词汇学第一章教案
Teaching Program for Lexicology
Part One Introduction
1.Definition: a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.
2.Functions: to investigate and study the morphological structures of English words and word
equivalents, their semantics structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.
Part Two Words and vocabulary
1.Definition of word: a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning
and syntactic function.
2.Relation between sound and meaning: certain sound will represent certain persons, things,
places, properties, processes and activities outside the language system. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is no logic relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself. The relationship between them is conventional.
3.Relation between sound and form: Naturally the written form should agree with the oral
form, that is, the sound should be similar to the form.
Reasons for the differences between them:
1)English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to
represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.
2)The pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some
cases the two have drawn far apart.
3)Some of the differences were created by the early scribes.
4)The borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.
4.Vocabulary: it refers to both the total number of the words in a language, and all the words
used in a particular historical period, as well as all the words of a given dialect.
The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over one million words.
5.Classification of words
1)Basic word stock and non-basic vocabulary; (By use of frequency)
a.Characteristics of basic word stock:
①All national character; ②Stability; ③Productivity; ④Polysemy;
⑤Collocability.
b.Characteristics of non-basic stock:
①Terminology; ②Jargon; ③Slang; ④Argot; ⑤Dialectal words;
⑥Archaisms; ⑦Neologisms.
2)Content words and functional words; (By notion)
a.Content words: denote clear notions, also called notional words, including nouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.
b.Functional words: do not have notions of their own, also called form words,
including prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles.
3)Native words and borrowed words. (By origin)
a.Native words: words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes, the
Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, whose
amount is roughly 50,000 to 60,000.
Features: ①Neutral in style; ②Frequent in use.
b.Borrowed words: also known as loan words or borrowings, words taken over from
foreign languages, constituting 80% of the modern English vocabulary.
Four classes: ①Denizens; ②Aliens; ③Translation-loans; ④Semantic-loans. Part Three The development of English vocabulary
1.History of the English vocabulary:
1)Old English (450-1150):
Resources: Latin (Christianity), Scandinavian
Features: a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words, a highly inflected language.
2)Middle English (1150-1500):
Resources: French, Dutch
Features: retained much fewer inflections
3)Modern English (1500-up to now):
Resources: Latin, Greek, other countries
Features: word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions. English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.
2.Growth of present-day English vocabulary:
Main resources of new words: a. Rapid development of science and technology; b. Social, economic and political changes; c. The influence of other cultures and languages.
3.Modes of vocabulary development:
1)Creation: the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots,
affixes and other elements.
2)Semantic change: an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.
3)Borrowing: French, Latin, Greek and Scandinavian
4)Reviving archaic or obsolete words:
5)Old words falling out of use:
Part Four Word formation (I)
1.Morphemes: the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.
2.Types of morphemes:
1)Free morphemes: Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered
to be free. They have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with root words.
2)Bound morphemes: Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.
Two types: a. Bound root: part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just
like a free root.
b. Affixes: forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify
meaning or function.
①Inflectional affixes: attached to the end of words to indicate
grammatical relationships.
②Derivational affixes: added to other morphemes to create new words,
including prefixes and suffixes.
3.Root: the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity Part Five Word Formation (II)
1.Affixation: the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems,
also known as derivation.
1)Prefixation: non-class-changing nature, only to change meanings of the stems
a.Negative prefixes: a-, dis-, in- (il-, ir-, im-), non-, un-
e.g. amoral (nonmoral), apolitical; disloyal, disobey; injustice, illegal, irresistible,
immature; non-smoker, non-classical; unfair, unwilling
b.Reversative prefixes: de-, dis-, un-
e.g. decentralize, de-compose; disunite, disallow; unhorse, unwrap
c.Pejorative prefixes: mal-, mis-, pseudo-
e.g. maltreat, malpractice; misconduct, mistrust; pseudo-friend, pseudo-science
d.Prefixes of degree or size: aarch-, extra-, hyper-, macro-, micro-, mini-, out-, over-,
sub-, super-, sur-, untra-, under
e.g. archbishop; extra-strong; hyperactive; macrocosm; microcomputer;
mini-election; outlive; overweight; subheading; superfreeze; surtax;
ultra-conservative; underdeveloped
e.Prefixes of orientation and attitude: anti-, contra-, counter-, pro-
e.g. anti-nuclear, anti-government; contraflow; countersign; pro-democracy
f.Locative prefixes: extra-, fore-, inter-, intra-, tele-, trans-
