耶鲁大学心理学导论中英文 字幕07

对昨天抱歉是周一的课补充两点Two follow-ups on yesterday's-- i'm sorry, on Monday's lecture.

第一有位同学课后来问One is that somebody came up after class and asked

人对母语的偏好是什么时候产生的when the preference for your own language emerges in development

幸好柯琳·麦克林克and fortunately, Colleen Macrink

对婴儿认知这个问题做了专业的研究studies pretty much exactly this sort of infant understanding.

我们可以从中寻找答案She knew the answer.

有一些针对新生儿的研究表明There's been studies looking at newborn babies finding that

自出生那一刻起pretty much the moment they pop out

他们对自己母语的喜好they favor their own language

就比对其他语言强烈over other language--over other languages.

这表明他们还在子宫中孕育时And this suggests that they are listening

就能察觉到母语的节奏while in utero, while in the womb, to the rhythms of their language

并有所偏好and developing a preference for it.

第二点补充是A second issue is,

课上我简要提到了一个诉讼案件I talked very briefly about a court case

其中一个人in which the person was--said at a moment

在另一个人拿枪指着警官时说where someone else was pointing a gun at a police officer,

"给他一枪" [把枪给他]"Let him have it!"

然后警官就被枪杀了And a police officer was killed.

而这个说话的人被控谋杀罪And that person was charged with murder

但我其实并不知道此案的审判结果but I admitted I didn't actually know how things turned out

而格蕾·格朗特同学对此做了后续的调查and Grey Glaun was kind enough to do extensive research.

他在维基百科上查到了结果Well, he went to Wikipedia and found out the answer.

结果是经审理他的谋杀罪名成立The answer is he was tried and found guilty for murder.

但随后他又被赦免He was then subsequently pardoned.

事实上他是在1988年被赦免的In fact, he was pardoned in 1988,

还是挺好的对吧which is really nice

可惜他1957年就已经被处决了except he was executed in 1957.

后来据此拍摄了一部电影But they did it into a movie.

拍了部电影So, it's a movie.

今天的课程安排是Okay. So, I want to do today,

首先我将继续将语言部分讲完for the first part of the lecture, is continue the language lecture

然后再开始讲知觉注意和记忆and then move to perception, attention, and memory.

回顾下上节课的内容And what we had spoken about was--

我们起初谈到了语言的共性We first talked about universals of language,

进而详细解释了语言的一些不同的方面then moved to some detail about the different aspects of language

包括语音语态和语法including phonology, morphology, and syntax.

我们接着讨论了We discussed the ways in which

语言的神奇之处language does the amazing things it does,

囊括了including the fact that

语言在表述观念时的科学或声音任意性language has used arbitrary science or sounds to convey concepts,

语言还发展出了一种组合系统and that languages exploit a combinatorial system

包括用递归将符号组合起来including recursion to put together these symbols

来形成无限数量的有意义句子into a virtually limitless set of meaningful sentences.

然后我们讨论了发展We then talked about development

并对发展时程进行了探讨and made some remarks about the developmental time course

谈了谈语言的出现talking about the emergence of language

从擅长学习语言的婴儿from babies to where babies are really good at learning language

说到由于大脑衰退to you who are not,

语言学习能力丧失whose brains have atrophied,

而不擅长学习语言的我们whose language capacities are dead.

最后一个问题我们来说说动物Final issue is to shift to animals.

既然我们对语言已略有了解Now that we know something about language,那么我们便可提出这样一个问题we could then ask do animals use--

动物是否也拥有某种语言possess the same sort of language?

如果没有它们能够学会吗And if not, can they learn it?

毫无疑问Now, there is absolutely no doubt at all

非人类动物拥有着自己的交流系统that nonhuman animals possess communication systems.

这也是长久以来的共识毫无争议This has been known forever and is not a matter of controversy.

如果你想用"语言"这一术语And if you want to use the term "Language"

来表示"交流"to mean "Communication,"

那么答案显然是"可以"then the answer is obviously "Yes."

狗蜜蜂和猴子都拥有语言Dogs and bees and monkeys have language.

但如果你想从一种更专业更狭义的意义上If you want to use language though in the more technical, narrow sense

用语言来表示as anything

拥有我们之前所谈那些特性的东西that has the properties that we discussed earlier,

比如用英语美国手语西班牙语等using English and ASL and Spanish and so on

来表示我们所具有的背景as our background,

那么答案基本肯定是"不能"the answer's almost certainly "No."

