out of the clothes.In 1953, the nozzle type washing machine was first sold in Japan. This washing machine is like the older brother of the swirling washing machine that you see today. The price of these washing machines was lower and because of this, more people bought them. The first fully automatic washing machine was introduced in 1968, and after that, washing clothes became a lot easier to do!There are a lot of different types of washing machines. What kind of washing machine do you have in your house?Fully automatic:The fully automatic machine has two drum layers that wash, rinse and remove water from clothes together. All you have to do is add detergent and put in dirty clothes and then washing machine will do the rest. There is also a new type of fully automatic washing machine that can dry clothes after they have been washed.Twin tub:This washing machine has one part that dose the washing and another part that does the squeezing. Even though it’s a hassle to take the clothes out and m ove them to other tub, the good thing is that you can wash and squeeze at the same time with one machine.Front loading:The main feature of front loaders is that they use a lot less water than other types. This is the type of Washing machine that dry cleaners use but a lot of people in western countries have this type of washing machine in their homes too.Let’s try to make the best washing machine in the world!We should already thank the scientists that invented the fully automatic washing machine because it makes washing clothes a piece of cake.Scientists are still trying really hard to find ways to make washing machines a lot handier to use for everyone. Some of the things that they are trying to do are to find better ways of making clothes clean and ways to make washing machines last longer. There are washing machines with d trying function today so you don’t even have to hang clothes after words because it dries them automatically! Amazing!Scientists are also trying to find ways to use less water and less detergent in washing machines at present. This is because that it is better to use less water for preserving the environment.What are washing machines of the future going to be like? Maybe there willbe a washing machine that dries and folds your clothes after washing them, or maybe there will be one that will wash your clothes while you are still wearing them! How handy would that be! Remember, if the first washing machine was like a dream to people in the old days, all the dreams you have about washing machines of the future may come true!Now, washing machine is becoming more and more popular. We see the main classification.Washing machine can be divided into automatic type and semi-automatic type two kinds, automatic type washing machine as long as we begin our work proactively set better washing procedure, washing machine began to work until the end without manual intervention. And semi-automatic washing machine washing and dewatering process is divided, is also called the double barrel washing machine, a tong, one takes off a bucket, and put tong inside washing out to artificial add to take off in the barrel dehydration is handled and complete laundry process.Full-automatic washing machine in structure to take off in tong internal bucket suit, two barrels of axis, while working with the clutch to finish washing state and dehydration of the transition of the states, on the key said is automatic washing machine.Full-automatic washing machine press catharsis means to points, can be divided into bunt washer and roll barrel type two kinds of washing machine, From the electric control ways to points, can be divided into mechanical program-controlled type and computer board controls type washing machine two kinds.The cylinder and the pulsator washing machine are now the main two kinds.Pulsator washing machine working principle is to add clothing, then open the inlet valve, choose good bibcock of water level and correct working procedures, switch on the power, closed warehouse door, and safety switch closed at waterlevel, the public internal switch contacts are and dehydration contacts are interlinked, inlet valve electrify water, when the barrel water reaches the specified height, in air pressure under the action of water level switch inside public contacts disconnect dehydration contacts and connect washing contacts, feed valve power to stop water, motor power is switched on, motor started running, and periodically sometimes are turning, sometimes reverse, mutual alternant, driven by clutch BoLun using the same cycle are turning, inversion, with a certain speed rotating BoLun can drive inside bucket of water and clothing, clothing rotating water formed in the mutual friction and reach the purpose of laundry. When washing process is completed, drainage electromagnetic valve electrify work, drain valve is opened, inside bucket of water exudes, and linkage shaft also the clutch from washing state switch to dehydration state, when drainage is completed, atmospheric pressure drop and inside bucket of water level switch public contacts reset through dehydration contacts, drainage electromagnetic valve keep electrify state, motor driven off running electrify bucket high-speed and jilt dry clothing, laundry program after washing machine disconnect hydropower and stop. As for intermediate process of how many times, laundry to wash the length of time, by process control.Roller-type washing machine of the principle and Pulsator washing machine are basic similar. But 110mm drum machine it no clutch variable speed, but its motor is double-speed motor, so when washing machine work in washing state, program-controlled device connected motor washing low-speed windings, motor speed slow, working on dehydration, when they connect dehydration modalhigh-speed windings, motor high-speed operation, this process is programmed through the device and motor to work together to finish.To sum up, the role of these two kinds of washing machine is same, butdifferent implementation, each has his strong point, Pulsator washing machine is simulated handmade kneaded action to work, 110mm drum type washing machine is by gravity inertial function to finish our work, they realize washing and dewatering way also have different features, Pulsator washing machine to wear clothes is relatively large, but detergents degree is higher, 110mm drum machine for clothing wear small, but detergents degrees, but lower than Pulsator washing machine to save water.So far, washing machine is still towards a higher requirements development.译文：洗衣机来看一下涡流式全自动洗衣机的构造。
