Categorization by Learning and Combining Object Parts
CONCEPT 概念的诸多释义
ConceptA.From WikipediaA concept is an abstraction or generalisation from experience or the result of a transformation of existing ideas.The concept is instantiated(reified)by all of its actual or potential instances,whether these are things in the real world or other ideas. Concepts are treated in many if not most disciplines both explicitly,such asin linguistics,psychology,philosophy,etc.,and implicitly,such asin mathematics,physics,etc.In informal use the word concept often just meansany idea,but formally it involves the abstraction component.When the mind makes a generalization such as the concept of tree,it extractssimilarities from numerous examples;the simplification enables higher-levelthinking.In metaphysics,and especially ontology,a concept is a fundamental category of existence.In contemporary philosophy,there are at least three prevailing ways to understand what a concept is:∙Concepts as mental representations,where concepts are entities that exist in the brain(mental objects)∙Concepts as abilities,where concepts are abilities peculiar to cognitive agents (mental states)∙Concepts as Fregean senses(see sense and reference),where concepts are abstract objects,as opposed to mental objects and mental states Embodied contentMain article:Embodied cognitionIn cognitive linguistics,abstract concepts are transformations of concrete concepts derived from embodied experience.The mechanism of transformation is structural mapping,in which properties of two or more source domains are selectively mapped onto a blended space(Fauconnier&Turner,1995;see conceptual blending).A common class of blends are metaphors.Abstract objectsMain article:Abstract objectIn a platonist theory of mind,concepts are construed as abstract objects.This debate concerns the ontological status of concepts–what they are really like.In the simplest terms,a concept is a name or label that regards or treats an abstraction as if it had concrete or material existence.I t is important to realizethat a concept is merely a symbol,a representation of the abstraction.The word is not to be mistaken for the thing.For example,the word"moon"(a concept)is not the large,bright,shape-changing object up in the sky,but only represents that celestial object.Concepts are created(named)to describe,explain and capture reality as it is known and understood.A priori conceptsMain articles:A priori and a posteriori and Category(Kant)Kant declared that human minds possess pure or a priori concepts.Instead of being abstracted from individual perceptions,like empirical concepts,they originate in the mind itself.He called these concepts categories,in the sense of the word that means predicate,attribute,characteristic,or quality.But these pure categories are predicates of things in general,not of a particular thing.He called those concepts that result from abstraction"a posteriori concepts"(meaning concepts that arise out of experience).An empirical or an a posteriori concept is a general representation (Vorstellung)or non-specific thought of that which is common to several specific perceived objects(Logic,I,1.,§1,Note1)A concept is a common feature or characteristic.Kant investigated the way that empirical a posteriori concepts are created.The logical acts of the understanding by which concepts are generatedas to their form are:parison,i.e.,the likening of mental images to one another inrelation to the unity of consciousness;2.reflection,i.e.,the going back over different mental images,howthey can be comprehended in one consciousness;and finally3.abstraction or the segregation of everything else by which themental images differ...In order to make our mental images into concepts,onemust thus be able to compare,reflect,and abstract,forthese three logical operations of the understanding areessential and general conditions of generating anyconcept whatever.OntologyMain article:OntologyPlato was the starkest proponent of the realist thesis of universal concepts.By his view,concepts(and ideas in general)are innate ideas that were instantiations of a transcendental world of pure forms that lay behind the veil of the physical world.In this way,universals were explained as transcendent objects.Main article:Mental representationIn a physicalist theory of mind,a concept is a mental representation,which the brain uses to denote a class of things in the world.This is to say that it is literally,a symbol or group of symbols together made from the physical material of the brain. Concepts are mental representations that allow us to draw appropriate inferences about the type of entities we encounter in our everyday lives.Concepts do not encompass all mental representations,but are merely a subset of them.The use of concepts is necessary to cognitive processes suchas categorization,memory,decision making,learning,and inference.Classical theoryMain article:DefinitionismThe classical theory of concepts,also referred to as the empiricist theory of concepts, is the oldest theory about the structure of concepts(it can be traced back to Aristotle), and was prominently held until the1970s.The classical theory of concepts says that concepts have a definitional structure.Adequate definitions of the kind required by this theory usually take the form of a list of features.These features must have two important qualities to provide a comprehensive definition.Features entailed by the definition of a concept must be both necessary and sufficient for membership in the class of things covered by a particular concept.A feature is considered necessary if every member of the denoted class has that feature.A feature is considered sufficient if something has all the parts required by the definition.Another key part of this theory is that it obeys the law of the excluded middle,which means that there are no partial members of a class,you are either in or out.Prototype theoryMain article:Prototype theoryPrototype theory says that concepts specify properties that members of a class tend to possess,rather than must possess.Wittgenstein describes the relationship between members of a class as family resemblances.There are not necessarily any necessary conditions for membership,a dog can still be a dog with only three legs. This view is particularly supported by psychological experimental evidence for prototypicality effects.We can judge an item's membership to the referent class of a concept by comparing it to the typical member–the most central member of the concept.If it is similar enough in the relevant ways,it will be cognitively admitted as a member of the relevant class of entities.Rosch suggests that every category is represented by a central exemplar which embodies all or the maximum possible number of features of a given category.Theory-theoryThis theory postulates that categorization