动物间交流的方式不外乎三种Animal communication systems fall into sort of one of three categories.

有的动物使用一系列有限的叫声Either there is a finite list of calls,

比如黑长尾猴so vervet monkeys, for instance,

用有限的几种叫声来表达不同的警报have a small list of calls to convey different warnings like

如"有蛇来袭"或"有豹来袭"等"Attack from a snake" or "Attack from a leopard."

还有一种连续的模拟信号There is a continuous analog signal.

比如蜜蜂的舞蹈就使用了这种方式So, bee dance, for instance, works on this way.

蜜蜂的舞蹈传达了蜜源的地点Bee dance communicates the location of food sources

但却并未使用任何语法结构的方式but doesn't do it in any syntactically structured way.

相反舞蹈强度Rather, the intensity of the dance

和蜜源中蜂蜜的多少有关corresponds to the richness of the food source.

最后一种是对某一主题的随机变化表述And then, you get things like random variation

比如鸟鸣on a theme such as birdsong.

但无论从什么方面你都根本无法找到But what you don't find in any real sense

语音语态语法is phonology, morphology, syntax,

组合系统或是任意命名combinatorial systems or arbitrary names.

这些并不存在什么特别的争议Now, this much is not particularly controversial.

但接下来我们就要面对很多的争议了There gets to be a lot of controversy though.

这是一个关于非人类动物交流系统的总结This is the summary about nonhuman communication systems.

当我们探讨到诸如坎兹和宁姆·猩斯基等It gets more controversial

一些著名受训灵长类动物的案例时when we get to famous cases of primates trained by humans

争议会变得更加激烈such as Kanzi, Nim Chimpsky, and other famous primates

你在探索频道可能会看过这些著名的案例that you may well have seen on the Discovery channel and other venues.

这是具有很大争议的And this is fairly controversial.

如果你读过了格雷心理学教材If you read the Gray textbook,

当然不是说它里面内容有什么错误while nothing in it is particularly inaccurate,

但我觉着格雷有些轻信太过相信I think Gray is actually a little bit too credulous, too believing

那个关于动物能力的观点了in the claims that have been made about the abilities of the animals.

比如许多科学家认为So many scientists argue, for instance,

像坎兹这样的动物that animals like Kanzi,

即便它们被认为是完全能够学会单词的even if they can be said to be learning words at all,

它们也只是学到了数量有限的单词learn very few of them.

而且需要花费多年的训练来教授它们And it takes them extensive years of training to learn,

与学会一个单词只需一天或是一小时的unlike a normally developing child 正常发育儿童完全不同who could learn a word in a day or a word in an

hour.

动物的语言表达通常是有一定法则的The utterances often have order

但这种法则却十分有限but this order tends to be very limited

缺乏递归的特征and lacks the recursive properties.

而实际上这种递归的缺乏是公认的And in fact, the lack of recursion is not controversial.

黑猩猩的语言表达Finally, the utterances of chimpanzees--

受过训练的黑猩猩极为啰嗦trained chimpanzees are extremely repetitive

所以通常你在电视或者纪录片中看到的so what you often see on TV and in documentaries

都只是挑选出来的样本而已is sort of a sampling.

这样的样本通常会让人印象深刻And the sampling could often be very impressive

但如果是随机选取黑猩猩的话语but if you take just what they say at random

听起来就会是这样的it tends to look like this.

这就是随机抽取出的典型的黑猩猩话语This is typical chimpanzee utterances just taken at random:

"宁姆吃宁姆吃"Nim eat, Nim eat.

喝吃宁姆我Drink, eat, me Nim.

我牙龈我牙龈Me gum, me gum.

我挠痒痒宁姆玩Tickle me, Nim play.

我吃吃我Me eat, me eat.

我香蕉你香蕉我你给Me banana, you banana, me you give.

香蕉我我吃给橙子Banana me, me eat. Give orange,

我给吃橙子我吃橙子"me give, eat orange, me eat orange."

莱拉·格雷特曼曾经评论说Lila Gleitman once commented that

如果任何一个正常发育的儿童这样去说话if any normally developing child spoke like this,

那他的父母就该带他去看神经科专家了his parents would rush him screaming to a neurologist.