英语翻译必备资料：世界上主要国家,地区与城市(中英文对照)
BY INT / 2011-5-27世界上主要国家，地区与城市（中英文对照）写在前面适用人群旨在做英语翻译的人。
资料来源本文内容来源于网络：（论坛帖）/viewthread.php?tid=101034使用说明快速查找说明：在WORD中，打开本文档，单击编辑—查找，在查找的编辑框中，在查找内容一栏输入你要找的国家，地区或主要城市的中文或英文，单击查找下一处，完成。
文档结构英语翻译必备资料：世界上主要国家，地区与城市（中英文对照）世界上的七大洲亚洲主要的国家和地区欧洲主要的国家和地区非洲主要的国家和地区美洲主要的国家和地区大洋洲主要的国家和地区亚洲主要的国家，地区及其城市欧洲主要的国家，地区及其城市非洲主要的国家，地区及其城市美洲主要的国家，地区及其城市大洋洲主要的国家，地区及其城市文档说明以下是截止到2009年5月世界主要国家和地区的前三大城市排名，前三大城市主要依据城市的人口、规模、经济、文化综合评出，许多国家和地区的前三大城市与上个世纪相比发生了变化，例如上世纪天津曾为中国的第三大城市，现今已被广州所取代，印度的第一大城市曾为加尔各答，但随着孟买城市的不断扩张和宝莱坞的兴盛，孟买已经成为印度无可厚非的第一大城市。
黑体为人均GDP大于15000美元的发达经济体英语翻译必备资料：世界上主要国家，地区与城市（中英文对照）世界上的七大洲：亚洲Asia欧洲Europe非洲Africa南美洲South America北美洲North America大洋洲Oceania南极洲Antarctica亚洲的主要国家和地区：中国China日本Japan韩国South Korea朝鲜North Korea印度India泰国Thailand越南Vietnam老挝Laos缅甸Myanmar蒙古Mongolia印尼Indonesia也门Yemen约旦Jordan伊朗Iran伊拉克Iraq以色列Israel土耳其Turkey阿联酋UAE叙利亚Syria菲律宾Philippines马来西亚Malaysia孟加拉国Bangladesh斯里兰卡Sri Lanka巴基斯坦Pakistan阿塞拜疆Azerbaijan沙特阿拉伯Saudi Arabia 哈萨克斯坦Kazakhstan 乌兹别克斯坦Uzbekistan欧洲主要的国家和地区：英国United Kingdom法国France德国Germany希腊Greece挪威Norway瑞典Sweden瑞士Switzerland丹麦Denmark芬兰Finland波兰Poland荷兰Netherlands捷克Czech Republic俄罗斯Russia爱尔兰Ireland西班牙Spain意大利Italy葡萄牙Portugal匈牙利Hungary乌克兰Ukraine奥地利Austria比利时Belgium立陶宛Lithuania马其顿Macedonia白俄罗斯Belarus爱沙尼亚Estonia拉脱维亚Latvia斯洛伐克Slovakia克罗地亚Croatia塞尔维亚Serbia罗马尼亚Romania保加利亚Bulgaria阿尔巴尼亚Albania非洲主要的国家和地区：南非South Africa埃及Egypt加纳Ghana利比亚Libya突尼斯Tunisia摩洛哥Morocco肯尼亚Kenya安哥拉Angola赞比亚Zambia马拉维Malawi塞内加尔Senegal科特迪瓦Cote d’Ivoire尼日利亚Nigeria坦桑尼亚Tanzania津巴布韦Zimbabwe马达加斯加Madagascar阿尔及利亚Algeria美洲主要的国家和地区：美国USA巴西Brazil智利Chile古巴Cuba海地Haiti秘鲁Peru加拿大Canada墨西哥Mexico巴拿马Panama阿根廷Argentina乌拉圭Uruguay危地马拉Guatemala洪都拉斯Honduras尼加拉瓜Nicaragua多米尼加Dominican Republic波多黎各Puerto Rico委内瑞拉Venezuela哥伦比亚Colombia厄瓜多尔Ecuador玻利维亚Bolivia哥斯达黎加Costa Rica大洋洲主要的国家和地区：新西兰New Zealand澳大利亚Australia巴布亚新几内亚Papua NewGuinea亚洲主要国家，地区及其城市：中国China——第一大城市：上海Shanghai；第二大城市：北京Beijing；第三大城市：广州Guangzhou台湾Taiwan——第一大城市：台北Taiρei；第二大城市：高雄Kaohsiung；第三大城市：台中Taichung蒙古Mongolia——第一大城市：乌兰巴托Ulan Bator；第二大城市：达尔汗Darhan；第三大城市：鄂尔登特Erdenet朝鲜North Korea——第一大城市：平壤Pyongyang；第二大城市：咸兴Hamhung；第三大城市：清津Chongjin韩国South Korea——第一大城市：首尔Seoul；第二大城市：釜山Pusan；第三大城市：大丘Taegu 日本Japan——第一大城市：东京Tokyo；第二大城市：大阪Osaka；第三大城市：名古屋Nagoya 越南Vietnam——第一大城市：胡志明市（也称西贡）Ho Chi Minh City（Saigon）；第二大城市：河内Hanoi；第三大城市：海防Haiphong老挝Laos——第一大城市：万象Vientiane；第二大城市：沙湾拿吉Savannakhet；第三大城市：琅勃拉邦Luang Prabang泰国Thailand——第一大城市：曼谷Bangkok；第二大城市：清迈Chiang Mai；第三大城市：呵叻Nakhon Ratchasima缅甸Myanmar——第一大城市：仰光Yangon；第二大城市：曼德勒Mandalay；第三大城市：勃生Pathein马来西亚Malaysia——第一大城市：吉隆坡Kuala Lumpur；第二大城市：新山Johor Baharu；第三大城市：怡保Ipoh印尼Indonesia——第一大城市：雅加达Jakarta；第二大城市：泗水（也称苏腊巴亚）Surabaya；第三大城市：万隆Bandung菲律宾Philippines——第一大城市：马尼拉Manila；第二大城市：达沃Davao；第三大城市：宿务Cebu孟加拉国Bangladesh——第一大城市：达卡Dhaka；第二大城市：吉大港Chittagong；第三大城市：库尔纳Khulna印度India——第一大城市：孟买Mumbai；第二大城市：德里Delhi；第三大城市：加尔各答Calcutta 斯里兰卡Sri Lanka——第一大城市：科伦坡Colombo；第二大城市：康提Kandy；第三大城市：贾夫纳Jaffna巴基斯坦Pakistan——第一大城市：卡拉奇Karachi；第二大城市：拉合尔Lahore；第三大城市：费萨拉巴德Faisalabad哈萨克斯坦Kazakhstan——第一大城市：阿拉木图Almaty；第二大城市：阿斯塔纳Astana；第三大城市：卡拉干达Qaraghandy乌兹别克斯坦Uzbekistan——第一大城市：塔什干Tashkent；第二大城市：撒马尔罕Samarkand；第三大城市：纳曼干Namangan伊朗Iran——第一大城市：德黑兰Tehran；第二大城市：马什哈德Mashhad；第三大城市：伊斯法罕Esfahan伊拉克Iraq——第一大城市：巴格达Baghdad；第二大城市：摩苏尔Mosul；第三大城市：巴士拉Basra沙特阿拉伯Saudi Arabia——第一大城市：利雅得Riyadh；第二大城市：吉达Jidda；第三大城市：麦加Mecca阿联酋UAE——第一大城市：阿布扎比Abu Dhabi；第二大城市：迪拜Dubai；第三大城市：沙迦Sharjah也门Yemen——第一大城市：萨那Sana；第二大城市：亚丁Aden；第三大城市：荷台达Hodeida 约旦Jordan——第一大城市：安曼Amman；第二大城市：扎尔卡Zarqa；第三大城市：伊尔比德Irbid 以色列Israel——第一大城市：特拉维夫Tel Aviv；第二大城市：耶路撒冷Jerusalem；第三大城市：海法Haifa叙利亚Syria——第一大城市：大马士革Damascus；第二大城市：阿勒颇Aleppo；第三大城市：霍姆斯Homs阿塞拜疆Azerbaijan——第一大城市：巴库Baku；第二大城市：占贾Ganja；第三大城市：苏姆盖特Sumgait土耳其Turkey——第一大城市：伊斯坦布尔Istanbul；第二大城市：安卡拉Ankara；第三大城市：伊兹密尔Izmir欧洲主要国家，地区及其城市：挪威Norway——第一大城市：奥斯陆Oslo；第二大城市：卑尔根Bergen；第三大城市：特隆赫姆Trondheim瑞典Sweden——第一大城市：斯德哥尔摩Stockholm；第二大城市：哥德堡Goteborg；第三大城市：马尔默Malmo丹麦Denmark——第一大城市：哥本哈根Copenhagen；第二大城市：奥胡斯Arhus；第三大城市：欧登塞Odense芬兰Finland——第一大城市：赫尔辛基Helsinki；第二大城市：图尔库Turku；第三大城市：坦佩雷Tampere俄罗斯Russia——第一大城市：莫斯科Moscow；第二大城市：圣彼得堡St. Petersburg；第三大城市：叶卡捷琳堡Jekaterinburg爱沙尼亚Estonia——第一大城市：塔林Tallinn；第二大城市：塔尔图Tartu；第三大城市：纳尔瓦Narva拉脱维亚Latvia——第一大城市：里加Riga；第二大城市：陶格夫匹尔斯Daugavpils；第三大城市：利耶帕亚Liepaja立陶宛Lithuania——第一大城市：维尔纽斯Vilnius；第二大城市：考纳斯Kaunas；第三大城市：克莱佩达Klaipeda白俄罗斯Belarus——第一大城市：明斯克Minsk；第二大城市：戈梅利Gomel；第三大城市：莫吉廖夫Mogilev乌克兰Ukraine——第一大城市：基辅Kiev；第二大城市：哈尔科夫Kharkov；第三大城市：敖德萨Odessa波兰Poland——第一大城市：华沙Warsaw；第二大城市：罗兹Lodz；第三大城市：克拉科夫Krakow 捷克Czech Republic——第一大城市：布拉格Prague；第二大城市：布尔诺Brno；第三大城市：俄斯特拉发Ostrava斯洛伐克Slovakia——第一大城市：布拉迪斯拉发Bratislava；第二大城市：科希策Kosice；第三大城市：普雷绍夫Presov匈牙利Hungary——第一大城市：布达佩斯Budapest；第二大城市：德布勒森Debrecen；第三大城市：米什科尔茨Miskolc奥地利Austria——第一大城市：维也纳Vienna；第二大城市：格拉茨Graz；第三大城市：林茨Linz德国Germany——第一大城市：柏林Berlin；第二大城市：汉堡Hamburg；第三大城市：慕尼黑Munich瑞士Switzerland——第一大城市：苏黎世Zurich；第二大城市：日内瓦Geneva；第三大城市：巴塞尔Basel荷兰Netherlands——第一大城市：阿姆斯特丹Amsterdam；第二大城市：鹿特丹Rotterdam；第三大城市：海牙The Hague比利时Belgium——第一大城市：布鲁塞尔Brussels；第二大城市：安特卫普Antwerp；第三大城市：根特Gent法国France——第一大城市：巴黎Paris；第二大城市：马赛Marseilles；第三大城市：里昂Lyons 英国United