by concepts is something like scientific theorizing.Concepts are not learned in isolation,but rather are learned as a part of ourexperiences with the world around us.In this sense,concepts'structure relies on their relationships to other concepts as mandated by a particular mental theory about the state of the world.According to the theory of ideasthesia(or"sensing concepts"),activation of a concept may be the main mechanism responsible for creation of phenomenal experiences.Therefore,understanding how the brain processes concepts may be central to solving the mystery of how conscious experiences(or qualia)emerge within a physical system e.g.,the sourness of the sour taste of lemon.This question is also known as the hard problem of consciousness.Research on ideasthesia emerged from research on synesthesia where it was noted that a synesthetic experience requires first an activation of a concept of the ter research expanded these results into everyday perception.B.From Sci-tech encyclopediaConcept1.International Dictionary of Psychoanalysis|2005|Luzes,PedroCOPYRIGHT2005Thomson Gale.For Wilfred Bion,conception is the result of coupling a pre-conception,an innate a priori idea,and a realization,elements of the real that are provided by external-sensory or internal-emotional experience.The concept is derived from conception through abstraction and nguage and the attribution of a name to a concept unite preconception and realization,preventing any loss of experience in the process.Bion considers the concept a conception that has been assigned a name.The concept signifies a growth of the abstraction that enables us to expand the generalization of psychoanalytic theories,which,as a whole are judged to be too descriptive,too concrete.Concepts can be articulated in a deductive scientific system that functions like an Ars combinatoria2.The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English|2009©The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English2009,originally published by Oxford University Press2009.con·cept/ˈkänˌsept/•n.an abstract idea;a general notion:the concept of justice.∎a plan or intention;a conception:the center has kept firmly to its originalconcept.∎an idea or invention to help sell or publicize a commodity:a new concept in corporate hospitality.∎Philos.an idea or mental picture of a group or class of objects formed by combining all their aspects.∎[as adj.](of a car or other vehicle) produced as an experimental model to test the viability of new design features.C.British Dictionary definitions for conceptnoun1.an idea,esp an abstract idea:the concepts of biology2.(philosophy)a general idea or notion that corresponds to some class of entities andthat consists of the characteristic or essential features of the class3.(philosophy)a.the conjunction of all the characteristic features of somethingb.a theoretical construct within some theoryc.a directly intuited object of thoughtd.the meaning of a predicate4.(modifier)(of a product,esp a car)created as an exercise to demonstrate thetechnical skills and imagination of the designers,and not intended for massproduction or saleWord Origin and History for conceptn.1550s,from Medieval Latin conceptum"draft,abstract,"in classical Latin"(a thing) conceived,"from concep-,past participle stem of concipere"to take in"(see conceive).In some16c.cases a refashioning of conceit(perhaps to avoidnegative connotations).D.From Britannica encylopedia1.concept,in the Analytic school of philosophy,the subject matter of philosophy,which philosophers of the Analytic school hold to be concerned with the salientfeatures of the language in which people speak of concepts at issue.Concepts are thus logical,not mental,entities.A typical instance of the use of concept is in The Concept of Mind(1949)by Gilbert Ryle,an Oxford Analyst,which implies that the purpose of the author is not to investigate matters of fact empirically(i.e.,by themethods of psychology)about the mind itself but to investigate its“logicalgeography.”Similarly,investigation...(100of138words)DictionarytheA semanticallyF.From Collins English Dictionarynoun1.an idea,esp an abstract idea⇒the concepts of biology2.philosophy a general idea or notion that corresponds to some class of entities and that consists of the characteristic oressential features of the class3.philosophy a.the conjunction of all the characteristic features of somethingb.a theoretical construct within some theoryc.a directly intuited object of thoughtd.the meaning of a predicate4.(modifier)(of a product,esp a car)created as an exercise to demonstrate the technical skills and imagination of thedesigners,and not intended for mass production or sale.。
cognitive-Learning-Theory
information – processing theory
visualization
dual code theory of memory （双重编码理论）
The theory hypothesizes that information is retained in long-term memory in two forms: visual and verbal.
Massed practice:
practice newly learned information intensively until it is
thoroughly learned
Distributed practice:
To provide practice on newly learned knowledge and skills over an extended period of time to increase the chances that the knowledge and skills will be retained.
sensory register
Inspiration
(educational implication)2
People must pay attention to information if they are to retain it.
Working Memory Store
Sensory Input
Elaboration
Elaborative rehearsal: Thinking about, or elaborating, the information meaning while rehearsing. ==>transferring to LTM
Object Detection with Discriminatively Trained Part Based Models【中文译】【转】
使用判别训练的部件模型进行目标检测Pedro F. Felzenszwalb, Ross B.Girshick, David McAllester and Deva Ramanan使用判别训练的部件模型进行目标检测 Object Detection with Discriminatively Trained Part Based Models摘要本文介绍了一个基于混合多尺度可变形部件模型(mixtures of multiscale deformablepart model) 的目标检测系统。
此系统可以表示各种多变的目标并且在PASCAL目标检测挑战赛上达到了目前最优结果(state-of-the-art)。
虽然可变形部件模型现在很流行，但它的价值并没有在类似PASCAL这种较难的测试集上进行展示。
此系统依赖于使用未完全标注(partially labeled)的样本进行判别训练的新方法。
我们提出了一种间隔敏感(margin-sensitive)的难例挖掘方法(data-mining hard negativeexample)，称为隐藏变量SVM(latent SVM, LSVM)，是MI-SVM 加入隐藏变量后的重新表示。
LSVM的训练问题是一个半凸规划(semi-convex)问题，但如果将正样本的隐藏变量的值指定后，LSVM的训练问题变为凸规划问题。
最终可以使用一个迭代训练方法来解决，此迭代算法不断交替地固定正样本的隐藏变量和最优化目标函数。
关键词目标识别(ObjectRecognition)，可变形模型(Deformable Models)，图结构模型(Pictorial Structures)，判别训练(Discriminative Training)，隐藏变量SVM(Latent SVM)1 引言目标检测是计算机视觉领域内一项基础性的工作。
本论文研究在静态图片中检测并定位某一类目标(例如人或车)的问题。
当前AI领域尚未攻克的29个难题及进展评估文献
Commonsense Reasoning. “Commonsense reasoning pronoun disambiguation problems” Online under /disambiguation.html (2016b)
1பைடு நூலகம்
Brown, Noam, and Tuomas Sandholm. “Safe and Nested Endgame Solving for Imperfect-Information Games.” Online under /~noamb/papers/17-AAAI-Refinement.pdf(2017)
Deng, Jia, et al. “Imagenet: A large-scale hierarchical image database.” Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2009. CVPR 2009. IEEE Conference on. IEEE, 2009.
