语言学教程Chapter9 9.1 Introduction
英语语言学自编教材第九章
Chapter 9 Language and Culture 1．General Introduction1.1 The Relationship between Language and Culture●Relevant Language Use Observations and Questions to Ponder over1) In the following two conversations, the second speaker respondeddifferently towards the same question. And what do you think aChinese speaker will answer the same question?Conversation 1: between English speakersA: I like your sweater!B: Thank you!Conversation 2: between an English speaker and a Frenchspeaker.A: I like your sweater!B: Ah bon? Mais c’est très vieux ! (Oh, really? It’s very old!)2) Look at the following English words. Is there some connection between these words?bash, mash, smash, crash, dash, lash, clash, trash, splash, flash☺ /ʃ/: this sound suggests a sudden, violent movement/action foran English speaker3) The following lines are taken from a Singapore film I Not Stupid. Can you draw a conclusion from what you have read about Singlish?☺ Singlish/Singaporean: an English variety popular in SingaporeMom: Selina, where is all the ang pow that you got for yourbirthday?Selina（Daughter）: That’s my money. Why I must give it to youevery time?Terry（Son）: Yeah, lah. 为什么都要给你？Mom: 我知道这是你们的钱，but I will help you save, invest, hah. Don’t worry. I will give it back to you when you are old enough.Selina: When can you give it back to us?Terry: I know. 55岁。
语言学 第9章9.4-9.6
9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point of View小说与视角 According to Mick Short(1996), we need at least three levels of discourse to account for the language of fictional prose (i.e. a novel or short story) Addresser 1-Message-Addressee 1 (Novelist) (Reader） Addresser 2-Message- Addressee 2 (Narrator) (Narratee) Addresser 3-Message- Addressee 3 (Character A) (Character B)
文本分析：
(1) He thanked her many times, and said that the old dame who usually did such offices for him had gone to nurse the little scholar whom he had told her of. (2) The child asked how he was，and hoped he was better. (3) “No,” rejoined the schoolmaster, shaking his head sorrowfully, “No better. (4) They even say he is worse.”
With the Direct Speech (DS) we have what the character said in its fullest form, and as we move from 1) to 4) the speech contribution of the character becomes more and more muted. 我们从直接言语（DS）中能得到人物所说的最 全面的形式， 从DS---IS---FIS---NRSA---NRS 的过程中，人物的言语贡献变得越来越弱。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理
Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of timein hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes throughtime3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abideby. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA isusing one letter selected from major European languages to represent onespeech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with lettersymbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letterssymbols and the diacritics.Aspirated and unaspirated1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication areall phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, somedon’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it isrepresented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme/p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in aparticular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another bycopying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in acertain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather thanto the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to anotherone.5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morphemeChapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word categorycomplementizers words which introduce the sentence complementcomplement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ssubcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.1）The naming theory(命名论)Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refersto. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation-occurrence or collocation.③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the s ituation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”．