Kingdom——第一大城市：伦敦London；第二大城市：伯明翰Birmingham；第三大城市：曼彻斯特Manchester爱尔兰Ireland——第一大城市：都柏林Dublin；第二大城市：科克Cork；第三大城市：戈尔韦Galway西班牙Spain——第一大城市：马德里Madrid；第二大城市：巴塞罗那Barcelona；第三大城市：巴伦西亚Valencia葡萄牙Portugal——第一大城市：里斯本Lisbon；第二大城市：波尔图Porto；第三大城市：科英布拉Coimbra意大利Italy——第一大城市：罗马Rome；第二大城市：米兰Milan；第三大城市：都灵Turin克罗地亚Croatia——第一大城市：萨格勒布Zagreb；第二大城市：斯普利特Split；第三大城市：里耶卡Rijeka塞尔维亚Serbia——第一大城市：贝尔格莱德Belgrade；第二大城市：诺维萨德Novi Sad；第三大城市：尼什Nis马其顿Macedonia——第一大城市：斯科普里Skopje；第二大城市：比托拉Bitola；第三大城市：库马诺沃Kumanovo阿尔巴尼亚Albania——第一大城市：地拉那Tirana；第二大城市：都拉斯Durres；第三大城市：爱尔巴桑Elbasan罗马尼亚Romania——第一大城市：布加勒斯特Bucharest；第二大城市：康斯坦察Constanta；第三大城市：雅西Iasi保加利亚Bulgaria——第一大城市：索非亚Sofia；第二大城市：普罗夫迪夫Plovdiv；第三大城市：瓦尔纳Varna希腊Greece——第一大城市：雅典Athens；第二大城市：塞萨洛尼基（也称萨洛尼卡）Thessaloniki （Salonica）；第三大城市：帕特雷Patrai非洲主要国家，地区及其城市：埃及Egypt——第一大城市：开罗Cairo；第二大城市：亚历山大Alexandria；第三大城市：吉萨Giza 利比亚Libya——第一大城市：的黎波里Tripoli；第二大城市：班加西Banghazi；第三大城市：胡姆斯Homs突尼斯Tunisia——第一大城市：突尼斯Tunis；第二大城市：斯法克斯Sfax；第三大城市：苏塞Sousse阿尔及利亚Algeria——第一大城市：阿尔及尔Algiers；第二大城市：奥兰（也称瓦赫兰）Oran （Wahran）；第三大城市：君士坦丁Constantine摩洛哥Morocco——第一大城市：达尔贝达（也称卡萨布兰卡）Dar el Beida（Casablanca）；第二大城市：拉巴特Rabat；第三大城市：非斯Fes塞内加尔Senegal——第一大城市：达喀尔Dakar；第二大城市：捷斯Thies；第三大城市：考拉克Kaolack科特迪瓦Cote d’Ivoire——第一大城市：阿比让Abidjan；第二大城市：布瓦凯Bouake；第三大城市：亚穆苏克罗Yamoussoukro加纳Ghana——第一大城市：阿克拉Accra；第二大城市：库马西Kumasi；第三大城市：塔马利Tamale尼日利亚Nigeria——第一大城市：拉各斯Lagos；第二大城市：伊巴丹Ibadan；第三大城市：卡诺Kano肯尼亚Kenya——第一大城市：内罗毕Nairobi；第二大城市：蒙巴萨Mombasa；第三大城市：纳库鲁Nakuru坦桑尼亚Tanzania——第一大城市：达累斯萨拉姆Dar es Salaam；第二大城市：坦噶Tanga；第三大城市：桑给巴尔Zanzibar安哥拉Angola——第一大城市：罗安达Luanda；第二大城市：万博Huambo；第三大城市：本格拉Benguela赞比亚Zambia——第一大城市：卢萨卡Lusaka；第二大城市：恩多拉Ndola；第三大城市：基特韦Kitwe马拉维Malawi——第一大城市：布兰太尔Blantyre；第二大城市：利隆圭Lilongwe；第三大城市：松巴Zomba马达加斯加Madagascar——第一大城市：塔那那利佛Antananarivo；第二大城市：图阿马西纳Toamasina；第三大城市：马哈赞加（也称马任加）Mahajanga（Majunga）津巴布韦Zimbabwe——第一大城市：哈拉雷Harare；第二大城市：布拉瓦约Bulawayo；第三大城市：奇通圭扎Chitungwiza南非South Africa——第一大城市：开普敦Capetown；第二大城市：德班Durban；第三大城市：约翰内斯堡Johannesburg美洲主要国家，地区及其城市：加拿大Canada——第一大城市：多伦多Toronto；第二大城市：蒙特利尔Montreal；第三大城市：温哥华Vancouver美国USA——第一大城市：纽约New York；第二大城市：洛杉矶Los Angeles；第三大城市：芝加哥Chicago墨西哥Mexico——第一大城市：墨西哥城Mexico City；第二大城市：瓜达拉哈拉Guadalajara；第三大城市：普埃布拉Puebla危地马拉Guatemala——第一大城市：危地马拉城Guatemala City；第二大城市：克萨尔特南戈Quetzaltenango；第三大城市：埃斯昆特拉Escuintla洪都拉斯Honduras——第一大城市：特古西加尔巴Tegucigalpa；第二大城市：圣佩德罗苏拉San Pedro Sula；第三大城市：拉塞瓦La Ceiba尼加拉瓜Nicaragua——第一大城市：马那瓜Managua；第二大城市：莱昂Leon；第三大城市：马萨亚Masaya哥斯达黎加Costa Rica——第一大城市：圣何塞San Jose；第二大城市：阿拉胡埃拉Alajuela；第三大城市：卡塔戈Cartago巴拿马Panama——第一大城市：巴拿马城Panama City；第二大城市：科隆Colon；第三大城市：戴维David古巴Cuba——第一大城市：哈瓦那Havana；第二大城市：圣地亚哥Santiago de Cuba；第三大城市：卡马圭Camaguey海地Haiti——第一大城市：太子港Port-au-Prince；第二大城市：海地角Cap-Haitien；第三大城市：戈纳伊夫Go{-屏-|-蔽-}s多米尼加Dominican Republic——第一大城市：圣多明各Santo Domingo；第二大城市：圣地亚哥Santiago；第三大城市：普拉塔港Puerto Plata波多黎各Puerto Rico——第一大城市：圣胡安San Juan；第二大城市：巴亚蒙Bayamon；第三大城市：蓬塞Ponce委内瑞拉Venezuela——第一大城市：加拉加斯Caracas；第二大城市：马拉开波Maracaibo；第三大城市：巴伦西亚Valencia哥伦比亚Colombia——第一大城市：圣菲波哥大Santa Fe de Bogota；第二大城市：卡利Cali；第三大城市：麦德林Medellin厄瓜多尔Ecuador——第一大城市：瓜亚基尔Guayaquil；第二大城市：基多Quito；第三大城市：昆卡Cuenca秘鲁Peru——第一大城市：利马Lima；第二大城市：阿雷基帕Arequipa；第三大城市：特鲁希略Trujillo玻利维亚Bolivia——第一大城市：拉巴斯La Paz；第二大城市：圣克鲁斯Santa Cruz；第三大城市：科恰班巴Cochabamba巴西Brazi l——第一大城市：圣保罗Sao Paulo；第二大城市：里约热内卢Rio de Janeiro；第三大城市：萨尔瓦多Salvador乌拉圭Uruguay——第一大城市：蒙得维的亚Montevideo；第二大城市：萨尔托Salto；第三大城市：派桑杜Paysandu阿根廷Argentina——第一大城市：布宜诺斯艾利斯Buenos Aires；第二大城市：科尔多瓦Cordoba；第三大城市：罗萨里奥Rosario智利Chile——第一大城市：圣地亚哥Santiago；第二大城市：瓦尔帕莱索Valparaiso；第三大城市：康塞普西翁Concepcion大洋洲主要国家，地区及其城市：澳大利亚Australia——第一大城市：悉尼Sydney；第二大城市：墨尔本Melbourne；第三大城市：布里斯班Brisbane巴布亚新几内亚Papua New Guinea——第一大城市：莫尔兹比港Port Moresby；第二大城市：莱城Lae；第三大城市：芒特哈根Mount Hagen新西兰New Zealand——第一大城市：奥克兰Auckland；第二大城市：惠灵顿Wellington；第三大城市：克赖斯特彻奇Christchurch补充知识：目前世界上公认的32个发达国家：亚洲（5国）：日本、韩国、新加坡、以色列、塞浦路斯欧洲（22国）：挪威、瑞典、丹麦、芬兰、冰岛、捷克、匈牙利、奥地利、德国、瑞士、荷兰、比利时、卢森堡、法国、英国、爱尔兰、西班牙、葡萄牙、意大利、马耳他、斯洛文尼亚、希腊大洋洲（2国）：澳大利亚、新西兰美洲（3国）：加拿大、美国、巴哈马其他发达经济体（不是国家）：香港、台湾、新喀里多尼亚、格陵兰、波多黎各、马提尼克石油富国：文莱、科威特、沙特阿拉伯、巴林、卡塔尔、阿联酋、阿曼。
英文翻译资料模板
英文翻译资料模板晋中学院本科毕业设计英文参考资料题目（英文）______________________院系______________________专业______________________姓名______________________学号______________________学习年限年月至年月指导教师职称提出申请学位学士学位年月日英文原文：topic（三号，timesnewroman字体、加粗、居中、其前空一行）author’sname:（×××大三号加粗、timesnewroman，字体母葛氏)1□☆☆☆☆☆（三号、timesnewroman加粗）1.1□☆☆☆☆（四号、timesnewroman、加粗，序号后空1个字符）1.1.1□☆☆☆（小四号、timesnewroman、加粗，序号后空1个字符）□□☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆正文（正文段前空2个字符，内容小四号、timesnewroman）（空一行）2□☆☆☆☆☆（三号、timesnewroman加粗）2.1□☆☆☆☆（四号、timesnewroman、加粗，序号后空1个字符）2.1.1□☆☆☆（小四号、timesnewroman、加粗，序号后空1个字符）□□☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆正文（正文段前空2个字符，内容大四号、timesnewroman）页面设置：页边距上下各2.75cm,左边距2.8cm,右边距2.5cm；行间距固定值为22磅。
正文已经开始标示页码：边线：页面底端（页脚）；对齐方式：放置在页面右下角（全部单面打印时），偶数页放置在页面左下角（双面打印时）1notes（大四号、timesnewroman、加粗,顶格，与正文之间空2行）①(内容大四号timesnewroman顶格）②中文译文：题目（三号、黑体，母葛氏）作者姓名：（×××小三号黑体，居中)1□☆☆☆☆☆（三号、黑体、加粗、序号后空1个字符）1.1□☆☆☆☆（四号、黑体、加粗、序号后空1个字符）1.1.1□☆☆☆（大四号、宋体、加粗、序号后空1个字符）1.1.1.1□☆☆☆（大四号、宋体、加粗、序号后空1个字符）□□☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆正文（下方段前空2个字符，内容小四号、宋体）（空一行）2□☆☆☆☆☆（三号、黑体、加粗、序号后空1个字符）2.1□☆☆☆☆（四号、黑体、加粗、序号后空1个字符）□□☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆☆正文（下方段前空2个字符，内容小四号、宋体）页面设置：页边距上下各2.75cm,左边距2.8cm,右边距2.5cm；行间距固定值为22磅。
LED英文资料及中文翻译