更具争议的问题则是There's a broader question here, which is,

"为什么我们想要黑猩猩"Why would we ever expect a chimpanzee

学习人类的语言呢"to learn a human language?"

一般来说我们不希求一个物种We don't normally expect one species

具有和其他物种进行交流的能力to have the capacities associated with another species.

蝙蝠利用回声定位来规避障碍So, bats use echolocation to get around

某些鸟儿靠星星来进行导航and some birds navigate by the stars,

但是却没有一个研究项目but there's not an active research program

会去研究猫儿是否可以使用回声定位seeing if cats can use echolocation

或者狗是否可以靠星星导航or dogs could navigate by the stars.

在我看来你们之所以会认为And I think one reason why you might be tempted to think,

"黑猩猩一定可以学习语言""Well, of course chimps must be able to learn language"

是因为你们对语言有一些曲解is because you might be caught in the grips of some bad ideas about language.

曲解之一便是你们可能会说So, one idea is you might say,

"猩猩很聪明所以应该拥有语言""Look. Chimps should use language because chimps are so smart."

但对此的反驳是But the response to this is,

"它们是聪明但光聪明是不够的""They are smart but we know that smart isn't enough."

我们清楚人类的语言能力We know that the human capacity for language

并不仅仅源于聪慧is not totally a result of smartness.

有些孩子很聪明There are smart children who,

却因语言能力上的障碍due to some deficit in their language capacity,

无法掌握或理解一门语言don't speak or understand a language.

所以猩猩的聪明本身并不能说明So, the smartness of chimpanzees does not in itself demonstrate

它们应当具有学习语言的能力that they should be able to learn language.

或许你会指出另外一个事实You might also point out correctly

在进化史上猩猩是人类最近的近亲that chimps are our nearest evolutionary relatives,

这是正确的从这个观点来看你会觉得which is right, so you--one would expect on the face of it--

它们很可能同样拥有人类的某些能力it's not unreasonable to expect us to share a lot of abilities with them.

但从另一方面看On the other hand,

人类和黑猩猩在很久以前便分离开来we split from them a long time ago

而且人类与黑猩猩有着明显的差别and plainly humans are different from chimps.

不管怎样已经分开了五百万年之久And there was five million years either

way

这些时间足以使人类进化出语言能力and that's more than enough time for a language capacity to evolve.

但所有这些都并非在否定Now, none of this is to say that

对非人类交流系统进行研究的意义the study of nonhuman communication systems isn't interesting.

就我个人看来这只是我的一家之言From my own--This is my personal opinion

我说来给大家听听I'll raise here.

就我自己看来From my own opinion,

这种试图让黑猩猩the study of the attempts to try to teach chimpanzees,

长臂猿或是大猩猩学习or gibbons, or gorillas,

诸如美国手语这样的人类语言a human language like ASL

其实是在缘木求鱼are misguided.

这就像一群猴子It would be as if a team of monkeys

绑架了一个人类小孩 kidnapped a human child

并试图训练他模仿猴子的叫声一样and tried to train him how to hoot like a monkey.

也许看上去挺好玩It might be enjoyable

但似乎并没给我们带来任何有价值的发现but it does not seem to give us any rich insights.

我认为更具意义的是What I think is a lot more interesting

对野生动物交流系统的研究is the study of these animal communication systems in the wild.

人类语言学这门学科There's a linguistics of human language

将构成人类语言的基础原则勾画了出来that has delineated the principles that underlie all human languages.

如果尝试将这种语言学项目应用到It would be as extraordinarily interesting

研究野生动物的交流系统上to attempt the same linguistic program

那么这种研究会极其有趣to the other communication systems used in the wild such as

比如黑长尾猴的叫声和蜜蜂的舞蹈the cries of vervet monkeys and bee dance.

语言的部分我们就讲到这里So, this brings the section on language to a close

但我还要说一些不会详细讨论的事情but I want to tell you a few things we

didn't talk about.

心理学导论课程的一个缺憾是One of the problems with an Intro Psych course

我们对某些话题仅仅是提及略讲一下is we have to whip through a lot of topics very fast.

如果你选的是一门专门讲解语言的课程So, if you were to take a course that focused directly on language

你也许会学到比如you might learn, for instance,

更多语言的大脑活动more about language in the brain,

这些东西在课本中只是简要提及something touched about very briefly in the textbook

但这方面是有着大量相关文献的but something that has a large literature associated with it.