Finn, Chelsea, and Sergey Levine. “Deep Visual Foresight for Planning Robot Motion.” arXiv preprint arXiv:1610.00696 (2016).
Fouhey, David F., and C. Lawrence Zitnick. “Predicting object dynamics in scenes.” Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition. 2014.
de Freitas, Nando. “Learning to Learn and Compositionality with Deep Recurrent Neural Networks: Learning to Learn and Compositionality.” Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining. ACM, 2016.
CONCEPT概念的诸多释义
CONCEPT概念的诸多释义ConceptA.From WikipediaA concept is an abstraction or generalisation from experience or the result of a transformation of existing ideas.The concept is instantiated(reified)by all of its actual or potential instances,whether these are things in the real world or other ideas. Concepts are treated in many if not most disciplines both explicitly,such asin linguistics,psychology,philosophy,etc.,and implicitly,such asin mathematics,physics,etc.In informal use the word concept often just meansany idea,but formally it involves the abstraction component.When the mind makes a generalization such as the concept of tree,it extractssimilarities from numerous examples;the simplification enables higher-levelthinking.In metaphysics,and especially ontology,a concept is a fundamental category of existence.In contemporary philosophy,there are at least three prevailing ways to understand what a concept is:Concepts as mental representations,where concepts are entities that exist in the brain(mental objects)Concepts as abilities,where concepts are abilities peculiar to cognitive agents (mental states)Concepts as Fregean senses(see sense and reference),where concepts are abstract objects,as opposed to mental objects and mental states Embodied contentMain article:Embodied cognitionIn cognitive linguistics,abstract concepts are transformations of concrete concepts derived from embodied experience.The mechanism of transformation is structural mapping,in which properties of two or more source domains are selectively mapped onto a blended space(Fauconnier&Turner,1995;see conceptual blending).A common class of blends are metaphors.Abstract objectsMain article:Abstract objectIn a platonist theory of mind,concepts are construed as abstract objects.This debate concerns the ontological status of concepts–what they are really like.In the simplest terms,a concept is a name or label that regards or treats an abstraction as if it had concrete or material existence.I t is important to realizethat a concept is merely a symbol,a representation of the abstraction.The word is not to be mistaken for the thing.For example,the word"moon"(a concept)is not the large,bright,shape-changing object up in the sky,but only represents that celestial object.Concepts are created(named)to describe,explain and capture reality as it is known and understood.A priori conceptsMain articles:A priori and a posteriori and Category(Kant)Kant declared that human minds possess pure or a priori concepts.Instead of being abstracted from individual perceptions,like empirical concepts,they originate in the mind itself.He called these concepts categories,in the sense of the word that means predicate,attribute,characteristic,or quality.But these pure categories are predicates of things in general,not of a particular thing.He called those concepts that result from abstraction"a posteriori concepts"(meaning concepts that arise out of experience).An empirical or an a posteriori concept is a general representation (Vorstellung)or non-specific thought ofthat which is common to several specific perceived objects(Logic,I,1.,§1,Note1)A concept is a common feature or characteristic.Kant investigated the way that empirical a posteriori concepts are created. The logical acts of the understanding by which concepts are generatedas to their form are:/doc/00c369d732d4b14e852458fb770bf78a65293a00.html parison,i.e.,the likening of mental images to one another inrelation to the unity of consciousness;2.reflection,i.e.,the going back over different mental images,howthey can be comprehended in one consciousness;and finally3.abstraction or the segregation of everything else by which themental images differ...In order to make our mental images into concepts,onemust thus be able to compare,reflect,and abstract,forthese three logical operations of the understanding areessential and general conditions of generating anyconcept whatever.OntologyMain article:OntologyPlato was the starkest proponent of the realist thesis of universal concepts.By his view,concepts(and ideas in general)are innate ideas that were instantiations of a transcendental world of pure forms that lay behind the veil of the physical world.In this way,universals were explained as transcendent objects.Main article:Mental representationIn a physicalist theory of mind,a concept is a mental representation,which the brain uses to denote a class of things in the world.This is to say that it is literally,a symbol or group of symbols together made from the physical material of the brain. Concepts are mental representations that allow us to draw appropriate inferences about the type of entities we encounter in our everyday lives.Concepts do not encompass all mental representations,but are merely a subset of them.The use of concepts is necessary to cognitive processes suchas categorization,memory,decision making,learning,and inference.Classical theoryMain article:DefinitionismThe classical theory of concepts,also referred to as the empiricist theory of concepts, is the oldest theory about the structure of concepts(it can be traced back to Aristotle), and was prominently held until the1970s.The classical theory of concepts says that concepts have a definitional structure.Adequate definitions of the kind required by this theory usually take the form of a list of features.These features must have two important qualities to provide a comprehensive definition.Features entailed by the definition of a concept must be both necessary and sufficient for membership in the class of things covered by a particular concept.A feature is considered necessary if every member of the denoted class has that feature.A feature is considered sufficient if something has all the parts required by the definition.Another key part of this theory is that it obeys the law of the excluded middle,which means that there are no partial members of a class,you are either in or