First LED SummaryLED (Light Emitting Diode), light-emitting diode, is a solid state semiconductor devices, which can be directly converted into electricity to light. LED is the heart of a semiconductor chip, the chip is attached to one end of a stent, is the negative side, the other end of the power of the cathode, the entire chip package to be epoxy resin. Semiconductor chip is composed of two parts, part of the P-type semiconductor, it inside the hole-dominated, the other side is the N-type semiconductor, here is mainly electronic. But linking the two semiconductors, among them the formation of a "PN junction." When the current through the wires role in this chip, will be pushing e-P, P zone in the hole with electronic composite, and then to be issued in the form of photon energy, and this is the principle of LED luminescence. The wavelength of light that is the color of light, is formed by the PN junction of the decisions of the material.Second LED history and development50 years ago, people have to understand semiconductor materials can produce light of the basic knowledge, the first commercial diodes in 1960. English is the LED light emitting diode (LED) acronym, and its basic structure is an electroluminescent semiconductor materials, placed in a wire rack, then sealed with epoxy resin around, that is, solid package, Therefore, the protection of the internal batteries can play the role of line, so the seismic performance LED good.LED is the core of the P-type semiconductor and components of the N-type semiconductor chips, the P-type semiconductor and N-type semiconductor between a transition layer, called the PN junction. In some semiconductor materials in the PN junction, the injection of a small number of carrier-carrier and the majority of the extra time will be in the form of light energy to release, thus the power to direct conversion of solar energy. PN junction on reverse voltage, a few hard-carrier injection, it is not luminous. This use of injection electroluminescent diodes is produced by the principle of light-emitting diodes, commonly known as LED. When it in a positive state of the work (that is, at both ends with forward voltage), the current flows from the LED anode, cathode, semiconductor crystals on the issue from the ultraviolet to infrared light of different colors, light and the strength of the currents.Instruments used for the first LED light source instructions, but all kinds of light colored LED lights in traffic and large screen has been widely applied, have a very good economic and social benefits. The 12-inch red traffic lights as an example, is used in the United States have long life, low-efficiency 140 watt incandescent lamp as a light source, it produced 2,000 lumens of white light. The red filter, the loss-90 percent, only 200 lumens of red light. In the light of the new design, Lumileds companies have 18 red LED light source, including the loss of circuit, atotal power consumption of 14 watts to generate the same optical effect. Automotive LED lights is also the source of important areas.For general lighting, people need more white light sources. The 1998 white LED successful development. This is the GaN LED chip and Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (YAG) package together cause. GaN chip of the Blu-ray (λ p = 465nm, Wd = 30nm), made of high-temperature sintering of the Ce3 + YAG phosphors excited by this Blu-ray after irradiating a yellow, the peak 550 nm. Blue-chip installed in the LED-based Wanxing reflection in the cavity, covered with a resin mixed with YAG thin layer, about 200-500 nm. LED-based tablets issued by the Blu-ray absorption part of the phosphor, the phosphor another part of the Blu-ray and a yellow light mixed, can be a white. Now, the InGaN / YAG white LED, YAG phosphor by changing the chemical composition of the phosphor layer and adjust the thickness of the3500-10000 K color temperature can be colored white. This blue LED through the method by white, constructed simple, low-cost, high technology is mature, so use the most.The development of LED display can be divided into the following phases: first phase 1990 to 1995, mainly monochrome and 16 color graphics screen. Used to display text and simple images, mainly used in railway stations, financial securities, banks, post offices and other public places, as public information display tools. The second stage is from 1995 to 1999, there have been 64, 256 level gray-scale two-color video screen. Video control technology, image processing, optical fiber communication technology applications will enhance the LED display to a new level. LED display control LSI chips special at this time developed by domestic companies, and can be applied. The third stage, from 1999, red, pure green, blue LED in bulk into China, while domestic enterprises in-depth research and development work, using red, green, and blue LED production of full-color display has been widely used , poured into sports stadiums, convention centers, squares and other public places, which will bring the domestic large-screen full-color era. With the rapid development of LED materials market, surface mount device is available from 2001, mainly used in indoor full color, and its high brightness, colorful, low temperature characteristics, the point spacing can be adjusted by different price Requirements were accepted, in just two years time, product sales have more than 300 million yuan, surface mount full-color LED display application market entered the new century. To meet the 2008 Olympic Games, "downsizing" plan, Liard developed a surface mount dual color displays, a lot of time for the training center and game scoring. Full color in Olympic venues, in order to tighten investment, full color way is mostly detachable, live during the Olympic Games as a tool can be used for rental after the event, as the performance of national policies such as public places, tools released by In this way cost recovery as soon as possible. On the market, China's accession to WTO, Beijing's successful Olympic bid and so on, into the development of LED display industry, a new opportunity. Domestic LED display market continues to grow, currently in the domestic market, domestic LED display market share of nearly 95%. LED display theinternational market capacity is expected to 30% a year growth rate. Currently, LED display manufacturers concentrated primarily in Japan, North America, China LED manufacturers in which the insignificant share of exports. According to incomplete statistics, the world, there are at least 150 manufacturers full color, in which products are complete, the larger company has some 30 or so.Third LED advantagesConductor light-emitting diode (LED) as a third-generation semiconductor lighting source. This fantastic product has a lot of advantages: (1) efficient light: spectra of almost all concentrated in the visible light frequency, the efficiency can reach 80% -90%. The luminous efficiency of incandescent visible light efficiency of almost 10% -20% only. (2) high quality of light: not as a result of spectrum UV and infrared, there is no heat, no radiation, is typically a green light illumination. (3) energy consumption of the small: single power generally 0.05-1w, through the cluster can be tailored to meet different needs, and waste very little. As a light source, under the brightness in the same power consumption of only ordinary incandescent 1/8-10.