②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It isthe collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; itdeals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lilyAntonymy（反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate formsbetween the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short … 2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member ofthe pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of therelationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below … 2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by ruleseg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G.Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.s is whether the What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmaticcontext of use is considered in the study of meaningIf it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.⑴Austin’s new model of speech actsUtterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simplyin a context.Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。
(完整word版)语言学教(胡壮麟版)英文目录
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1why Study Language1.2what Is Language1.3 Design Features Language1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 Creativity1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of Language1.5functions of Language1.5.1 Informantive1.5.2 Interpersonal Function1.5.3 Performative1.5. 4 Emotive Function1.5.5 Phatic Communion1.5.6 Recreational Function1.5.7 Metalingual Function1.6 What Is Linguistics?1.7 Main Branches of Linguistics1.7.1 Phonetics1.7.2 Phonology1.7.3 Morphology1.7.4 Syntax1.7.5 Semantics1.7.6 Pragmatics1.8 Macrolinguistics1.9 Important Distinction in Linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive Vs. Prescriptive1.9.2 Synchronic Vs. Diachronic1.9.3 Langue & Parole1.9.4 Competence and PerformanceChapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made?2.1.1 Speech Organs2.1.2 The IPA2.2 consonants and Vowels2.2.1 Consonants2.2.2 V owels2.2.3 The Sounds of English2.3 From Phonetics to Phonology2.3.1 Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcription2.3.2 Phonemes2.3.3 Allophones2.4 Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features2.4.1 Assimilation2.4.2 Epenthesis, Rule Ordering, and the Elsewhere Condition2.4.3 Distinctive Features2.5 Suprasegmentals2.5.1 The Syllable Structure2.5.2 Stress2.5.3 Intonation2.5.4 ToneChapter 3 From Morpheme To Phrase3.1 What Is Morpheme3.1.1 Morpheme and Morphology3.1.2 Types of Morphemes3.1.3 Morphological Change and Allomorph 3.2 What Is Word?3.2.1Word and Lexical Items3.2.2 Classification of Words3.3 Word Formation (1): From Morpheme to Word3.3.1 The Inflectional Way of Formation3.3.2The Derivational Way of Formation 3.4 Word Formation (2): Lexical Change3.5 Word Group and PhraseChapter 4 From Word To Text4.1 Syntactic Relation4.1.1The Positional Relation4.1.2Relation of Substitubility4.1.3Relation of Co-Occurrence4.2 Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents4.2.1 Grammatical Construction4.2.1 Immediate Constituents4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination4.3 Syntactic Function4.3.1Subject4.3.2Predicate4.3.3Object4.3.4The Relation between Classes and Functions 4.4 Category4.4.1 Number4.4.2 Gender4.4.3 Case4.4.4 Agreement4.5 Phrase,clause,sentence4.5.1 Phrase4.5.2 Clasue4.5.3 Sentence4.6 Recursiveness4.6.1Conjoining4.6.2 Embedding4.7 Beyond the Sentence4.7.1 Sentential Connection4.7.2 CohesionChapter5 meaning5.1 Meanings of MEANING5.2 The Referential Theory5.3 Sense Relations5.3.1 Synonymy5.3.2 Antonymy5.3.3 Hyponymy5.4 Componential Analysis5.5 Sentence Meaning5.5.1 An Integrated Theory5.5.2 Logical SemanticsChapter 6 Language and Cognition6.1 What Is Cognition?6.2 What Is Psycholinguistics?6.2.1 Language Acquisition6.2.2 Language Comprehension6.2.3 Language Production6.3 What Is Cognitive Linguistics?6.3.1 Construal and Construal Operations6.3.2 Categorization6.3.3 Image Schemas6.3.4 Metaphor6.3.5 Metonymy6.3.6 Blending TheoryChapter 7 Language, Culture and Society7.1 Language and Culture7.1. 