e.g. extramarital; forehead; inter-city, interpersonal; intra-party; telecommunications;
trans-world, transcontinental
g.Prefixes of time and order: ex-, fore-, post-, pre-, re-
e.g. ex-professor; foretell; post-election; pre-prepared; reconsider
h.Number prefixes: bi-, multi-, poly-, semi-, hemi-, tri-, uni-, mono-
e.g. bilingual; multi-purpose; polysyllable; semi-naked; hemisphere; tricycle;
uniform; monorail
i.Miscellaneous prefixes: auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-
e.g. autobiography; neo-Nazi; pan-European; vice-president
2)Suffixation: to change the grammatical function of stems, that is, to change the word
class
a.Noun Suffixes:
a) Denominal nouns
●Concrete: -eer, -er, -ess, -ette, -let
e.g. profiteer; teenager; hostess; kitchenette; booklet; gangster
●Abstract: -age, -dom, -ery, -ry, -hood, -ing, -ism, -ship
e.g. wastage; kingdom; slavery; adulthood; farming; terrorism; friendship
b) Deverbal nouns
●Nouns denoting people: -ant, -ee, -ent, -er (-or)
e.g. assistant; employee; respondent; writer
●Abstract nouns: -age, -al, -ance, -ation (-ition, -tion, -sion, -ion), -ence, -ing,
-ment
e.g. carriage; dismissal; attendenc; protection; decision; existence; building;
statement
c) De-adjective nouns: -ity, -ness
e.g. popularity; happiness
d) Noun and adjective suffixes: -ese, -an, -ist
e.g Chinese; Australian; socialist
b.Adjective suffixes:
a) Denominal suffixes: -ed, -ful, -ish, -less, -like, -ly, -y
e.g. wooded; successful; childish; priceless; lady-like; cowardly; smoky
b) Deverbal suffixes: -able, -ible, -ive, -ative, -sive
e.g. washable; permissible; decisive; productive
c.Adverb suffixes: -ly, -ward(s), -wise
e.g. naturally; homewards; downward; clockwise
d.Verb suffixes: -ate, -en, -(i)fy, -ize
e.g. originate; darken; beautify; modernize
Note: -nik, folknik, peacenik, jazznik
https://www.360docs.net/doc/c915449830.html,pounding: the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.
1)Characteristics:
a. Phonetic features: the word stress usually occurs on the first element if there is only
one stress, in case of two stresses, the compound has the primary stress on the first element and the second stress on the second.
b. Semantic features: every compound should express a single idea just as one word, the
meaning of which cannot be easily inferred from the two components of the compounds.
c. Grammatical features: a compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a
sentence, and show its plural forms by taking inflectional –s at the end. In adjective-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes.
2)Formation:
a.Noun compounds:
●n. + n. : moon walk, end product ★
●n. + v. : toothache, frostbite ★
●v. + n. : crybaby, tell-tale ★
● a. + n. : deadline, blueprint ★
●n. + v-ing. : air-conditioning, brainwashing ★
●v-ing. + n. : cleaning lady, wading bird ★
●n. + v-er : stockholder, crime reporter ★
●adv. + v. : outbreak, downfall ★
●v. + adv. : sit-in, have-not ★
●v-ing + adv. : going-over, carryings-on
●adv. + v-ing : up-bringing
b. Adjective compounds:
●n. + v-ing : law-abiding, record-breaking ★
●+ v-ing : easy-going, high-sound
●n. + a. : warweary, thread-bare ★
●+ a. : deaf-mute, bitter-sweet
●n. + v-ed: custom-built, town-bred ★
●+ v-ed : far-reached, hard-won
●num. + n-ed : ten-storey, four-leg
●num. + n-ed : one-eyed, two-legged
●adv. + v-ing : forth-coming, out-going
●v-ed + adv. : worn-out, washed-up
b.Verb compounds
●Through conversion: honeymoon, moonlight
●Through backformation: chain-smoker, mass production
3.Conversion: the formation of new words by converting words of one part of speech to
another part of speech.
1)To noun:
a.Verb to noun:
●State (of mind or sensation): doubt, want, love, hate, smell, taste
●Event or activity: search, laugh, swim, release, attempt
●Result of the action: catch, find, reject, answer, bet
●Doer of the action: help, cheat, coach, scold, flirt
●Tool or instrument to do the action with: cover, wrap, cure, paper
●Place of the action: pass, walk, drive, retreat, turn
b.Adjective to noun:
●Words fully converted: a white, a native, finals, a Republican, a drunk, newly-weds
●Words partially converted: the poor, the rich, the wounded, the more affluent, the
most corrupt
c. Miscellaneous conversion: including nouns converted from conjunctions, modals,
finite verbs, prepositions
2)To verb:
a. Noun to verb:
●To put in or on N
e.g. to pocket the money; to can the fruit; bottle; shelve
●To give N or to provide with N
e.g. to oil the machine; to give shelter to the refugees; fuel; arm; finance
●To remove N from
e.g. to skin the lamb; to juice the oranges; core; feather
●To do with N
e.g. to pump water; to knife the steak; brake; hammer; shoulder
●To be or act as N
e.g. to nurse the baby; to captain the team; tutor; pilot
●To make or change into N
e.g. to cash the cheque; to orphan the boy; fool; knight; widow
●To send or go by N
e.g. to mail the letter; to bicycle; ship; boat
b. Adjective to verb: empty, dirty, warm cool, slow, clear, dry, narrow, free, blind
c. Miscellaneous conversion: much, but, off
4.Blending
1)head + tail: automobile + suicide = autocide; motor + hotel = motel; channel + tunnel =
chunnel
2)head + head: communications + satellite = comsat; teleprinter + exchange = telex;
situation + comedy = sitcom
3)Head + word: medical + care = medicare; Europe + Asia = Eurasia; automobile + camp =
autocamp
4)Word + tail: lunar + astronaut = lunarnaut; work + welfare = workfare
5.Clipping
1)Front clipping: earthquake – quake, telephone – phone, telescope - scope
2)Back flipping: dormitory – dorm, memorandum – memo, gentleman – gent, discotheque
-disco
3)Front and back flipping: influenza – flu, refrigerator - fridge
4)Phrase clipping: public house – pub, zoological garden – zoo, popular music - pop
6.Acronymy
1)Initialisms: are words pronounced letter by letter
a. Letters represent full words: VOA, BBC, UFO, B.C., C.O.D.
b. Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts of a word: TV, ID, TB, GHQ
2)Acronyms: are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word
e.g. NATO, AIDS, BASIC, TEFL, laser
Note: Some acronyms are formed with the initial letter of the first word plus the whole of the second.
e.g. N-bomb, D notice, G-man, D-Day, V-Day
7.Back-formation: is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation, and it is the method
of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. This is because many of the removed suffixes are not true suffixes but inseparable parts of the words.
1)Abstract nouns: diagnose-diagnosis, donate - donation, emote - emotion
2)Human nouns: loaf - loafer, sculpt - sculptor, burgle - burglar, beg - beggar
3)Compound nouns and others: merrymake - merry-making, babysit - babysitter
4)Adjectives: drowse – drowsy, laze - lazy
8.Words from proper names
1)Names of people: ampere, farad, ohm, volt, watt, diesel, Mackintosh, bloomers, Cherub,
Proteus, bobby, quisling, quixotic, sadism, robot, czar
2)Names of places: china, afghan, jersey, champagne, rugby
3)Names of books: utopia, odyssey, Babbit, Pickwick
4)Trade-names: nylon, orlan, Dacron, rayon, Xerox, boycott, cabal
Part Six Word Meaning
1.Reference: is the relationship between language and the world. Only when a connection has
been establish between the linguistic sign and a referent does the sign become meaningful.
The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional.
2.Types of meaning:
1)Grammatical meaning and lexical meaning:
a.Grammatical meaning: refers to that part of the meaning of the word which
indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words,
singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional
forms. This meaning becomes important only when it is used in actual context
b.Lexical meaning:
a) Conceptual meaning: is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of
word meaning.
b) Associative meaning: is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual
meaning, it differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and
indeterminate.
●Connotative meaning: refers to the overtones or associations suggested by the
conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotation.
●Stylistic meaning: many words have stylistic features, which make them
appropriate from different context.
●Affective meaning: indicates the speaker’s attitude toward the person or thing in
question. (appreciative and pejorative emotion)
●Collocative meaning: consists of the associations a word acquires in its
collocation, that is, it is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words
before or after the word in discussion.
Part Seven Sense Relations
1.Polysemy: is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages, which means a word has
two or more sense. Two processes of word sense development are radiation and concatenation.
2.Homonymy:
a.Perfect homonyms:
b.Homographs:
c.Homophones:
3. Synonymy: words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in
meaning.
Types : ①absolute synonyms; ②relative synonyms.
4.Antonymy: words which are opposite in meaning.
Types: ①contradictory terms; ②contrary terms; ③relative terms.
5.Hyponymy: deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion, that is, the meaning of a more
specific word is included in that of another more general word. These specific words are known as hyponyms, the general words are called superordinates.
Part Eight Changes in word meaning
1.Extension: also known as generalization, refers to the widening of meaning which some
words undergo.
e.g. manuscript, fabulous, barn, picture, mill, journal, companion, thing, business, condition,
matter, article, sandwich, vandal
2.Narrowing: also called specialization, is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires
a narrower or specialized sense.
e.g. deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl
3.Elevation: refers to the process by with words rise from humble beginnings to positions of
importance.
e.g. nice, angel, marshal, constable, fond, governor, minister, shrewd
4.Degradation: is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or
non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.
e.g. wench, villain, silly, lust, paper, dish
Subjective and objective meanings: pitiful, hateful, fearful, doubtful, suspicious
Part Nine English Idioms
1. Characteristics: ①semantic unity; ②structural stability
2. Classification:
a. Nominal idioms: white elephant, flesh and blood, Jack of all trades
b. Adjective idioms: cut and dried, as poor as a church mouse, beyond the pale, up in the air
c. Verbal idioms: make it, follow one’s nose, fall flat, give sb the sack (bag), sing a different
tune, chop and change, swim against the stream, come back to earth, make ends meet, keep the pot boiling, let the dog see the rabbit, bite the hand that feeds one
d. Adverbial idioms: tooth and nail, in nothing flat, through thick and thin, in clover
e. Sentence idioms:
e.g. ●A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
●Never do things by halves.
●Upon my word!
●Kill the goose that laid the golden egg.
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