out.Prototype theoryMain article:Prototype theoryPrototype theory says that concepts specify properties that members of a class tend to possess,rather than must possess.Wittgenstein describes the relationship between members of a class as family resemblances.There are not necessarily any necessary conditions for membership,a dog can still be a dog with only three legs. This view is particularly supported by psychological experimental evidence for prototypicality effects.We can judge an item's membership to the referent class of a concept by comparing it to the typical member–the most central member of the concept.If it is similar enough in the relevant ways,it will be cognitively admitted as a member of the relevant class of entities.Rosch suggests that every category is represented by a central exemplar which embodies all or the maximum possible number of features of a given category.Theory-theoryThis theory postulates that categorization by concepts is something like scientific theorizing.Concepts are not learned in isolation,but rather are learned as a part of ourexperiences with the world around us.In this sense,concepts'structure relies on their relationships to other concepts as mandated by a particular mental theory about the state of the world.According to the theory of ideasthesia(or"sensing concepts"),activation of a concept may be the main mechanism responsible for creation of phenomenal experiences.Therefore,understanding how the brain processes concepts may be central to solving the mystery of how conscious experiences(or qualia)emerge within a physical system e.g.,the sourness of the sour taste of lemon.This question is also known as the hard problem of consciousness.Research on ideasthesia emerged from research on synesthesia where it was noted that a synesthetic experience requires first an activation of a concept of the /doc/00c369d732d4b14e852458fb770bf78a65293a00.html ter research expanded these results into everyday perception.B.From Sci-tech encyclopediaConcept1.International Dictionary of Psychoanalysis|2005|Luzes,PedroCOPYRIGHT2005Thomson Gale.For Wilfred Bion,conception is the result of coupling a pre-conception,an innate a priori idea,and a realization,elements of the real that are provided by external-sensory or internal-emotional experience.The concept is derived from conception through abstraction and /doc/00c369d732d4b14e852458fb770bf78a65293a00.html nguage and the attribution of a name to a concept unite preconception and realization,preventing any loss of experience in the process.Bion considers the concept a conception that has been assigned a name.The concept signifies a growth of the abstraction that enables us to expand the generalization of psychoanalytic theories,which,as a whole are judged to be too descriptive,tooconcrete.Concepts can be articulated in a deductive scientific system that functions like an Ars combinatoria2.The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English|2009The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English2009,originally published by Oxford University Press2009.con·cept/?k?n?sept/?n.an abstract idea;a general notion:the concept of justice.?a plan or intention;a conception:the center has kept firmly to its originalconcept.?an idea or invention to help sell or publicize a commodity:a new concept in corporate hospitality.?Philos.an idea or mental picture of a group or class of objects formed by combining all their aspects.?[as adj.](of a car or other vehicle) produced as an experimental model to test the viability of new design features.C.British Dictionary definitions for conceptnoun1.an idea,esp an abstract idea:the concepts of biology2.(philosophy)a general idea or notion that corresponds to some class of entities andthat consists of the characteristic or essential features of the class3.(philosophy)a.the conjunction of all the characteristic features of somethingb.a theoretical construct within some theoryc.a directly intuited object of thoughtd.the meaning of a predicate4.(modifier)(of a product,esp a car)created as an exercise to demonstrate thetechnical skills and imagination of the designers,and not intended for massproduction or saleWord Origin and History for conceptn.1550s,from Medieval Latin conceptum"draft,abstract,"in classical Latin"(a thing) conceived,"from concep-,past participle stem of concipere"to take in"(see conceive).In some16c.cases a refashioning of conceit(perhaps to avoidnegative connotations).D.From Britannica encylopedia1.concept,in the Analytic school of philosophy,the subject matter of philosophy,which philosophers of the Analytic school hold to be concerned with the salientfeatures of the language in which people speak of concepts at issue.Concepts are thus logical,not mental,entities.A typical instance of the use of concept is in The Concept of Mind(1949)by Gilbert Ryle,an Oxford Analyst,which implies that the purpose of the author is not to investigate matters of fact empirically(i.e.,by themethods of psychology)about the mind itself but to investigate its“logicalgeography.”Similarly,investigation...(100of138words)DictionarytheA semanticallyF.From Collins English Dictionarynoun1.an idea,esp an abstract idea?the concepts of biology2.philosophy a general idea or notion that corresponds to some class of entities and that consists of the characteristic oressential features of the class3.philosophy a.the conjunction of all the characteristic features of somethingb.a theoretical construct within some theoryc.a directly intuited object of thoughtd.the meaning of a predicate4.(modifier)(of a product,esp a car)created as an exercise to demonstrate the technical skills and imagination of thedesigners,and not intended for mass production or sale.。
快乐英语第一册unit
目录
• Guidelines for improving reading and writing skills
• Design of classroom interactive segments
• Summary, Review, and Outlook for the Future
Providing visual aids
Visual aids like pictures, charts, and diagrams can help students understand complex concepts more easily.
Encouraging independent learning
examples
01
02
03
Basic sentence types
Identify and analyze the structure of simple sentences, including subject-verb agreement and complete thoughts.
Complex sentence construction
Role-playing and simulations
By acting out scenarios, students can practice language use in a safe and controlled environment, enhancing their communication skills.