(4) long life: flux attenuation to 70% of the standard life expectancy is 100,000 hours.A semiconductor light can be used under normal circumstances 50 years, even if the long life of the people, life will be used up to two lights. (5) durable and reliable: No tungsten wire, glass and other easily damaged components, non-normal retirement rate is very small, very low maintenance costs. (6) the application of flexibility: small size, can flat pack, easy to develop into a short thin products, make point, line, face various forms of specific applications. (7) Security: working voltage 1.5-5v or less in between the current 20-70mA in between. (8) green: recyclable waste, no pollution, unlike fluorescent lamps containing mercury as ingredients. (9) response time is short: to adapt to frequent and high-frequency switching operation of occasions.Fourth Classification of LED display1, color by color can be divided intoSingle-color display: Single color (red or green).Two-color display: red and green dual-color, 256 gray scale levels, can display 65,536 colors.Full-color screen: red, green, blue color, 256 grayscale full color display can display more than 16 million kinds of colors.2, according to display device classificationLED Digital Display: 7 segment display devices for the digital control code, suitable for production of the clock screen, the interest rate screens, showing the number of electronic display.LED dot-matrix graphic display: display device is arranged by a number of uniform composition of the dot-matrix LED display modules, suitable for broadcast text, image information.LED video display: display devices are formed by a number of light-emitting diodes that can display video, animation and other video files.3, by using the occasion categoriesIndoor Display: LED spots smaller, general Φ3mm - Φ8mm, shows the general area of a few to more than ten square meters.Outdoor Display: dozens of square meters in size to several hundred square meters, high brightness, can work in the sun, with wind, rain, water resistant.4, classified according to light spot diameterIndoor screen: Φ3mm, Φ3.75mm, Φ5mm,Room external screen: Φ10mm, Φ12mm, Φ16mm, Φ19mm, Φ20mm, Φ21mm, Φ22mm, Φ26mmRoom external screen as the basic unit of light emitting tube, LED tube principle is a set of red, green, and blue light-emitting diode sealed in a plastic barrel and jointly develop5, Display a static, horizontal scroll, vertical scroll and flip display. One block module control drive 12 (up to control 24) 8X8 Dot Matrix, a total of 16X48 dot matrix (or 32X48 dot matrix), is a single block of MAX7219 (or PS7219, HD7279, ZLG7289 and 8279, and the like LED display driver module) 12 times (or 24 times)! Can use "cascade" approach the composition of any large dot matrix display. Effects, good power consumption, and the MAX7219 circuit than the use of lower cost.Fifth LED applicationsIt is a semiconductor light-emitting diode by controlling the display, which probably look like that from lots of small red lights are usually formed by the bright lights off to show character. Used to display text, graphics, images, animations, quotes, video, video signals and other information on the display screen.Graphic display and LED display into the video display by the LED matrix blocks. Graphic displays can be synchronized with the computer display Chinese characters, English text and graphics; video display using micro-computer control, graphics, images, and Mao, real-time, synchronization, clear message to the broadcast of a variety of information dissemination, but also shows two dimensional, three-dimensional animation, video, TV, VCD programs and live on. LED display shows the screen brightly colored, three-dimensional sense of strong, static, such as painting, moving as the film is widely used in finance, tax, business, telecommunications, sports, advertising, industrial enterprises, transport, education systems, stations, docks, airports, shopping malls, hospitals, hotels, banks, securities markets, construction market, auction houses, industrial enterprises in management and other public places.LED display can show changes in the numbers, text, graphics and video; not only can be used in the indoor environment can also be used for outdoor environment, with a projector, TV wall, LCD screen can not match advantage.Sixth LED screen test methodA look at Screen size, appearance, smoothness, with the screen connection and so onSecond look after the dead pixel screen light up, not in not within the scope of (in general the screen is basically gone now)Color consistency, display text is normal, display pictures, play full screen full color to white, red, green, and blue.一 LED概述LED（Light Emitting Diode），发光二极管，是一种固态的半导体器件，它可以直接把电转化为光。
中国食品安全监管和政策控制 英文文献翻译资料