同样还有与语言有关的知识Similarly, and related to this,

如语言障碍there's language disorders,

其中包括如失语症disorders like aphasias and

特殊语言损伤和阅读障碍disorders like specific language impairment and dyslexia.

还有对语言感知与产生的研究There is the study of language perception and production.

我们是如何在极短的时间内How is it that we do this amazing feat of

理解和创造出词汇的呢understanding and producing words in a fraction of a second?

我们的这种能力从何而来呢Where does that ability come from?

还有关于阅读的研究There is the study of reading

在很多方面都与语言研究相异which is, in many ways, different from the study of a language.

大家记得达尔文将语言描述为一种本能吗Remember when Darwin described language as an instinct.

他用心地将语言He carefully distinguished it from other things that

与其他一些非本能区分开来如阅读don't come natural to us including reading.

其实阅读很难And in fact, reading is difficult.

它是一种文化产物Reading is a cultural invention,

不是每个人都会的not every human has it.

与语言有所不同And unlike language,

阅读的获得reading is acquired with

源于多年的经验积累tremendous difficulty over many years.

从另一方面来说On the other hand,

阅读又与语言紧密相关reading plainly intersects with language.

阅读是一种新的语言表达方式It's a new way of conveying language,

它从说转移到了写moving out from speech to writing.

阅读方面的心理学与神经系统学相关书籍And the psychology and neuroscience of reading

是非常有趣的is thus very interesting.

在阅读中我们会碰到双语和多语的情况There's bilingualism and multilingualism.

在座各位The questions people in this room

通常感兴趣的是typically are going to be interested in is

学习多少门语言does it matter for how well you learn language

是否影响语言的掌握程度whether you're learning one or two or three or four.

我们是如何在一个大脑内How is it that a multilingual encodes

将所有这些不同语言进行编码的all these different languages inside a single brain?

以及其它问题And so on.

最后还有一个非常热门的问题就是Finally, a very hot issue is that

语言和思维之间究竟存在什么关系of the relationship between language and thought

实际上几年前and I'm actually--A few years ago

我主持了专门的研讨班I taught an entire seminar

就叫做"语言和思维"called "Language and Thought"

致力于准确地回答这个问题devoted to precisely this question.

这是个令人深思的问题And it's a cool question

它可以分成and it could break up into

两个一般性问题two very general questions.

第一个便是One is,

抽象思维必须有语言的参与才能实现吗"Is language necessary for abstract thought?"

回答这个问题的一种方法就是And one way to answer that question

研究无语言生物is to look at creatures without language

如婴儿和黑猩猩like babies and chimpanzees

借此来了解他们有多聪明and see how smart they are.

或许他们并不It might be that they're not--

他们确实非常聪明that they're very smart,

如此一来便能证明in which case it would suggest

抽象思维并不需要借助语言便可实现you don't need language for abstract thought.

另一方面若了解到他们并不那么聪明On the other hand,

这就说明或许it might be that

他们本身存在一些固有的认知缺陷they have certain cognitive limitations,从而表明which would suggest that

语言是抽象思维的必要前提language is essential for abstract thought.

此外还有一个相关的问题Then there's the related question.

一旦你掌握了一门语言Even once you know a language,

这门语言的结构特性does the structural properties of the language

是否会影响你的思维方式that you know affect the way you think?

所掌握的语言影响思维方式的这一说法And the claim that the language you know affects how you think

通常被称作语言相对论is sometimes described as linguistic relativity

或是萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说or the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

举个例子So for instance,

有很多探查there's a lot of research

诸如英语和韩语这样的looking at speakers of different languages

不同语言说话者之间差异的研究such as English versus Korean

以及探究这些语言的结构差异and seeing whether structural differences

是否会影响思维方式的研究in these languages affect how you think.

我们的阅读材料中收录了部分对此的探讨Now, some of this work is discussed in the readings,

格雷这本教科书the book--the Gray textbook,

以及《诺顿选集》中都有收录and the selections from The Norton Anthology.

再看一下And this makes up--again,

这些是周一就给大家展示过的I've showed this to you on Monday--

大家的阅读反馈your reading response

上面有写你们要将答案交到哪里where you have to address this question

尽力去好好回答and take your best shot at answering it.

对于语言你们还有什么问题吗What are your questions about language?