1How Does Language Relate To Culture7.1.2 More about the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis7.1.3 Case Studies7.1.4 To Which Extent Do We Need Culture in Our Linguistic Study7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroom7.2 Language and Society7.2.1 How Does Language Relate to Society7.2.2 A Situationally and Socially Variationist Perspective7.2.3 What Should We Know About Sociolinguistics?7.2.4 What Implications Can We Get From Sociolinguistics?7.3 Cross-Culture Communication7.3.1 What Should We Know All About Cross-Culture Communication?7.3.2 Case Studies7.4 SummaryThe Chapter 8 Language in Use8.1 Speech Act Theory8.1.2 Performatives and Constatives8.1.3 A Theory of Illocutionary Act 8.2 The Theory of Conversational Implicature8.2.1 The Cooperative Principle8.2.2 Violation of the Maxims8.2.3 Characteristics of Implicature 8.3 Post-Gricean Development8.3.1 Relevance Theory8.3.2 The Q- And R-Principles8.3.3 The Q-, I- And M-Principles9.2 Some General Features of the Literary Language9.2.1 Foregrounding and Grammatical Form9.2.2 Literal Language and Figurative Language 9.3 The Language in Poetry9.3.1 Sound Patterning9.3.2 Different Forms of Sound Patterning9.3.3 Stress and Metrical Patterning9.3.4 Conversational Forms of Metre and Sound9.3.5 The Poetic Functions of Sound and Metre9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry9.4 The Language in Fiction9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point Of View9.4.2 Speech and Thought Presentation9.4.3 Prose Style9.4.4 How to Analyse the Language of Fiction 9.5 The Language in Drama9.5.1 How Should We Analyse Drama9.5.2 Analysing Dramatic Language9.5.3 How to Analyse Dramatic Texts?9.6 The Cognitive Approach to Literature9.6.1 Theoretical Background9.6.2An Example of Cognitive Analysis10.1 Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL)10.1.1 CAI/CAL vs CALL10.1.2 Phases of CALL Development10.1.3 Technology10.2 Machine Translation10.2.1 History of Development10.2.2 Research Methods10.2.3 MT Quality10.2.4 MT and the Internet10.2.5 Speech Translation10.2.6 MT and Human Translation10.3 Corpus Linguistics10.3.1 Definition10.3.2 Criticism and Revival of Corpus Linguistics10.3.3 Concordance10.3.4 Text Encoding and Annotation10.3.5 The Roles and Corpus Data10.4 Computer Mediated Communication10.4.1 Mail and News10.4. 2 PowerPoint10.4.3 Blog10.4.4 Chatroom10.4.5 Emoticons and SmileysChapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching11.1 The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching 11.2 Linguistics and Language Learning11.2.1 Grammar and Language Learning11.2.3 Input and Language Learning11.2.4 Interlinguage in Language Learning11.3linguistics and Language Teaching11.3.1 The Discourse-Based View of Language Teaching11.3.2 The Universal Grammar and Language Teaching 11.4 Linguistics and Syllabus Design11.4.1 A Clarification of Terms: Syllabus and Curriculum11.4.2 Theoretical Views behind Syllabus Design11.4.3 Types of Syllabus11.4.4 Components of Syllabus11.4.5 Current Trends in Syllabus Design11.5 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis11.5.1 Contrastive Analysis (CA)11.5.2 Error Analysis (EA)11.6 Corpus Linguistics and Language Teaching11.6.1Types of Corpora11.6.2What Uses Can We Make Of Corpora?11.7 SummaryChapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics 12.0 Introduction12.1the Plague School12.1.1 Introduction12.1.2 Phonology and Phonological Oppositions12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 12.2 The London School12.2.1 Malinowski’s Theory12.2.2 Firth’s Theory12.2.3 Holliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 12.3 American Structuralism12.3.1 Early Period: Boas and Sapir12.3.2 Bloomfield’s Theory12.3.3 Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics12.4 Transformational-Generative Grammar12.4.1 The Innateness Hypothesis12.4.2 What Is Generative Grammar12.4.3 The Classical Theory12.4.4 The Standard Theory12.4.5 The Extended Standard Theory12.4.6 The Government and Binding Theory12.4.7 The Minimalist Theory And After12.4.8 Chomsky’s Fundamental Contribution12.5 Revisionist or Rebels12.5.1 Case Grammar12.5.2 Generative Semantics。
Linguistics-an introduction 语言学教程
School of Foreign Languages Hainan University
• And out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof. Bible Genesis
• Then when we study human language, we are approaching what some might call the “human essence,” the distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as we know unique to man. Noam Chomsky Language & Mind
• Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.