Regulatory and policy control on food safety in China（中国食品安全监管和政策控制）Food safety incidents in China over the past two decades have not just threatened the health of the people in the country but have also caused international concern, as China is now a major food exporter in the international market. One of the most infamous food safety scandals in China in recent years, the ‘melamine milk’ incident, came to light in September 2008. This incident attracted so much international attention that within about 2 months, the United Nations system launched a paper to prompt China to improve food safety. In this editorial, readers will be updated with the recent and less well-known changes to the major control mechanisms for food safety in mainland China. Major weaknesses in this control regime will be discussed in order to raise awareness, as well as to pave the way for making recommendations for improvement.FOOD SAFETY LAW AND MONITORING IN CHINAThe Chinese Government has long been deploying the commonly used regulatory controls on food safety, such as setting minimum safety or process standards, mandatory information provision, and conditions of use requirements. In addition to this, since 2002, China, through the Ministry of Health, has monitored food safety by using a national monitoring network. With 1196 monitoring sites, the network covers all provinces, 73% of cities and 25% of counties in the country as of March 2012. In the near future, a new China Food Net that monitors and tracks pathogens causing food-borne diseases, as well as connecting food markets, supermarkets, hospitals and restaurants, will be set up8 to fill the current lacuna in domestic food supply monitoring.In terms of legal development, about 1 year after the exposure of the melamine in milk incident, a new food safety law, the Food Safety Law of the People’s Republic of China (hereafter FSL) took effect on 1 June 2009. The FSL replaced the Food Hygiene Law (FHL) which was enacted in 1995, and has become the main food safety protection law in China. As opposed to the FHL, the FSL unambiguously ascribes the ultimate and coordinating responsibility for food safety management to the Ministry of Health which is also responsible for food safety risk assessment, formulation of food safety standards, food safety information dissemination, setting codes of practice for food testing organisations, and the investigation of major food safety incidents in the country (Article 4). Stated also in Article 4, the duty to monitor food production, circulation and servicing is to be taken up by the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine (AQSIQ), the State Administration for Industry and Commerce (SAIC), and the State Food and Drug Administration (SFDA). However, the FSL is silent on how this monitoring duty should be divided among the three authorities. Customarily, the AQSIQ will be responsible for monitoring food production, the SAIC for food circulation, and the SFDA for food servicing and catering.One shortcoming of the FHL was its narrow scope because it covered mainly the industrial production of food. This is rectified to some extent in the FSL which mentions that quality and safety management of farm produce should be implemented in accordance with relevant quality and safety laws (Article 2).10 However, the FSL still does not fully implement the farm-to-fork principle becauseno specific regulatory control on the production of raw materials of food, that is, farm produce, is mentioned.A new aspect of the FSL is that it authorises consumers to seek compensation from producers or distributors of the problematic food products for the financial loss incurred as a result, in addition to a sum up to 10 times the price of the problematic food product (Article 96). While this is an improvement over the FHL, if the problematic food products concerned are lowpriced basic food items, such as table salt or rice, then deterrence may still be inadequate.Furthermore, the FSL is also silent on whether the local governments concerned are required to compensate the victims if the incident is caused by perfunctory government action. While it is not clear if financial compensation would be made by the local governments, the FSL does impose specific penalties, such as dismissal and a 10-year embargo on food inspection duties, on derelict officials (Article 93). However, the most severe form of punishment for these derelict public officers can be found in the latest amendment to the Criminal Law. A newly added section of Article 408 of the Criminal Law stipulates that if food safety monitoring officials have caused serious or very serious damages to society due to their misconduct or negligence, they will be sentenced to a maximum of 5 or 10 years imprisonment, respectively. This shows the political will of the Central Chinese government to improve food safety governance of the country.OTHER FOOD SAFETY CHALLENGESOther challenges for food safety in China are closely related to the high cost of monitoring. In China, thorough monitoring of food product safety and quality is particularly costly because of the large number of small production points involved which are also more likely to practise substandard operation. Small-scale family workshops employing fewer than 10 employees were said to represent 70–77% of market share in China, not to mention the coexistence of many unregistered informal producers. For instance, in Hunan, 80% of the small food workshops did not have the required production permits or business licenses. Augmenting the available finances of municipal and submunicipal food safety monitoring agents is a direct solution to the above situation. However, the reality is just the opposite. The impecunious financial capacity of public agencies, especially of provinces in western China, has often been cited as a cause of regulatory and government failure. The tight budget of many local food safety authorities in China has led to compromises in the types