好的Yes.

这位同学的问题是The question was raised,

"有些人学习语言要比其他人简单的多"Some people learn languages easier

than others

我们如何解释这种现象呢"and how do we explain this?"

我想可以这样回答And the answer is

你的这个问题也可以是针对母语学习者you could ask the question both with regard to first language learning,

即为什么有些孩子能够迅速掌握母语so some children learn language very quickly,

另一些却很慢呢some are very slow?

当然也可以是针对非母语学习者And also with regard to second language learning.

比如在耶鲁Some of you are breezing through

外语学习对一些同学来说手到擒来your second language requirement here at Yale.

而另一些却难于登天Others are struggling and miserable.

他们学习外语的速度有着很大的不同And there's considerable variation.

我们来讲个爱因斯坦的故事There's the story of Einstein

他对语言的掌握速度极慢who was very slow to learn language

直到四岁他才能开口说话and didn't speak at all until he was four.

据说And in fact,

他说出第一个字的场景是这样的he was a--He said his first words

在吃晚饭时他突然间放下勺子when all of a sudden he was having supper 对他的父母说with his parents and he put down the spoon

"汤太烫了"and he said, "The soup is too hot."

之后他的父母惊愕地盯着他说And his parents stared in astonishment

"你还从来没说过一个字"and said, "You've never spoken before."

他回答说And he said,

"因为直到刚才一切都还好啊""Well, up to now everything's been fine."

这是杜撰的It's not a true story.

这些差异究竟是如何产生The question of why and where

又是从何而生的these differences come from,

没有人真的知道答案它难以解答nobody really knows and it's surprisingly hard.

女性在语言学习方面占有微弱的优势There's a slight advantage for being female.

女孩在语言学习方面要比男孩Girls are slightly more advanced

稍强一些in language than boys

但是优势并不是十分明显but it's not a big one

用一百个人的样本便可从统计上and you need a hundred people to

看出这一结论just see it statistically.

遗传因素也有很大的影响There's a big genetic factor.

如果父母学习语言的速度很快If your parents learned language quickly

学习外语也很快and learned other languages quickly,

那你可能也学得很快you are more likely to.

但从大脑认知或是社会层面But an understanding of the brain bases of these differences

对这些差异的理解or the cognitive bases or the social bases

很大程度上仍是空白is just--is largely an open question.

那位Yes.

相比在美国This is actually more the norm around the world

这种情况在世界上其它国家更为常见than the situation in the United States 因为美国的孩子处于单一语言环境之中where kids are exposed to a single language.

实际上孩子是同时学习两种语言的What happens is children learn both languages.

他们和成人一样非常擅长于Children are very good, as adults are,

根据声音系统和韵律of distinguishing different languages

来区分不同的语言on the basis of their sound system and their rhythms

所以他们一般不会将语言混淆so they don't typically confuse them.

因此他们学习了不止一门语言And then they just learn more than one language.

实际上学习多种语言And that's actually more

也是世界的一个整体局势the average state of affairs around the world.

你来Yes.

你曾提到You said that people

右利手的人学习语言...who are right-handed learn languages...

这个是一个关于The question is about

语言功能大脑半球单侧化的问题the hemispheric specialization for language.

除了之前课上所讲的东西And I don't have actually much more to say

我也没有什么更多能回答你的了than what I said before,

我知道这个回答很难令人满意which I agree is deeply unsatisfying.

如果你是右利手If you're right-handed,

那么很可能你的语言功能由左脑负责language is probably in the left side of your brain.

在座有多少左利手的同学How many people here are left-handed?

对这些同学来说就因人而异了For you we don't know. It varies.

你们有些人的语言功能由左脑负责Some of you have it in the left side.

而有些人则是右脑Some of you have it in the right side.

还有些人是左右脑分工For some of you it's kind of diffuse.

为什么会这样Now, why is this?

事实上And in fact,

最初右利手与左利手之间的区别why are some people right-handed

又是如何出现的呢and others left-handed in the first place?

这些都是很好的问题Those are really good questions.

那位Yes.

好的我将以这个问题作为结束Yes. I'll--Yes, that's--

我会回答你的问题的I'll answer that question.

遗憾的是And unfortunately,

我只能回答这最后一个问题了it's going to be the last one

然后我要开始讲视觉了and then I'll go to vision.