Gamified teaching methods
Incorporating games into the curriculum
煤层顶底板等效岩性的确定方法
第31卷第5期辽宁工程技术大学学报（自然科学版）2012年10月Vol.31No.5Journal of Liaoning Technical University （Natural Science ）Oct.2012收稿日期：2012-05-28作者简介：郭达（1959-），男，辽宁北镇人，硕士，高级工程师，主要从事矿井通风与安全向研究.本文编校：朱艳华文章编号：1008-0562(2012)05-0668-05煤层顶底板等效岩性的确定方法郭达1，蔡康旭2，王晓东2（1.开滦（集团）有限责任公司，河北唐山063018；2.湖南科技大学能源与安全工程学院，湖南湘潭411201）摘要：为了解决煤层顶板、底板对瓦斯涌出的影响的问题，采用矿压和数值分析理论与现场统计相结合的方法，研究了采掘煤层顶板和底板的岩性、厚度对采掘工作面瓦斯涌出的影响规律，提出了煤层顶底板等效岩性的确定方法.等效岩层分为回采顶板、底板、掘进顶板及底板四个类型各自命名，然后进行比较，采掘各选取一种排名靠前的岩性作为顶底板等效岩性的最终命名.研究结果表明：该方法确定的等效岩性，简单合理，可有效支持瓦斯涌出等效层的划分，适用于所有经过正规勘探的生产煤矿.关键词：瓦斯涌出；等效层；煤层顶板；煤层底板；岩性；等效岩性；命名条件；等效岩性选择中图分类号：TD 712.5文献标志码：AMethods of determining equivalent rock type of coal seam roof and floorGUO Da 1,CAI Kangxu 2,WANG Xia odong 2(1.Ka iluan Group Cor pora tion Ltd.,Tangshan 063018,China;2.School of Energy and Safety Engineer ing,H una n Univer sity of Science and Technology ,Xiangtan 411201,China)Abstra ct:In order to analyze the influence of coal seam roof and floor on gas emission,by combining the methods of mine pressure and numerical analysis theory with field statistics,this study investigates the influence of lithology and thickness of coal seam roof and floor on gas emission at a mining face,and proposes a new method for determining equivalent rock type of coal seam roof and floor.The equivalent lithology naming is categorized into four types:the roof of coal mining face,the floor of coal mining face,the roof of drivage roadway,and the floor of drivage roadway.The empirical formulas have been developed for the categorization based on statistical analysis.With the comparative studies,the highest matching lithology is selected as the final name of coal mining type and also one for roadway driving type.The study results show that the method for determining equivalent lithology is simple and rational,and can effectively support the division of gas emission equivalent layer.The method can be applied to all production coal mines with normal exploration.Key wor ds:gas emission;equivalent layer;coal seam roof;coal seam floor;lithology;equivalent lithology;naming condition;equivalent lithology selection0引言煤层的顶底板是采掘空间瓦斯涌出的重要来源之一.不同的顶底板岩性对瓦斯涌出量的影响不同，能否合理量化，不仅关系采掘瓦斯涌出量短期预报的准确性，更关系到中、长期预报的超前指导性.为此，开滦集团公司与湖南科技大学合作创建了瓦斯涌出等效层法，将煤层及其顶底板的量化由点扩展到面，由顶底板多层岩性分述简化为单一等效层图示.在此基础上，开发并实现了矿井采掘工作面瓦斯涌出量短期预报的动态化、软件化和规范化，应用于开滦集团公司所有重点瓦斯管理矿井，指导采掘工作面配风，获得了良好的安全效益.文献[1]已对该技术的研究成果作了概括，文献[2]对瓦斯涌出等效层划分的理论进行了初步探讨，本文主要介绍改进以后的煤层顶底板岩性等效条件与算法.1研究现状分析现有关于岩性对瓦斯涌出影响的量化方法主要侧重于顶板，常见的等效方法主要有：（1）砂岩比法[3-5]主要根据煤层顶板砂岩在厚度上所占的比例表示属性.