Sapir (1884-1939) Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921)
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) Course in General Linguistics
语言学基础introduction
Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 Definition: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.language: language in general, not any particular language, e.g. English,Chinese, Arabic, and Latin.1.1.2The Scope of linguisticsA）general linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.basic concepts: language; sentence; wordstheories:descriptions:models:methods applicable in any linguistic study:B) main branches of linguisticsLanguage study focuses on Meaning and Form.i) Form:soundwritten1) PhoneticsThe study of sounds used in linguistic communication.2) PhonologyThe study of the way in which the sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.3) MorphologyThe study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words .4) SyntaxThe study of rules which govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.5) Semantics: meaning in languageThe study of meaning is known as semantics.6) Pragmatics: meaning in contextWhen the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.C) MacrolinguisticsLinguistics is not the only field concerned with language. Other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, artificial intelligence, medicine and education etc. are also preoccupied with language.1) SociolinguisticsThe study of the social aspects of language and its relation with society forms the core of the branch called sociolinguistics.2) PsycholinguisticsIt relates the study of language to psychology.e.g. to study language development in children, such as the theories of languageacquisition;3) Applied linguisticsa) the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching.b) the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems. It usesinformation from sociology, psychology, anthropology and information theory as well as linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas.1.1.3 Linguistics as a ScienceThree adequaciesHow can we appraise the extent of success in scientific study? There are three levels to consider, namely observation, description, and explanation. What a linguist seeks for can be summarized as three adequacies correspondingly.a) observational adequacyA successful research is expected to be adequate in observation at first.It is characterized by correctly specifying what is observed to be phonologically, morphologically, syntactically, semantically, or pragmatically well-formed or ill-formed.b) descriptive adequacyProper description is based on adequate observation, and a piece of scientific work is descriptively adequate if it provides a principled account of the native speaker‟s intuiti ons about the structure of the linguistic phenomenon observed.c) explanatory adequacyExplanatory adequacy is the ultimate goal of any scientific exploration.In linguistics, a theory attains explanatory adequacy just in case it provides a descriptively adequate grammar for every natural language, and does so in terms of a maximally constrained set of universal principles which represent psychologically plausible natural principles of mental computation.1.2 What is language?1.2.1 Design featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.The framework of the design features was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett.1) ArbitrarinessArbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.Why?a) different languages may have different sounds to represent the same object thatexists in society.b) the same sound may express different meaningsexception: onomatopoeia: based on the natural voices.2)DualityDEFINITION: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.3) ProductivityDEFINITION: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.comparing with animal communication systemse.g. an experiment on bee dance:Bee communication regarding location has a fixed set signals, all of which relate to horizontal distance. The bee cannot manipulate its communicating system to create a “new” message indicating vertical distance.4) DisplacementDEFINITION：Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Animals are under “immediate stimulus control”.Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus free.5) Cultural transmissionLanguage cultural transmission means that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.1.2.2 Definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2.2.1Language is a systemelements of language are combined according to rules.a) rules of sound systemb) rules of written system1.2.2.2 Language is arbitrary and symbolic1.2.2.3 Language is vocala) the primary medium for all languages is sound.b) writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.c) some language only have sound systems and no writing systems1.2.2.4 Language is human-specific1.2.2.5 communication vs information1.2.3 Knowledge of language: endowed or conventional?TIME-HONORED PROBLEMS•WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE?•WHERE DOES IT COME FROM?Aristotle (384-322 B.C.):Language is arrived at by convention and agreement of the speakers of a given language.BEHA VIORISMEMPIRICISMOur brain was blank when we were born. Language is a social, empirical entity.B.F. Skinner: the American psychologist and a famous Harvard behaviouristThe famous quotation “language is behaviour ”Verbal behaviour is the same as any other fundamental respect of non-verbal behaviour.The occurrence of behaviours is dependent upon three crucial elements:a stimulus, which serves to elicit behaviour;a response triggered by a stimulus;reinforcement, which serves to mark the response as being appropriate (or inappropriate) and encourages the repetition (or suppression) of the response in the future.Verbal behaviour:the stimulus as what is taught (language input),the response as the learner‟s reaction to the stimulus,the reinforcement as the approval or praise (or discouragement) of the teacher or fellow students.Argument for“poverty of the stimulus”●a) The child‟s linguistic experience (stimulus) is not sufficient to justify theadult grammar.