这个问题是The question is,

"相比于只学一门语言"Does learning more than one language

同时学习多门语言是否会导致cause you to learn them slower

学习效率降低"than just learning one language?"

肯定的答案似乎是情理的And it would stand to reason that it would.

因为心理资源是有限的There's a finite amount of mental resources.

如果我仅学习英语If I'm just learning English,

我会将所有的资源都用在英语学习上I use all of it for English.

但如果我同时学习英语和西班牙语的话And if I'm learning English and Spanish

我就必须得将资源分开I kind of got to split.

因此你们预期学习每门语言的效率会降低And you'd expect them to be each learned slower.

语言发展研究得到的令人惊讶的结果之一It's one of the surprises of the study of language development

便是常识并不一定是正确的that common-sense view does not appear to be true.

相对于只学习一门语言的孩子来说Children learning more than one language

学习多门语言的孩子seem to show no deficit relative-- in each of their languages,

在学习时似乎并未显示出任何弱势relative to a child learning just one language.

换句话说In other words,

如果我是个在学习英语的小孩if I am just learning English and I'm a kid

而你是个同时学习英语和西班牙语的小孩and you're learning English and Spanish and you're a kid,

你我到达英语学习阶段的时间是相同的you'll reach the milestones in English the same time I will.

你额外学习的西班牙语Your extra learning of Spanish

对英语并没有影响doesn't seem to affect you.

学习多门语言时There doesn't seem to be any detriment

各语言之间并不会相互冲突for learning multiple languages.

随之而来的另一问题是Another question which comes up is,

"学习多种语言会导致认知障碍吗""Is there any cognitive deficit?"

换句话说一些人曾提出In other words, some people have argued that

多门语言的学习learning multiple languages sometimes

会对儿童造成某种伤害harms children in certain ways.

在魁北克有人提出了这种观点This is a claim that's been made in Quebec,比如关于孩子是否应当for instance, over the debate over

同时学习英语和法语的辩论how children should be taught English and French.

这似乎没什么好辩论的It does not appear to be the case.

似乎从我们已知的情况看There appears to be, as far as we know,

幼年时期学习多门语言no down side to learning many languages

没有任何负面影响when you're young.

这个回答可以吗Does that answer your question?

接下来要讨论的这个主题I want to move now to the topic

我们将会用今天和下周一that will take us through today

这两次课去完成它and through the beginning of next week

即感知注意和记忆perception, attention, and memory.

我把它们放在一起And I'm putting them together

而不作为独立的课题去讲解instead of treating them as separate lectures

是因为从某种意义上说它们是一样的because there's a sense in which they're the same story.

你们看到一个场景You see a scene.

就是这个场景You see this scene

你们看着它and you're looking at it

在感知它and you're perceiving it.

场景穿过眼帘It's coming through your eyes

你会去解释它and you're interpreting it

这就是你看到了些东西and you see something.

你看见了一个男人和一匹马You see a man and you see a house.

如果你闭上眼睛If you were to shut your eyes,

那个场景仍会保存在你的记忆之中you could still hold that scene in memory.

一周后And a week later,

如果我询问你们这个图片if I'm to ask you about that,

"图片上是什么季节""What season was it?"

你们会记得非常清楚you would do pretty well.

这就是我们接下来将要探讨的内容This is the story I want to talk about.

我们是如何做到这点的How we do this?

在这过程中And in the course of this

我想先提出一系列I want to make a series of claims

诸如下述的声明that go something like this.

关于感知我想先告诉大家的是For perception, I want to first persuade you 关于感知的内容是挺难理解的the problem of perception's hard

成功的感知涉及了and that successful perception involves

关于世界的可靠的无意识猜想educated and unconscious guesses about the world.

关于注意我想要说的是For attention, I want to suggest that

我们会注意某些事物忽略其它事物we attend to some things and not others

而绝大部分的事物我们并没注意到and we miss a surprising amount of what happens in the world.

关于记忆记忆的类型有很多种For memory, there are many types of memory.

记忆的关键在于组织和理解The key to memory is organization and understanding.

某些记忆实际上是错误的不可信任的And you can't trust some of your memories.

你们有多少人记得How many of you remember

911事件发生时你们在哪where you were at 9/11?

你们中很多人都记错了Many of you are wrong.

我并不想说服你们相信这点And I am never going to persuade you of this

因为你们拥有着某种记忆because you have certain memories.