（2）硬度值法[6]采用煤层顶板各层岩性硬度的加权平均值表示属性.（3）岩层效应厚度影响系数法[7-8]根据顶板各岩层的岩性及其距煤层距离的远近，计算其对瓦斯含量的影响程度.第5期郭达，等：煤层顶底板等效岩性的确定方法669存在的主要问题：砂岩比法只是反映了砂岩的数量，但忽略了砂岩类型的影响，实际上砂岩类型比砂岩数量的影响重要且客观的多；硬度值法则不能回避相同的硬度可能有不同的岩性组合，同样不能充分表现岩石类型的影响程度；岩层效应厚度影响系数法虽然处理较细，但与其它等效算法一样，都只是局限于单个钻孔柱状，对于钻孔之间的岩性变化缺乏预测，既没考虑煤层底板岩性的影响，也没考虑采、掘活动影响范围的差别.相比之下，瓦斯涌出等效层法中对煤层顶底板岩性的等效更为合理、全面与实用.2瓦斯涌出等效层法简介2.1概念的提出对煤层顶底板岩性的等效与量化都是建立在实际瓦斯涌出量统计基础上的.虽然煤岩体的渗透性有差异，但由于瓦斯渗流场的一体性[9]，作量化分析时，很难把煤层及其各个顶底板岩层对采掘空间瓦斯涌出量的影响值准确地分离开来.为此，分析过程中不如将它们视为一体，根据相同的煤岩背景，应有相同的瓦斯涌出量的类比原则，引入瓦斯涌出等效层这一概念来简化.2.2基本定义瓦斯涌出等效层（简称等效层）是表示煤层及其采掘活动影响范围内，顶底板岩层的单一等同岩层与所具有的基本瓦斯涌出量.由于采掘生产对煤层顶、底板岩层影响的厚度不同，等效的厚度和结果也不同，因此回采、掘进应该分开进行等效.基本瓦斯涌出量是指在正常（不受地质构造、生产环境变化影响）采掘活动中，煤层及其顶底板向采掘空间涌入的瓦斯数量，确定时采、掘要分别定量，采用统计平均值计算[1].2.3等效层的划分等效层的划分过程包括：等效岩性的确定、等效区段的划分和等效区域的连接.其中，等效岩性是等效层划分的重要基础，它是将钻孔（或石门）柱状中的煤层顶底板按照一定的算法等效为一种岩性，采、掘分开确定；等效区段是在所有相邻钻孔等效岩性之间，根据岩石颗粒大小在水流中自然沉降原理进行划分；等效区域是在煤层底板等高线图上，将相邻相同的等效区段连接一体，其结果便是该煤层的回采或掘进瓦斯涌出等效层图.3等效岩性的确定方法等效岩性是等效层划分的基础，其确定内容主要包括：采掘煤层顶底板参与等效的厚度、岩性的排名、采掘等效岩性的命名与结果选择.3.1采掘煤层顶底板等效厚度的确定根据相关矿压理论[10]分析与现场统计资料校正，对煤层采掘空间瓦斯涌出影响比较明显的顶底板岩层等效厚度确定为：掘进底板等效厚度L f=3m，顶板等效厚度Lr=5m；回采底板等效厚度F f=5m，顶板等效厚度Fr≤30m.煤层厚度与顶板岩层等效厚度基本关系为F r=3.54+7.2H-0.37H2，F r≤30m，式中，F r为顶板岩层等效厚度，m；H为煤层厚度，m，H≥0.6m.统计表明，由于回采的底板和掘进的顶、底板等效厚度较小，所以岩层倾角变化的影响可以忽略不计，但回采顶板的等效厚度较大，受岩层倾角变化的的影响较明显，通常根据经验公式计算其影响系数，即：1q≤30°k r=，1.75-0.03q+0.00016q230°＜q≤90°式中：k r为倾角系数；q为岩层倾角.实际回采顶板的等效厚度计算公式为Fr=kr(3.54+7.2H-0.37H2）≤30m.3.2岩性排名主要根据岩石的颗粒、厚度及其对采掘工作面瓦斯涌出影响的程度确定.不同矿区煤系地层的岩石组成会有所差异，以开滦矿区为例，常见岩石主要有粗砂岩、中砂岩、中细砂岩、细砂岩、粉砂岩与粘土岩等.岩性的排名与上述岩石颗粒的排序相一致，其中，粗砂岩、中砂岩和中细砂岩定为优先级命名岩性，当粘土岩直接覆盖煤层上顶（直接顶），且厚度≥0.5m时，其命名权排在中砂岩之后，中细砂岩之前；否则可不考虑其影响.对于其它类型岩性，如石灰岩、页岩等，可根辽宁工程技术大学学报（自然科学版）第31卷670据它们对瓦斯涌出的实际影响，替代或等效为上述岩性中的一种.3.3采、掘等效岩性的命名条件采、掘顶底板等效岩性命名条件的计算式均是建立在统计分析基础上.（1）回采顶板的等效岩性命名①优先级岩性的命名条件优先级岩性的命名排序为粗砂岩、中砂岩和中细砂岩，命名类型分为本级命名与降级命名.（a ）本级命名条件本级命名是指在岩性等效范围内，累计厚度（包括上级岩性不够命名条件的厚度）符合条件的某种优先级岩层被直接命名为等效岩性的情况，如含有中砂岩的岩层，如果其累计厚度与计算要求相符，则该范围内的等效岩性就命名为中砂岩.根据某种岩层赋存的层位，有直接顶与间接顶之分.直接顶是指直接覆盖在煤层顶（或伪顶）上的某岩层；间接顶是指位于直接顶上的某岩层.二者命名的累计厚度条件为：直接顶F r -0.066F r 2+0.0015F r 3-3，F r ＜20mh z +h S ≥，2.5，F r ≥20m式中，h z 为在岩性等效范围内直接顶及其以上某岩层的累积厚度，m ；h S 为上级岩性不够命名条件的厚度，m.间接顶h j +h S ≥0.05+0.2F r -0.0022F r2，F r ≤30m ，式中，h j 为在岩性等效范围内间接顶内某岩层的累积厚度，m.（b ）降级命名条件降级命名是指在等效范围内，直接顶或间接顶内某岩层的累积厚度不满足本级命名的计算厚度要求，等效岩性要降级命名.例如将含有中砂岩，但其累计厚度不够的顶板岩层等效为中细砂岩（降1级），或细砂岩（降2级）.岩性降级命名的累计厚度要求见表1，对于小于降级命名要求的厚度数值，可算入下级岩性的累积厚度.表1岩性降级命名的累计厚度Tab.1accumulation thickness requirement of degradenaming equivalent等效岩层厚度/m 直接顶降1级厚度/m 间接顶降1级厚度/m 直接顶降2级厚度/m 间接顶降2级厚度/m 8~101~1.51~1.50.5~10.5~110~15 1.5~2 1.5~21~1.51~1.515~202~2.22~2.5 1.5~2 1.5~220~25 2.2~2.5 2.5~32~2.22~2.525~302.53~3.52.2~2.52.5~3注：厚度范围只包括下限，不包括上限.