●b) As far as a child is concerned, an utterance containing a mistake is justanother piece of linguistic experience to be treated on a par with error-free utterance. But they still know the correct grammar.●c) A child and a chimpanzee both live in the same language environment, onlythe child can learn the language.Plato (427?-347 B.C.)There is a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in expressing his ideas.NATIVISMMENTALISMThere is a biological, physiological entity inside our brain which decides that we speak.Language faculty/(LAD=Language Acquisition Device): Human beings do have an inborn knowledge of language which must be universally correct and acceptable, the location of such innate knowledge just in our genes.Experience of L—LF—Grammar of LChomsky’s epistemology of the knowledge of language●The initial state of human language faculty is called UG(Universal Grammar).●UG(universal grammar): Every speaker knows a set of principles which applyto all languages and also a set of (binary) parameters that can vary from one language to another.principles:all human languages have the subject, verb, and object.reflexible pronoun principle: the reflexible pronoun should take the noun in the same clause as antecedent.parameters:binary parameter:the position of the wh-element in the sentence●Due to the effect of later experience, our brain/mind develops from the initialstate into the steady state, which corresponds to the competence of speaking a human language.experienceUG----------------PG (Particular Grammar)PG=a.UG1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics1.3.1Prescriptive vs. descriptivePrescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. Descriptive study:If a linguistic study aims to describes and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.Prescriptive study:If a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “co rrect and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic--by Ferdinand de Saussure.synchronic study: the description of a language at some point of time in history. diachronic study: the description of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.1.3.3 Speech and writingSpeech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.The spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language.1) speech is prior to writing: (from the point of view of linguistic evolution)2)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mothertongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.3) Spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while writtenlanguage is only the “revised” record of speech.4) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in termsof the amount of information conveyed.1.3.4 Langue and paroleThe distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure.1) definitionA) langue:a) the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community(a social code);b) the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by;c) abstract, it is not the language people actually use.d) relatively stable, it does not change frequently.B) parole:a) the realization of langue in actual use.b) the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.c) concrete, it refers to the naturally occurring language events.d) varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.2) The significances of the distinction:a) it is convenient in that it delimits an area of enquiry which is manageable: thatarea is langueb) the concept of langue can be said to capture the central and determining aspectof language itself.3) The relation between the langue and parolea) Langue comes from parole.b) Parole is guided by langue.1.3.5 competence and performanceProposed by the American linguist Noam Chomsky.1) definitionCompetence: the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2) The relation between the competence and performancea) competence is essential and primary; performance is the residual category of secondary phenomena, incidental, and peripheral.b) competence and performance are quite different phenomena and you cannotdirectly infer one from the other.3) The difference between the two pairs of concepts: langue vs parole and competence vs performancei)similarities:a) It represents a similar dichotomy of knowledge and behaviour.b) It represents a similar demarcation of the scope of linguistic enquiry.c) They are both be glossed in terms of abstract knowledgeii) differences:a) the nature of knowledge is conceived of in very different ways.--Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.--Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.b) the different study interest--Langue, the focus of attention will be in what makes each language different.--Competence, the focus of attention will be in what makes languages alike.1.3.6 Traditional grammar and modern linguistics1) definition:Modern linguistics: The beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F. de Saussure‟s book Course in General Linguistics in the early 20th century.Traditional grammar: The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language over the ye ars, before the book “Course in General Linguistics” was published.2) differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics:a) modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.b)modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the writing.Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, the importance of the written word.c) traditional grammar forces languages into a Latin-based framework, but modernlinguistics does notReading recommendationBeginner-friendly:S. C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics. Macmillan Publishers Ltd, 1999; 外语教学与研究出版社2000 （刘润清导读）。
语言学--unit9语言与文学Language and Literature
Dictionary definition
The world is like a stage.
The name of a
part of a
objective
to
synecdoche refer to the
whole thing.
simile Figurative language metapher
(4)
To demonstrate technical skill, and for intellectual pleasure
(5)
For emphasis or contrast
(6)
Onomatopoeia
9.3 The Language in Poety 9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry
Ex.9-15
Trochee and palm to palm is holy palmer's kiss
Ex.9-16
Anapest Willows whiten, aspens quiver
Ex.9-17
Dactyl Without cause be he pleased, without cause be he cross
(1)
Information about the poem
(2)
The way the poem is structured
lingustics chapter 9.4 The Language
in Fiction
9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point of View
(1) I-narrators (2)Third-person narrators (3)Schema-oriented language (4)Given vs New information (5)Deixis
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter 9
The relationship between language and culture (P128)
★ Language and culture are inextricably intertwined. 语言和文化必不可分。 ★ The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole. Linguistic competence is one variety of cultural competence and speech behavior is one variety of social behavior.
Linguistic evidence of cultural differences
Greetings and terms of address (问候和称呼语) Thanks and compliments (感谢和称赞) Color words Privacy and taboos (隐私和禁忌) Rounding off numbers (数字处理) Words and cultural-specific connotations （词和文化特有的暗涵） Cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphors (与文化相关的习语、谚语和隐喻)
Cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of B. The appearance of loan words (外来词) is one typical example of cultural diffusion.
Chapter 9认知语言学概论演示文稿
Prototypes and categories
• prototype(原型、典型)
Category of a house
continued
• Levels of categorization
furniture Superordinate level category
Basic level category
(details :P/254)
Grammaticalization
• The term grammaticalization was first used by French linguist Meillet. According to him, the aim of studying grammaticalization is to investigate ‘the transition of autonomous words into the role of grammatical elements’. • According to Heine (1991),the grammaticalization study is to show ‘where lexical unit --- assumes a grammatical function, ore where a grammatical unit assumes a more grammatical function. ’ • 元朝周伯琦：大抵古人制字，皆从事物上起。今之虚 字，皆古之实词。
Source
dangerous animal journey war sending departure plants day war money seeing coin theatre/stage
语言学教程Chapter 1_introduction(1)
• Without the awareness of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.
8
Discuss with your neighbors ---• What is language? • What do you know when you claim to know a language?
“Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.” --Stuart C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics (1999)
3
Some fundamental views about L
• Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction. • Language operates by rules. • All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a system of semantics. • Everyone speaks a dialect. • Language slowly changes.
17
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. --Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)
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9.1 Introduction
STYLE has been recognized since the days of ancient rhetoric, whereas STYLISTICS is perhaps the creation of bibliographers.
The formation of the word stylistics, i.e. style + istics, indicates that it is an interdisciplinary study.(style for literary criticism, and istics for linguistics)
As a newly developed discipline, Carter and Simpson (1989) observed that “if the 1960s was a decade of formalism in stylistics, the 1970s a decade of functionalism and the 1980s a decade of discourse stylistics, then the 1990s could well become the decade in which sociohistorical and socio-cultural stylistic studies are a main preoccupation.” in addition to this, Shen (2000) pointed out that there is a trend of “plural-heads development”, i.e. different schools of stylistics compete for development and new schools emerge every now and then. The cognitive approach to literature is a capmental Stages
1960s: formalism 1970s: functionalism 1980s: discourse stylistics 1990s: socio-historical and socio- cultural stylistics 2000 on: plural-heads development (Cognitive Stylistics)
Chapter 9 Language and literature
Chapter 9 Language and literature 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Introduction Some General Features of the Literary Language The Language in Poetry The Language in Fiction The Language in Drama The Cognitive Approach to Literature
Stylistics: a branch of linguistics which studies the features of situationally distinctive uses(varieties) of language, and tries to establish principles capable of accounting for the particular choices made by individual and social groups in their use of language.”
Thus stylistics can be defined as the study of style, a branch of linguistics which applies the theories and methodologies of modern linguistics to the study of style.