使得你能够讲述当时的情景And you could tell the story.

每个人都讲得出Everybody could tell the story

双子塔倒塌时他们在哪where they were when the towers went down.

但聪明的心理学家在9月12日的时候说But clever psychologists on September 12 said,

"我们来做个实验吧""Let's do a study."

他们询问人们And they asked people,

"昨天当你听到消息的时候你在哪儿""Where were you yesterday when you heard the news?"

他们回答了问题And they told them.

过了些日子他们再回去问And then they went back to them later,

一年后两年后分别回去询问a year later, two years later, and said,

"告诉我911当天发生了什么""Tell me about what happened September 11."然后他们回答And they said,

"我完全记得我在哪里""I remember totally where I was. I have a very--"

然而这时他们的回答常常是错误的And then--And often the story was wrong.

在我下面的讲述中有很多这样的例子There is a lot like that which we're going to talk about.

而它最大的意义在于And the biggest moral then--

我做了一个很明显的记号so, I put it really, in really big print--

对自己的经历我们通常记得不甚清楚We are often wrong about our experiences,

即使是正在经历的当下both of the present and of right now.

好了我们开始讲感知So, let's start with perception.

先讲个故事吧There is a story--

我曾去麻省理工学院的研究生院I went to graduate school at MIT

那里有一位人工智能专家and there was a story there about Marvin Minsky 叫做马文·明斯基who is the A.I. Guru.

如果你听说过He--If you've heard the words--

"人工智能"这个术语the phrase "Artificial intelligence,"

那就是他提出的that was him.

并且如果你听过And if you heard the claim that

"人们不过是肉做的机器"这一言论people are nothing more than machine of meat

同样出自他口--also him.

那么这个故事就是说Well, there's a story

当他在研究机器人学时where he was doing work on robotics

他很希望造出一个and he was interested in building a robot

能做所有事情的机器人that could do all sorts of cool things.

这才是机器人That's like a robot.

接下来这个机器人要适应--And the story goes the robot had to among--

要写字要认识世界had to write--had to see the world.

它要会捡东西It had to be able to pick up things

认人认得椅子以及认路等等and recognize people and see chairs and navigate its way

这时明斯基说and Minsky said,

"这是一个棘手的问题"That's a tough problem.

这需要一个研究生It's going to take a graduate student

花整个暑假才能完成"a whole summer to figure it out."

因此他把这作为一个夏季项目And he assigned it to a graduate student

派给了一个研究生for a summer project.

视觉和知觉心理学家们都喜欢这个故事Visual psychologists, perception psychologists, love that story

因为关于计算机视觉和机器人视觉的研究because the study of computer vision and robotics vision

以及关于制造and the attempts to make machines

能够确认与识别物体的机器的尝试that can identify and recognize objects 已经彻底失败了has been a profound failure.

就此我们知道There is, at this point,

能够识别出人客体以及事物no machine on earth

这些一岁小孩都能识别出来的机器that could recognize people and objects and things

是不存在的at the level of you know a really dumb one-year-old.

而不存在的原因在于And the reason why is that

它是一个比人们所预想的it's a much harder problem than

更为棘手的难题anybody could have expected.

那是什么让它成为了这么棘手的难题呢Well, what makes it such a hard problem?

你之所以会认为这是个简单的问题Well, one reason why you might think it's an easy problem

是因为你可能会说is you say,

"好我们要弄清"Okay. We have to figure out

人类究竟是如何看见东西的the problem of how people see.

我们可以这样去做"Well, here's what we do."

你在那里You're in--You're over there

这是你的眼睛and here's your eye.

出于某种原因它要连接到电视监视器上And somehow it has to get to this television monitor

你看着它and then you look at it

这样就能知道你是如何看见东西的and that'll solve the problem of how you see.

所以有时候人们会说So, sometimes people say,

"我听说眼睛看到的事物是颠倒的"Hey. I hear the eye flips things upside down.

我猜这个人必须得I guess this guy is going to have to

适应颠倒着看东西了get used to looking at things upside down.

这可真是个有趣的问题"That's an interesting problem."

不我们不是这样解决问题的No. That's not the way to look at it

因为这并未回答任何问题because that doesn't answer any questions.

只是把问题推回了原点That just pushes the question back.

问题是 "他"是如何看见东西的Fine. How does "He" See?