②其它岩性的等效命名条件细砂岩h i +h S ≥50%F r ；粉砂岩h i ＞50%F r ，式中，h i 为该岩层在等效层范围内的累积厚度，m.粘土岩为直接顶，厚度h ≥0.5m ，且无中砂岩及其以上优先级岩性的等效条件.（2）其它顶底板的等效岩性命名回采底板与掘进顶、底板等效岩性命名条件见表2.表2部分采掘顶底板等效岩性命名条件Tab.2naming conditions of equivalent lithology for partial mining roof and baseboard等效类型回采底板厚度/m 掘进顶板厚度/m 掘进底板厚度/m 备注本级命名h i +h S ≥30%F f h i +h S ≥1.5h i +h S ≥1.0降1级命名h i +h S =20%~30%F f 1≤h i +h S ＜1.50.75≤h i +h S ＜1.0优先级岩性降2级命名h i +h S =15%~20%F f0.75≤h i +h S ＜10.5≤h i +h S ＜0.75只适用粗砂岩与中砂岩细砂岩h i +h S ≥50%F f h i +h S ≥2.5h i +h S ≥1.5粉砂岩h i ＜50%F fh i ＜2.5h i ＜1.5其它岩性粘土岩为直接底，厚度h ≥0.5m为直接顶，厚度h ≥0.5m为直接底，厚度h ≥0.5m无中砂岩以上可等效3.4等效岩性的选择等效岩性的确定是在钻孔岩性柱状或石门岩性素描基础上进行的，基本过程见图1.先按照上述条件与算法先分别确定回采与掘进顶、底板的等效岩性，然后再进行比较与选择.表3中，虽然采掘顶、第5期郭达，等：煤层顶底板等效岩性的确定方法671底板岩性的等效结果不同，但各自都是选择岩性排序靠前的中砂岩，以此参与等效区段的划分.开滦矿区1000多处煤层顶底板的等效岩性，经过近五年的应用检验表明，采用该方法确定的等效岩性可有效支持瓦斯涌出等效层的划分，其技术上已趋于成熟.图1采掘等效岩性的确定过程Fig.1determination process of mining equivalent lithology表3等效岩性的选择Tab.3selection of equivalen t lithology层位钻孔（石门）岩性厚度/m倾角/(°)等效岩性结果选择..中细砂 1.25----粘土岩 2.49....粉砂岩 4.20.....中细砂 2.79顶板....粉砂岩 5.3215掘进：粉砂岩回采：中细砂煤层 2.1015 ..中砂岩 3.61底板----粘土岩 2.3015掘进：中砂岩回采：中砂岩掘进：中砂岩回采：中砂岩4结论（1）等效岩性是是将钻孔（或石门）柱状中的煤层顶底板按照一定的算法等效为一种岩性，确定内容包括：采掘煤层顶板和底板的等效厚度、岩性的排名、采掘等效岩性的命名与结果选择；钻孔柱状或石门岩性分析回采掘进底板顶板底板顶板优先级岩性其它岩性本级命名条件降级命名条件细砂命名条件粉砂命名条件粘土命名条件顶板等效岩性比较大者底板等效岩性掘进等效岩性回采等效岩性辽宁工程技术大学学报（自然科学版）第31卷672（2）煤层顶底板等效厚度的确定兼顾了相关矿压理论分析与现场统计资料的校正，采、掘影响的顶底板厚度不同，等效的厚度和结果也不同，因此回采、掘进应该分开进行等效；（3）岩性的排名主要根据岩石的颗粒、厚度及其对采掘工作面瓦斯涌出影响的程度确定，采掘等效岩性命名条件的计算式均是建立在统计分析基础上，在分别确定采掘顶、底板的等效岩性后，选择排名靠前的岩性作为回采和掘进等效岩性的最终命名；（4）多年的应用检验表明，采用该方法确定的等效岩性可有效支持瓦斯涌出等效层的划分，适用于所有经过正规勘探的生产煤矿.参考文献:[1]武建国,蔡康旭.采掘瓦斯涌出量性能化预报方法[J].煤炭科学技术,2009(9):58-71.Wu Jianguo,CAI Kangxu.Performance prediction method of gas emission from mining and excavation[J].Coal Science and Technology,2009(9): 58-71.[2]王晓东.瓦斯涌出等效层的理论划分与应用[D].湘潭:湖南科技大学,2009.Wang Xiaodong.The theoretical division on the gas emission equivalent layer and its application[D].Xiangtan:Hunan University of Science and Technology,2009.[3]张子戌,袁崇孚.瓦斯地质数学模型法预测矿井瓦斯涌出量研究[J].煤炭学报,1999,24(4):8-11.Zhang Zixu,Yuan Chongfu.Study on mathematical model of coalbed gas 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高维数据降维技术及研究进展
高维数据降维技术及研究进展 刘靖;赵逢禹 【摘 要】降维技术旨在将高维数据映射到更低维的数据空间上以寻求数据紧凑表示,该技术有利于对数据做进一步处理.随着多媒体技术和计算机技术的高速发展,数据维度呈爆炸性增长,使得机器学习、图像处理等研究领域的数据分析变得为越来越困难.为消除上述问题造成的维度灾难,研究学者提出了一系列的解决方法.文中为探索这些降维技术的实用性,介绍了传统的降维技术以及近年推出的降维技术,分析了典型降维技术的性能,指出降维技术仍存在的问题并分析了未来值得关注的研究方向.
【期刊名称】《电子科技》 【年(卷),期】2018(031)003 【总页数】4页(P36-38,43) 【关键词】高维数据;维度灾难;降维技术;研究进展 【作 者】刘靖;赵逢禹 【作者单位】上海理工大学光电信息与计算机工程学院,上海200093;上海理工大学光电信息与计算机工程学院,上海200093
【正文语种】中 文 【中图分类】TN3;TP31
随着多媒体技术和计算机技术的高速发展，大规模的数据维度呈爆炸性增长。伴随着数据维数的增长，使得目标函数优化、参数估计、模型选择变得越来越困难，这类问题已普遍地影响到诸多领域，如机器学习[1]、图像处理[2]、模式识别[3]、文本分析[4]等，这种现象被称为维度灾难[5]。 维度灾难带来的问题主要表现在3个方面：(1)愈加增加的数据维数导致空间数据点分布更稀疏，使得空间的参数优化越来越棘手；(2)维数的升高使得高维数据索引组织效果变差，数据节点的重叠性呈指数级递增，导致数据检索时，增加过多的访问路径，造成检索效率低下；(3)高维数据处理对计算机的运算与存储能力要求较高，目前计算机的运算与存储能力仍不能完全满足其运算与存储要求。 上述问题给高维数据处理中的数据分析带来了重大挑战，同时维数的膨胀也给模式识别带来了较大的困难。为降低、消除维度灾难的影响，研究者提出了一系列的解决方法。为了准确把握降维技术的发展方向，本文研究了自2010年以来降维技术相关的大量国内外文献，结果表明，近年来越来越多的研究者开始致力于降维技术的研究并取得了可观的成果。 1 降维技术 降维技术旨在将高维数据映射到更低维的数据空间上以寻求数据紧凑表示，这种技术有利于对数据做进一步处理。例如在基于内容的图像检索中，将提取的高维图像特征向量数据通过降维处理降低到一定的维度，则可以使用相关的索引机制组织数据以进行更高效的检索。降维技术可用如下数学方式表达，设
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CategorizationbyLearningandCombiningObjectParts
BerndHeiseleThomasSerreMassimilianoPontilThomasVetterTomasoPoggioCenterforBiologicalandComputationalLearning,M.I.T.,Cambridge,MA,USAHondaR&DAmericas,Inc.,Boston,MA,USADepartmentofInformationEngineering,UniversityofSiena,Siena,ItalyComputerGraphicsResearchGroup,UniversityofFreiburg,Freiburg,Germanyheisele,serre,tp@ai.mit.edupontil@ing.unisi.itvetter@informatik.uni-freiburg.de
AbstractWedescribeanalgorithmforautomaticallylearningdiscriminativecom-ponentsofobjectswithSVMclassifiers.ItisbasedongrowingimagepartsbyminimizingtheoreticalboundsontheerrorprobabilityofanSVM.Component-basedfaceclassifiersarethencombinedinasecondstagetoyieldahierarchicalSVMclassifier.Experimentalresultsinfaceclassificationshowconsiderablerobustnessagainstrotationsindepthandsuggestperformanceatsignificantlybetterlevelthanotherfacedetectionsystems.Novelaspectsofourapproachare:a)analgorithmtolearncomponent-basedclassificationexpertsandtheircombination,b)theuseof3-Dmorphablemodelsfortraining,andc)amaximumoperationontheoutputofeachcomponentclassifierwhichmayberelevantforbio-logicalmodelsofvisualrecognition.
1IntroductionWestudytheproblemofautomaticallysynthesizinghierarchicalclassifiersbylearningdis-criminativeobjectpartsinimages.Ourmotivationisthatmostobjectclasses(e.g.faces,cars)seemtobenaturallydescribedbyafewcharacteristicpartsorcomponentsandtheirgeometricalrelation.Greaterinvariancetoviewpointchangesandrobustnessagainstpar-tialocclusionsarethetwomainpotentialadvantagesofcomponent-basedapproachescom-paredtoaglobalapproach.
Thefirstchallengeindevelopingcomponent-basedsystemsishowtochooseautomaticallyasetofdiscriminativeobjectcomponents.Insteadofmanuallyselectingthecomponents,itisdesirabletolearnthecomponentsfromasetofexamplesbasedontheirdiscriminativepowerandtheirrobustnessagainstposeandilluminationchanges.Thesecondchallengeistocombinethecomponent-basedexpertstoperformthefinalclassification.2BackgroundGlobalapproachesinwhichthewholepatternofanobjectisusedasinputtoasingleclassifierweresuccessfullyappliedtotaskswheretheposeoftheobjectwasfixed.In[6]HaarwaveletfeaturesareusedtodetectfrontalandbackviewsofpedestrianswithanSVMclassifier.Learning-basedsystemsfordetectingfrontalfacesbasedonagrayvaluefeaturesaredescribedin[14,13,10,2].
Component-basedtechniquespromisetoprovidemoreinvariancesincetheindividualcom-ponentsvarylessunderposechangesthanthewholeobject.Variationsinducedbyposechangesoccurmainlyinthelocationsofthecomponents.Acomponent-basedmethodfordetectingfacesbasedontheempiricalprobabilitiesofoverlappingrectangularimagepartsisproposedin[11].Anotherprobabilisticapproachwhichdetectssmallpartsoffacesisproposedin[4].Ituseslocalfeatureextractorstodetecttheeyes,thecornerofthemouth,andthetipofthenose.Thegeometricalconfigurationofthesefeaturesismatchedwithamodelconfigurationbyconditionalsearch.Arelatedmethodusingstatisticalmodelsispublishedin[9].Localfeaturesareextractedbyapplyingmulti-scaleandmulti-orientationfilterstotheinputimage.TheresponsesofthefiltersonthetrainingsetaremodeledasGaussiandistributions.In[5]pedestriandetectionisperformedbyasetofSVMclassifierseachofwhichwastrainedtodetectaspecificpartofthehumanbody.
Inthispaperwepresentatechniqueforlearningrelevantobjectcomponents.ThetechniquestartswithasetofsmallseedregionswhicharegraduallygrownbyminimizingaboundontheexpectederrorprobabilityofanSVM.Oncethecomponentshavebeendetermined,wetrainasystemconsistingofatwo-levelhierarchyofSVMclassifiers.First,componentclassifiersindependentlydetectfacialcomponents.Second,acombinationclassifierlearnsthegeometricalrelationbetweenthecomponentsandperformsthefinaldetectionoftheobject.
3LearningComponentswithSupportVectorMachines3.1LinearSupportVectorMachinesLinearSVMs[15]performpatternrecognitionfortwo-classproblemsbydeterminingtheseparatinghyperplanewithmaximumdistancetotheclosestpointsinthetrainingset.Thesepointsarecalledsupportvectors.ThedecisionfunctionoftheSVMhastheform:
(1)whereisthenumberofdatapointsandistheclasslabelofthedatapoint.Thecoefficientsarethesolutionofaquadraticprogrammingproblem.Themarginisthedistanceofthesupportvectorstothehyperplane,itisgivenby:
(2)
Themarginisanindicatoroftheseparabilityofthedata.Infact,theexpectederrorproba-bilityoftheSVM,,satisfiesthefollowingbound[15]:
(3)whereisthediameterofthesmallestspherecontainingalldatapointsinthetrainingset.