and quantities of food samples purchased for routine monitoring and testing. As a result, the less well-off local authorities tend to conduct testing on lower-priced food items, leaving the more up-market food items, de facto, test-exempted.In line with the aim to reduce the cost of monitoring, in 2001, China launched an Inspection Exemption Certification policy.A food producer could be given inspection exemption status if it enjoyed a large market share, passed quality inspections three times in a row, and implemented food safety standards above national ones. The original intention of this policy was to encourage food producers to voluntarily raise production standards and perform well in formal inspections so that they would enjoy a good reputation and a better market share. However, this policy was shown to be a failure by the melamine in milk incident because the first brand of milk powder found to contain melamine was itself an inspection-exempted brand, and this is probably why the InspectionExemption Certification policy was repealed by the AQSIQ just 7 days after the exposure of the melamine in milk incident.On the whole, despite the progress made, the regulatory outcome of subsequent years shows that there is still room for improvement. In 2011, prosecutions related to unsafe or substandard food amounted to 367, an increase of 216% from 2010. Prosecution numbers for the first half of 2012 are comparable withthose in 2011.CONCLUSIONSo, how can food safety be improved in China? First, China should draw on international best practices to rationalise and better define the division of work among the various authorities ascribed with having food safety-related duties. In choosing a better form of governance structure, China can consider using either the single agency model or the integrated model. Second, sufficient legal empowerment should be given to the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) to monitor the integrity of farm produce by clearly stating this duty of the MoA in the FSL with the purpose of formally and thoroughly applying the farm-to-fork principle in the country. Third, financial compensation for the victims of food safety incidents should be pegged according to the damage caused and not the value of the food products concerned. Fourth, as a deterrent to duty-dodging public agencies, derelict local government officials should be subject to legal responsibility (as stipulated in14), and local governments should also be required to compensate the victims adequately. Fifth, there is an obvious need to improve monitoring, inspection and law enforcement related to food safety in China. A power-sharing public supervision system should be established that more openly disseminates food quality and safety information which is traditionally vested only with food producers. Such a system empowers the general public to cosupervise food safety with the Chinese government and raise the vigilance of food producers.It is evident that the Chinese government has (whether proactively or by compulsion) taken many positive steps toward food safety improvement in the past few years. But still, a great deal more needs to be done. While there may be a common belief that the Chinese government is incapable of admitting mistakes, or reluctant to do so, this is not always the case. As is demonstrated by the swift retraction of the Inspection Exemption Certification policy and the newly added penalty terms for food safety-specific government misconducts, the Chinese government can and will make radical changes to correct the bad policies made in the past. It is this courage to admit mistakes, and the kind of efficiency demonstrated by the AQSIQ, that give hope for the future of food safety management in China.REFERENCES[1] Zuo W. Ministry of Public Security publicizes the ten typical criminal cases of food safety in 2010. Xinhua News Agency 22 March 2011.[2] Nyambok EO, Kastner JJ. United States import safety, environmental health, and food safety regulation in China. Adv Sci 2011;74:28–34.[3] World Health Organization. China press release—UN issues paper on food safety in China. 2008.[4] Ministry of Health. Good manufacturing practice for powdered formulae for infants and young children,National Food Safety Standard, GB 23790-2010, 2010. (in Chinese).[5] Ministry of Health. General provisions on pre-packaged food labeling, National Food Safety Standards, GB7718-2011, 2011. (in Chinese).[6] Ministry of Health. Guidelines for the use of food additives, National Food Safety Standards, GB2760-2011, 2011b. (in Chinese).[7] China National Centre for Food Safety Risk Assessment. Chen Zhu: Food safety monitoring network has gradually covered the whole country.[8] Shan J. Food safety monitoring network in shape. China daily 9 March 2012.[9] United Nations in China. Advancing Food Safety in China. Occasional Paper, August, 2008.[10] The Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China. Food Safety Law, 2009. (in Chinese).[11] The Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China. Food Hygiene Law, 1995. (in Chinese).[12] Li YH, Qi RG, Liu HY. Designing independent regulatory system of food safety in China. Agriculture Agricultural Sci Procedia 2010;1:288–95.[13] Zhao YJ, Wen Q. Reflections and understanding on the Food Safety Saw. Young Days, late August issue 2012:P295. (in Chinese).中国食品安全监管和政策控制在中国在过去的二十年里，食品安全事件不仅威胁到人民健康，同时也引起了国际关注，在国际市场上，中国是主要粮食出口国。
企业社会责任英文原文加翻译-精选资料
一．英文原文Moral Discourse and Corporate Social Responsibility ReportingBy MaryAnn Reynolds, Kristi YuthasABSTRACTThis paper examines voluntary corporate social responsibility (CSR) reporting as a form of moral discourse。