所以说我们并未解决任何问题We're not answering anything.

同样虽然终结者眼中的世界Similarly, although the Terminator's view of the world

可能符合这点may correspond to that,

但这并未解决that doesn't solve any problem of

他究竟是如何看到东西的how he actually sees.

向他快速呈现这些数字So, he has all these numbers shooting out there.

要求他将数字读出Well, he has to read the numbers.

他要看这个He has to see this.

这是我的音乐播放器This is my iTunes.

抱歉是我疏忽了That's inadvertent.

正确思索感知的方法是这样的Here's the right way to think about perception.

你有着丑陋的血淋淋的眼睛You got the eye, which is very ugly and bloody,

周围是视网膜and then around here you have the retina.

视网膜由大量神经细胞组成And the retina is a bunch of nerve cells.

神经细胞会因某些特定刺激物而进行发放And the nerve cells fire at-- for

some stimulus and not others.

依靠这组发放的信号And from this array of firings,

"发放不发放发放不发放""Firing, not firing, firing, not firing,"

你会知道你看到了什么you have to figure out what the world is.

这是一个更好的视角So, a better view is like this.

神经细胞发出的信号The firings of the neurons

可以被视为一个数组集合could be viewed as an array of numbers.

你需要搞清You have to figure out

这些数字是如何转变成客体人物how to get from the numbers to objects and people,

动作以及事件的and to actions and events.

这才是问题所在And that's the problem.

这是个特别棘手的难题It's made particularly a difficult problem

是因为视网膜是个二维平面because the retina is a two-dimensional surface 而你要在这个二维平面的基础上and you have to infer a 3D world

延展出一个三维的立体世界from a two-dimensional surface.

而这在数学上是不可能实现的And this is, from a mathematical point of view, impossible.

而这就意味着And what this means is that

对于任何二维平面图像there--For any two-dimensional image

都存在着不定数额的there is an indefinite number of

与之对应的三维图像three-dimensional images that correspond to it.

比如So for instance,

假如这幅图映在你的视网膜上suppose you have this on your retina,

一组光线像这样排列着an array of light shaped like that.

那在现实中与之对应的是何种实物呢What does that correspond to in the world?

它可能对应的是Well, it could correspond

一种你正在寻找的事物to a thing just like that that you're looking for

或者是一个or it could correspond to a square

向后倾斜的方块that's tilted backwards.

因此你必须要分清究竟是哪个And so, you have to figure out which is which.

我们解决这一问题的方法是And the way we solve this problem

我们拥有关于世界如何运作的无意识假设is that we have unconscious assumptions about how the world works.

我们的心理拥有Our minds contain certain assumptions

某些关于事物如何存在的假设about how things should be

这些假设让我们能够做出从二维数字that enable us to make educated guesses

到三维世界的能够做出有根据的猜测from the two-dimensional array on to the three-dimensional world.

我故意不提前放幻灯片And I purposefully did not make the slides available 发给大家看for this class ahead of time

是因为我不想让大家作弊because I don't want people to cheat,

但幻灯片上列出的几点but there are several points

可以帮助大家理解和确认where you could look at the slides and confirm that some of the things

我下面要讲的知识的正确性I'm going to tell you are actually true.

我将为大家列举三个例子And I want to give you three examples.

一个是颜色One is color.

我打算把颜色和亮度放在一起讲And I'm going to conflate here color and brightness.

一个是物体The other is object.

还有一个是深度The other is depth.

首先是颜色的问题First, the problem of color.

你如何才能区分出煤球和雪球呢How do you tell a lump of coal from a snowball?

那是一个煤球Well, that's a lump of coal

而那是一个雪球and that's a snowball,

这是谷歌上搜到的图片and it's from Google images.

你是如何区分的How do you know which is which?

好了你说煤是黑色的Well, a lump of coal you say is black

而雪球是白色的and a snowball is white.

你怎么知道How do you know?

或许它映在了你的视网膜上Well, maybe you have on your retina--

你的视网膜对于Your retina responds to

刺激它的颜色有所反应sort of color that hits it.

这么说太简化了It's oversimplified,

但我们先假设这是对的but let's assume that this is true.

那么这个是黑色So, this is black coming out

那个是白色and that's white

这就是你辨别的方法and that's how you tell.

但实际上这是错误的But in fact, that can't be right.