It explores how alternative stakeholder perspectives lead to differing perceptions of the process and content of responsible reporting. We contrast traditional stakeholder theory，which views stakeholders as external parties having a social contract with corporations，with an emerging perspective，which views interaction among corporations and constituents as relational in nature。
This moves the stakeholder from an external entity to one that is integral to corporate activity。
We explore how these alternative stakeholder perspectives give rise to different normative demands for stakeholder engagement, managerial processes，and communication. We discuss models of CSR reporting and accountability：EMAS，the ISO 14000 series, SA8000，AA1000，the Global Reporting Initiative，and the Copenhagen Charter。
轮胎压力监测中英文资料外文翻译文献
轮胎压力监测中英文资料外文翻译文献This paper discusses the use of surface acoustic wave (SAW) XXX SAW sensors。
tire pressure XXX during every phase of driving。
The authors present their prototypes for measuring tire pressure。
the SAW sensors used。
and the XXX test rides.ning tires XXX human life while operating a road XXX Nowadays。
car manufacturers try to save space and weight by not including a XXX。
this can lead to XXX and the need for a tire change is still XXX punctures。
it is essential to measure tire XXX 20 grams。
causing high dynamic load。
A few years ago。
XXX。
These devices use an one port SAW delay line XXX devices that do not require a power supply or XXX。
XXX.In this paper。
we discuss XXX discuss the XXX。
XXX driving。
ensuring the safety of drivers and passengers on the road.Passive SAW pressure sensors operate as either a one-port delay line with XXX。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
英文翻译资料 此类英文对外出版物或者中英对照出版物上，中国画标题说明的英译存在一些问题。其一是构成部分及其排列顺序、字体、书名号和标点符号等不符合英文绘画标题说明的文体特点，如： 洛神赋图卷（摹本）（晋）顾恺之绢本，纵27厘米，横572厘米 A Copy of The Nymph of the Luo River. Painted on silk. Gu Kaizi. Jin Dynasty(265-420). 27 cm x 572 cm 据相关史料，此图为宋朝摹本，佚名，原图为晋顾恺之所作。此译中，顾恺之是摹本作者还是原图作者，这一信息很难看出。形式上排列为一行，不符合译语习惯。改译为：Anonymous, Song Dynasty(960-1279): “The Nymph of the Luo River”, aft er Gu Kaizi, Jin Dynasty(265-420) Painted on silk, long scroll, 27 cm x 572 cm 游春图卷（隋）展子虔（传）绢本，纵43厘米，横80.5厘米 A River View in Spring. Painted on silk, attributed to Zhan Ziqian. Sui Dynasty(581-618). 43 cm x 80.5 cm 此例译文无书名号，排列顺序也不符合译入语习惯。改译为： Attributed to Zhan Ziqian, Sui Dynasty (581-618): A River View in Spring Painted on silk, scroll, 43 x 80.5 cm 另外，由于译者的理解、选词的不同，同一中国古代名画，英译标题在不同的出版物中不一样。更有理解错误，而译错的情况。理解一致，但译法不同而译文不一，或者意义理解的分歧而导致译文不一，或者因误解而误译，从而一个标题有多种译文，如：《洛神赋图》：The Nymph of the Luo River、The Goddess of the Luo River、The Goddess of Luo 《潇湘图》：The Xiangjiang River、Scenery Along the Xiao and Xiang Rivers、Xiaoxiang 《游春图》：A River View in Spring、Spring Outing 《文姬归汉图》：Wenji Returning to Han、The Return of Wenji from Captivity 《韩熙载夜宴图》：Han Xizai Giving a Night Banquet、Han Xizai Attending an Evening Banquet 本文从英文或英汉对照的中国美术史论、国画、中国传统文化等方面的对外出版物中精选若干实例（限于篇幅，未注明来源），并加以分析，探讨这一特定文本的汉译英，以期建立这一特定文本英译的规范。 2 绘画标题说明的文本功能及汉译英原则 绘画作品的标题说明作为一种特定的文本或篇章，其主要功能是信息功能：传达艺术品的作者、绘制时间、绘画标题、材质、尺寸、收藏等信息。相对于其它文本，它具有其独特的形式。另外，这一文本还有其存在的特殊环境，即：依附于绘画作品而存在。因此，要翻译绘画作品的标题说明，应以最接近于译入语的形式忠实地传达原文的信息。在标题的翻译中，有时还必须考虑画面信息这一重要因素。 简而言之，绘画标题说明这一文本汉译英的原则是：参照画面信息，以最接近于英语绘画标题说明的形式忠实地传达中文绘画标题说明和绘画作品相关的信息。 3 英文绘画标题说明的文体特点 符合英语绘画标题说明之文本的文体特点和形式，完整地传达原文的信息，是翻译中文绘画标题的原则。因此，有必要对英文绘画标题说明的文体特点加以分析。 3.1 完整的英文绘画标题说明的构成部分一般包括：姓名、标题、作画时间、材质、尺寸、收藏或捐赠情况等。例如： Pablo Picasso: Les Demoiselles d?Avignon, 1907 Oil on canvas, 243.9 x 233.7 cm The Museum of Modern Art, New York 3.2 英文画册绘画标题说明的各部分通常排列成三行，依次为：“姓名：标题，作画时间”、“材质，尺寸”和“收藏或捐赠”。也有分为四行的：“姓名：”、“标题，作画时间”、“材质，尺寸”和“收藏或捐赠”。若是个人绘画专集，则姓名缺省。每行齐头，因排版限制而需转行时也齐头。例如： Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres: The Golden Age, 1862 Oil on paper mounted on a wood panel, 47.9 x 62.9 cm The Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University Art Museum, Cambridge (MA) 3.3 标题的文体特点： 3.3.1词汇：常用词汇涉及到美术各科类的名称、工具、材料等。很少有大词。 3.3.2语法：标题一般为名词或名词性短语，并常有介词短语、分词、分词短语等做其修饰成分，但少有形容词和副词等做其修饰成分。例如：“Studies”、“Self-portrait”、“Flowers and Sculpture”、“Portrait of Victor Chocquet”、“View of Chateau Noir”、“Still Life with Apples and Peaches”、“Self-portrait in Shirtsleeves”、“Nude with White Towel”、“Nude on a Blue Cushion by a Fireplace”、“Standing Model”、“Study of Female Nude, Standing, Back”、“Seated Nude on a Red Background”、“Semi-nude Woman Standing”、“Nude Sitting in an Armchair”、“Nude Recliningon Flowered Ground”、“Nude Woman Doing a Headstand”、“Nude Standing in front of an Open Door”、“Dancer Sitting on the Table”。也有标题为分词短语，如：“Thinking of History from My Space”、“Waiting for the Rising Moon in the Western Chamber ”。 绘画标题有的以句子构成：“Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going To?”、“Everything is Grand for the Kings. Letter to André Rouveyre”。但是用完整的句子作绘画作品的标题很少见。偶尔也有从句作标题的，如：“Where I Played as a Child (Suzhou)”。 有一个常见而特别的名词复数形式需注意：“still life”的复数形式是“still lifes”。 标题之首的不定冠词常省略，例如：“Violin Player at the Window”、“Woman with an Amber Necklace”、“Head of Lorette with Two Curls”、“Hat with Feathers”、“Odalisque in Turkisl Trousers”、“Sleeping Figure”、“Seated Woman”、“Ballet Dancer”、“Head”、“Hair”、“”、“Woman in Yellow and Blue with Guitar”、“Young Woman in Pink ”。 标题之首的定冠词则通常不省略，例如：“The Mill”、“The Piano Lesson”、“The Italian Woman”、“The Black Table”、“The Artist with his Model”、“The White Plumes”、“The Feathered Hat”、“The Dream”、“The Afternoon”、“The Sadness of the King”。 3.3.3标点符号：姓名与标题之间用冒号；标题有书名号（斜体），有的还同时用黑体标明；每行末尾无标点符号；行内用逗号；有时还要用到括号，如： Matisse: Still Life with Oranges (II), 1899 Oil on canvas, 46.7 x 55.2 cm Washington University Gallery of Art, St. Louis (MO) 标题之中所含的绘画作品标题，用双引号表示。例如：Study for “Young Girl in a Green Dress”、Study for “Portrait of Sarah Stein”、Unfinished Version of “The Dance”(right-hand panel)、Mask, Study for “Large Decoration with Masks”。 若作品无标题，则标为“Untitled”（用斜体标明），如： Matisse: Untitled, 1930-1931 Graphite pencil, 28 x 21.6 cm Musée National d?Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou,