语言学第2章习题
新版语言学练习
语言学纲要指导书习题导言一．填空1．语言学的三大发源地是（）、（）、和（）.2．语言学是（）世纪成为独立的学科的，其标志是（）3.现代语言学的标志性著作是瑞士语言学家（）的（）4.语言交际过程可分为( )-( )-（）-( )-( )五个阶段。
5.印度最早的经典所使用的语言是（）.6.（）、( )、( )是中国“小学”的主要研究内容。
二．判断正误1.语文学主要是研究古代的口语和书面语。
2.语言有自身结构的独立性，与系统之外的社会环境没有关系。
3.理论语言学是研究语言一般规律的，不受具体语言研究影响。
4.语言形式和内容的关系是语言研究的根本问题。
三．思考题1.语言与人类社会生活有哪些密切关联？2.语文学研究有哪些特征?3.语言学学科内部都有哪些研究分类？如何看待它们之间的关系？4.为什么说语言学是一门基础学科？5.为什么说语言学是自然科学和人文科学的桥梁？6.如何看待语言学研究的意义和价值？第一章语言的功能一、填空1.语言的功能包括____功能和____功能。
2.语言的社会功能包括____功能和____功能。
3.在各种信息传递形式中，____是第一性的、最基本的手段。
4.人的大脑分左右两个半球，语言功能及计数、推理能力等由____半球掌管，音乐感知、立体图形识别等能力由____半球制约。
5.儿童语言习得一般经过____阶段和____阶段，这是儿童学话的关键两步。
二．判断正误1.文字是建立在语言基础之上的再编码形式。
2.当说话者陈述一个客观事实时，话语中不具有主观性。
3.书刊上的话语不具有人际互动功能。
4.抽象思维要以语言为形式依托。
5.布洛卡区在大脑的右半球前部。
6.聋哑人不会说话，所以不具有抽象思维的能力。
7.不同语言结构的差异体现出思维方式的不同。
8.汉语名词没有数的变化，所以汉语没有区别单数和多数的概念。
三．思考题1.为什么说语言是人类最重要的信息传递的手段？2.语言的人际互动功能表现在哪些方面？3.为什么说思维离不开语言？4.语言思维功能的生理基础是什么，有哪些表现？5.儿童语言习得的临界期指什么？临界期的存在说明语言的哪些特性？6.不同语言思维方式的特殊性体现在哪些方面？7.张三说，“我们先发明了电视，然后才给电视命名，所以思维不需要语言。
语言学概论习题
导言一、单项选择题1. 普通语言学从理论上研究（）A 个别民族语言的特殊规律B 人类各种语言一般的共同规律C 几种民族语言的一般与个别的规律D 汉语普通话的发展规律2. 语言学可以分为两大类别，即（）A 理论语言学、应用语言学B 汉语语言学、英语语言学C 英语语言学、俄语语言学D 个别语言学、一般语言学3. 语言学概论属于（）A 个别语言学的范围B 一般语言学的范围C 应用语言学的范围D 汉语言学的范围4. 结构主义语言学独特的研究方法是（）A 历史比较法B 归纳法C 分布分析法和直接成分分析法D 句子成分分析法二、填空题1. 古中国、古印度、古希腊具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。
2. 文字、训诂、音韵是我国传统的语文学。
3. 研究语言的结构，主要是研究语音、语法、语汇三个部分。
4. 历史比较语言学的建立，标志着语言学开始走上独立发展的道路。
5. 布龙菲尔德的代表著作《语言论》，是美国结构主义语言学的奠基性著作，对美国结构主义语言学的形成、发展有重要的作用和深远的影响。
6. 索绪尔被称为现代语言学之父，其代表作《普通语言学教程》在语言学史上具有十分重要的地位。
7. 结构主义语言学派可以分为布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国结构语言学派三派。
三、判断题1. 历史比较语言学不仅标志着语言学科的独立而且为普通语言学的建立打下了坚实的基础。
（）2. 我国的语文学通称“小学”。
（）3. 普通语言学是以汉语普通话为研究对象的语言学分支学科。
（）4. 每个人至少掌握一种语言，所以都能准确地回答“什么是语言”这个问题。
（）四、名词解释1. 语言学2. 语文学3. 理论语言学4. 应用语言学5. 普通语言学6. 个别语言学第一章语言的社会功能一、单项选择题1. 语言是（）A 说话B 个人说的行为和结果C 写成的作品或发表的言论D 从言语中概括出来的为社会所公认的词语和规则的总和2. 言语是（）A 言论和语言B 音义结合的符号系统C 个人说的行为和结果 D写成的作品或发表的言论3. 语言是（）A 特殊的社会现象B 一般的社会现象C 上层建筑D 经济基础二、填空题1. 言语是个人说的行为和结果。
语言学概论练习题2
语言学概论练习题一、单项选择题（在每小题列出的四个备选项中只有一个是符合题目要求的，请将其代码填写在题后的括号内。
错选、多选或未选均无分。
）1．“名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约谓之不宜”的提出者是( C )A．老子B．孔子C．荀子D．庄子2．声音的强弱决定于( B )A．频率的大小B．振幅的大小C．发音体的松紧D．说话的速度3．语音中声带振动的浊辅音是(C )A．乐音B．噪音C．乐音和噪音的混合体D．纯音4．舌尖前不送气清塞音是( A )A．［t］B．［d］C．［ts］D．［s］5．汉语北京话中，有的人把“一般儿大”(同样大)说成“一边儿大”，这种现象在语音学上叫( D )A．同化B．异化C．弱化D．增音6．把词分为单纯词和合成词所依据的是( B )A．音节的数量B．语素的数量C．词的用途D．词的地位7．“背黑锅”、“走后门”、“碰钉子”都属于( A )A．惯用语B．谚语C．成语D．简缩词语8．外语学习中，学习者往往会建立一种不同于母语也不同于外语而只属于个人的语言系统，这就是( D )A．交叉语B．双语C．混合语D．中介语9．外语学习中，学习者的母语会对其所学的外语产生影响，这种现象叫( B )A．语言接触B．语言迁移C．语言混同D．语言杂糅10．机器翻译可以分为四个层级，其中最高的一级是( A )A．语境平面的翻译B．语义平面的翻译C．句法平面的翻译D．单词平面的翻译11．汽车司机行驶到路口，看见红灯就会马上停车，这是一种( A )A．感性思维B．逻辑思维C．发散思维D．推理思维12．人大脑的右半球掌管( B )A．语言活动B．直观动作的思维活动C．抽象思维D．判断和推理13．一般认为人大脑语言功能的临界期最迟是(D )A．2 至3 岁B．6 至8 岁C．9 至10 岁D．12 至13 岁14．从语言形式本身看，双词句标志着儿童产生了最早的( C )A．语音能力B．语义能力C．语法能力D．构词能力15．在儿童语言获得过程的某一阶段，儿童说出的话很像大人打电报时所用的表达方式，这个阶段他们的语言被称作“电报式语言”，这个阶段是( C )A．咿呀学语阶段B．单词阶段C．简单句阶段D．复杂句阶段16．小脑的主要功能是( C )A．连接大脑左右两半球B．负责内脏功能C．控制人体运动的平衡D．负责掌管记忆功能17．最小的音义结合的语言单位是( B )A．音素B．语素C．义素D．义位18．文字起源于( B )A．结绳B．图画C．结珠D．穿贝19．语言间亲属关系最重要的标志是( A )A．语音对应关系B．词汇对应关系C．语法对应关系D．文字对应关系20．要确定几种未定的“话”是属于同一“语言”的不同“…方言”，还是不同的“语言”，应当依据( C )A．说话者相互理解程度B．语言结构本身差异的程度C．共同的历史文化传统和民族认同感D．说话者的民族21.下列关于“语言”的说法，不正确的一项是( D )A.语言系统是由多个子系统组合而成的B.语言是一个符号系统C.语言符号具有离散特征和线性特征D.语言符号的音义关系可以任意改变22.在二十世纪，对哲学、人类学、心理学、社会学等学科产生重大影响的语言学流派是(C )A.历史比较语言学B.心理语言学C.结构主义语言学D.社会语言学23.下列元音音素都是后元音的一组是( B )A.[u, ε]B.[α, Λ]C. [ i e ]D.[o, a]24.下列辅音音素都是塞音的一组是( B )A.[d, 1]B.[b, k]C.[p, n]D.[t, v]25. 从语音的社会功能角度划分出来的最小语音单位是( A )A.音位B.音素C.音节D.音渡26.句子语调的高低升降变化表现最为明显的是( C )A.句首部分B.句中部分C.句终部分D.句首和句终部分27.汉语普通话中的“我”和助词“的”单念时发音分别为[uo]和[tə] 而在实际语流中，“我的”发音是[uodə],这是语流音变中的( C )A.顺同化现象B.逆同化现象C.弱化现象D.异化现象28.语汇是词和语的集合，下列关于“语”的表述，正确的一项是( D )A.“语”是所有词组的集合B.“语”的意义是若干词的意义的加合C.“语”是可以拆分的语言片段D.“语”包括“固定词组”和“熟语”29.下列关于汉语词双音节化倾向的作用的说法，不正确的一项是( C )A.区别多义词的不同义项B.减少同音词C.减少同义词D.调整词的韵律节奏30.英语“students”中的“-s”是( C )A.虚词语素B.词根语素C.构形语素D.构词语素31.从词的构造方式看，下列各项中属于复合词的是( D )A.木头B.念头C.苦头D.山头32.下列现象中不属于词法手段的是( A )A.虚词B.重叠C.轻重音D.词形变化33.法语动词“是”的直陈式现在时有6 种变化，比如“je (我) suis (是)”，“il (他) est (是)”，“nous (我们) sommes(是)”等，这反映了法语中什么样的谓词属性范畴?( D )A.时B.体C.态D.人称34.划分词类的最本质的标准是( A )A.分布标准B.意义标准C.形态标准D.逻辑标准35.下列词类从大类到小类的归类，不正确的是( C )A.实词—谓词—动词—及物动词B.实词—体词—名词—处所名词C.实词—谓词—助词—时态助词D.实词—体词—量词—名量词36.下面词组中，结构类型与其他各组不同的一组是( D )A.年轻漂亮/朴素大方B.我们大家/首都北京C.铁路民航/工人农民D.贯彻执行/讨论研究37.下列成对的词语中，属于相对反义词的一组是( D )A.成功—失败B.合法—非法C.本地—外地D.勤劳—懒惰38.下列句子的语义结构属于简单述谓结构的一项是( A )A.老王昨天买了一台彩电B.李辉去图书馆借了一本书C.他觉得不应该这样做D.他没接住小李传过来的球39.造成“北京人多”一句歧义的主要原因是( D )A.一词多义B.不同的句法结构关系C.不同的语义结构关系D.不同的层次构造40.下列关于音符来源的表述中，正确的一项是( D )A.音符是从笔画发展而来的B.音符是从记号发展而来的C.音符是从声旁转化而来的D.音符是从意符转化而来的41.目前已知的最古老的拼音文字是( A )A.古埃及文字B.古希腊文字C.腓尼基文字D.中国的甲骨文42.下列关于语言起源的表述中，正确的一项是(D )A.语言产生于人类对外界各种声音的摹仿B.语言产生于人们的相互约定C.语言是人类有意识地在短时间内创造出来的D.语言是人类在长期进化发展过程中创造出来的43.有一类词，它们的词义和构词方式都来自外语，构词语素则是本民族语言的，这类词属于( B )A.借词B.仿译词C.意译词D.音译兼意译词44.下列关于思维和语言的关系的说法，不正确的是( C )A.感性思维不一定借助语言进行B.抽象思维有时与语言有脱节C.发散思维完全不需要借助语言D.抽象思维以语言为主要工具45.在儿童语言获得的过程中，标志着儿童产生最早的语义能力的阶段是( A )A.单词句阶段B.双词句阶段C.简单句阶段D.复杂句阶段46.下列词典中，属于语言词典的是( B )A.《永乐大典》B.《汉语成语小词典》C.《小学生作文词典》D.《北京地名词典》48.关于语言与言语的关系，下列说法中不正确的一项是( A )。
语言学概论练习题(有答案)
语言学概论练习题（有答案），很棒哦~~今天最新增加了北语历年真题2000-2009，还有语言学、文字学专业复试完整版（04-07年），还有北大的真题，也可以作为练习和参考。
但是我要声明：里面的北语真题很全，但是电子版的资料是我在网上四处找到的，不是北语的资料，不能代替北语的笔记，只作为参考。
我这里有夏大的语概的练习题，宝贵之处是他有答案，而且题目出的也不错。
可以作为复习的参考资料（但是不否认里面有一小部分题目和北语的笔记有点点出入，大家遇到这样的地方还要以北语笔记为准）,有些题目的设置和答案做的是很不错的，特别是思考题部分和北语的试题比较接近。
这里先把第一、二章的内容给大家。
第1-2章：思考题部分1、汉人说的就是汉语，英国人说的就是英语，对吗？为什么？注意!!!不正确。
语言不是说话，不管中国人还是英国人，他们说出来的话属于言语的一部分内容，是具体的、个别的言语活动；而他们在说话时所遵循的确定的规则才是语言。
人们所说的话是使用语言的产物，即运用语言才产生的言语活动。
因此，我们不能把人们所说的话与他们所使用的语言等同起来。
2、语言与言语的区别和联系是什么？为什么要把语言和言语区分开来？语言是词汇系统和语法系统的总和，是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的、有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分；说话就是对规则系统的运用，相同的规则生成不同的句子。
语言和言语的主要区别：（1）从运用角度来说：言语是自由的；而语言是有规则的，不自由的。
（2）从语言学角度分析：言语包括张口说话的动作（言语动作）、说话代码（语言）以及说、写、想的话（言语作品）；而语言是言语中较为确定的部分。
（3）从表现形式看：言语是个人的，有个人特点；而语言是社会的。
（4）从哲学角度看：言语是具体的、个别的；而语言是抽象的、一般的。
语言和言语的联系：（1）语言存在于言语之中。
（2）语言存在以说话的需要为前提。
（3）言语是对语言的具体运用，是行为和结果。
语言学纲要复习题
《语言学纲要》复习题一．填空题1．____ 、____ 、____ 具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。
2．____是我国古代的书面语，用它写成的文章称为。
3．____ 、____ 、____ 是我国传统的语文学。
4．研究语言的结构，主要是研究____、____、____ 三个部分。
5．运用语言传递信息的过程，可以分为____、____ 、____ 、____ 、____ 五个阶段。
语言的社会功能一．填空题1．人和动物的区别是人会制造工具，而且人类有____，这人和动物相区别的重要标志之一。
2．一种语言中的句子数量是无限的，人类之所以能掌握语言，是因为构成句子的____是十分有限的。
3．语言是人类社会的____，而且也是思维的____。
4．在一定条件下，身体姿势等伴随动作还可以离开语言独立完成交际任务。
例如汉民族点头表示____，摇头表示____，送别时挥手表示____，____表示欢迎，咬牙切齿表示____，手舞足蹈表示____。
5．人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的____半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性____。
6．汉语的哥哥、弟弟，英语用____表示，汉语的舅妈、姨妈、姑妈、婶婶，英语用____表示。
7．英语可以直接用数词修饰名词，汉语数词修饰名词一般要加上一个____。
8．儿童最早的智力活动就是学习____。
二．判断题1．语言是人类最重要的交际工具。
（）2．文字也是人类最重要的交际工具。
（）3．地主阶级和农民阶级之间没有共同语言，这说明语言是有阶级性的。
（）4．语言具有自然属性，是自然现象。
（）5．语言是一种特殊的社会现象。
（）6．语言具体存在于个人的运用之中，所以是个人现象。
（）7．在现代社会，文字比语言更加重要。
（）8．现代社会，沟通的方式很多，语言的重要性日渐削弱。
（）9．语言在任何时候、任何地方都具有重要作用。
（）10．语言是人类特有的，动物没有语言。
（）11．语言是思维的工具，没有语言，人类就无法思维。
2014. 语言学概论练习题
Questions and TasksCHAPTER 1：Introduction: human language and linguistics1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language.2.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditionalgrammar?3.How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar toChomsky’s distinctionCHAPTER 2：Phonetics and Phonology4.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?5.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study?6.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How areallophones related to a phoneme?7.Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions (see p.32)CHAPTER 3：Morphology8. Define the following terms：morpheme free morphemebound morpheme compoundderivation inflectionopen-class closed-classgrammatical word lexical wordaffix rootstem9. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify thetypes of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, "one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc." •translator, "one who translates"10. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify thetypes of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-preffix: a-meaning: “without; not"stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry”asexual, “without sex or sex organs”CHAPTER 4: Syntax11.T he following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier.Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.full of peoplemove towards the window12.D raw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.Marie became very ill.He often reads detective stories.13.T he derivations of the following sentences involve the inversiontransformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.Should the student report the incident?What did you eat for lunch?CHAPTER 5: Semantics14.W hat are the major types of synonyms in English?15.E xplain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.16.T o which category does each of the following pairs of antonyms belong?north/south, vacant/occupied, above/below, literate/illiterate, doctor/patient, poor/rich, wide/narrow, father/daughter17.T ry to analyze the following sentences in terms of prediction analysis:The man sells ice-cream.The tree grows well.CHAPTER 6: Pragmatics18.W hat does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditionalsemantics?19.A ccording to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possiblyperforming while making an utterance. Give an example.20.W hat are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples toshow how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversationalimplicature?CHAPTER 7: Sociolinguistics21.H ow is language related to society?22.I n what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language?23.H ow do bilingualism and diglossia differ, and what do they have in common?CHAPTER 8: Psycholinguistics24.W hat is lateralization of the human brain?25.W hat is psycholinguistics?26.W hat have we learnt from the research into the comprehension of spokenand written language?27.W hat is the Levelt’s model for speech production?28.D o you agree to the innateness hypothesis? Why do or why don’t?29.H ow do children acquire WH questions?30.W hat are the three stages in children’s acquisition of English negatives?CHAPTER 9: Applied Linguistics31.W hat is the relationship between applied linguistics and foreignlanguage teaching?32.W hat are the three major factors in syllabus design?33.T ry to explain the following terms:applied linguistics, task-based learning approach, proficiency test, achievement test, validity, reliability, L1 transfer, interlanguage, learning strategies, intralingual error, interlingual error34.W hat is Krashen’s Input Hypothesis?35.I dentify the errors in the following sentences and trace the possible cause for each error.Please do not hinder my work.---Would you mind lending me your tape-recorder?---Yes, certainly.During the meeting we discussed about the research project.Alison is in poor health. She is easy to catch cold.The light can impress the film and in this way to fix the image of the film.The scenery is too beautiful to describe it.36.B ased on your own experience, give at least three examples which arerelated to overgeneralization and performance errors.。
《语言学纲要》学习指导书课后习题答案
【语言学概论】学习辅导书参考答案〔导言〕一、名词解释〔20分，每题4分〕1.语言学：就是以语言为研究对象的科学，研究语言的本质、语言的结构和开展规律。
2.小学：指我国传统的语文学，包括文字学、音韵学、训诂学三方面的内容。
3.专语语言学：也叫具体语言学、个别语言学，以一种〔或几种有联系的〕语言为研究对象，研究某一种语言的结构。
4.共时语言学：以同时的、静态分析的方法，研究语言相对静止的状态，描写分析语言在某一个时期、某一个阶段的状况，是从横向的方面研究语言。
5.历时语言学：从历时的、动态的角度研究语言开展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同开展阶段的历史演变，是从纵向的方面研究语言的历史。
二、填空题〔20分，每空1分〕1.中国印度古希腊-罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言的三大发源地。
2.文字学音韵学训诂学是我国传统的语文学。
3.研究语言的结构，主要是研究语音词汇和语义语法三个局部。
4.运用语言传递信息的过程，可分为编码发送传递接收解码五个过程5.专语语言学可以从纵向和横向研究语言，由于研究角度不同，所以又分为历时语言学和共时语言学6.历史比拟语言学的建立，标志着语言学开始走上独立开展的道路。
7.布隆菲尔德的代表著作【语言论】，是美国结构主义语言学的奠基性著作。
8.索绪尔被称为现代语言之父，其代表作有【普通语言学教程】三、问答题〔60分，每题10分〕1.古代的语言研究和今天的语言研究有哪些不同？①研究对象不同：古代的语言学主要以书面语为主要研究材料，不重视口头语言的研究，而今天的语言学那么十分重视口语研究，如制定语言标准，确立共同语的各方面标准等，都要依据口语的研究成果；②研究目的不同：古代语言学研究语言，主要是给政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学方面的经典著作作注解，比方我国古代的语文学主要就是围绕阅读先秦经典著作的需要来研究文言的，而现代语言学的研究目的主要是分析语言的结构，以此探讨语言开展的共同规律。
英语语言学第1-3章课后练习题答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第1-3章练习题参考答案Chapter 1 IntroductionP131. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language？答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences inlanguages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g rammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any langu age is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?（2．2语言的识别性特征）美国语言学家C. Hockett提出了人类语言的12种识别性特征，其中最重要的识别性特种有5种：即语言的任意性、创造性、二重性、移位性和文化传递性。
语言学教程课后答案定义归纳
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第三版）---------课后习题单词定义归纳Chapter I Invitation to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:定义特征design feature:the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.功能function:the role language plays in communication . to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations . religious, legal).共时的synchronic:said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.历时的diachronic:said of the study of development of language and languages over time.规定式prescriptive:to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.描写式descriptive:to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.任意式arbitrariness:the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.二层式duality:the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units . words) and meaningless segments . sounds, letters).移位式displacement:the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.寒暄phatic communion:said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.元语言metalanguage:a language used for talking about language.宏观语言学macrolinguistics:a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.语言能力competence:unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.语言运用performance:the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.语言langue:the language system shared by a “speech community”.言语parole:the concrete utterances of a speaker.Chapter 2 Speech sounds1. Define the following terms:语音学phonetics:the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and perceptual/auditory phonetics.发音语音学articulatory phonetics:the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.音系学phonology:the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.发音器官speech organs:those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as ‘vocal organs’.带声器官voicing:the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate again st each other and the resultant sound is said to be ‘voiced’. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be ‘voiceless’.国际音标International Phonetic Alphabet:a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996.辅音consonant:a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.元音vowel:a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.发音方式manner of articulation:ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished—(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.发音部位place of articulation:the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.基本元音Cardinal Vowels:a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.半元音semi-vowel:segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, . [j] and [w].滑元音vowel glide:vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived.协同发音coarticulation:simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the followingsound, it is known as ‘anticipatory coarticulation’; if the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‘perseverative coarticution’.音位phoneme:a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast ,between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.音位变体allophone:variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity.同化现象assimilation:a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymously with ‘coarticulation’. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called ‘regressive assimilation’; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‘progressive assimilation’.剩余位置条件Elsewhere Condition:The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.区别特征distinctive features:a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.音节syllable:an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.最大节首原则Maximal Onset Principle:a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.重音stress:the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more ‘prominent’, it is a ‘stressed’ syllable in contrast to a less prominent, ‘unstressed’ syllable.语调intonation:the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.声调tone:a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.Chapter 3 Lexicon1.Define the following terms语素morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexically or grammatically. Take for example, the word tourists contains three morphemes. There is one minimal unit of meaning, tour, another minimal unit of meaning –ist (meaning “person who does someth ing), and a minimal unit of grammatical function –s (indicating plural). Meanwhile, from the above example, we can further classify morphemes into different types on different dimensions: (a) free morphemes, which can stand by themselves as single words, . tour in tourist, and bound morphemes, which cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form, . –ist, -s. (b) lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. Both of these two types of morphemes fall into the “free” category. The first category is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that carry the “content” of message we convey, . house, long and follow. The second category consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, . but, above, the and it. (c) derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. These two types of morphemes fall into the “bound” category. The derivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often employed to produce words of a different grammatical category from the stem. For example, the addition of the derivational morpheme –ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness. In contrast, inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category ofa word, but indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The –er inflection simply creates a different version of the adjective, indicating a comparative degree. As a useful way to remember the different categories of morphemes, the following chart can be used: It should be pointed out, morphemes may also be divided into roots and affixes, the root being that partof a word structure which is left when all the affixes have been removed. Root morphemes may be bound or free, and are potentially unlimited in number in a language; Affixes are bound morphemes and limited in number. For instance, in try, tries, trying, tried, the root is try, and –s, -ing, -ed are affixes.复合词compound:refers to the words that consist of more than on lexical morpheme or the way to join two separate wordsto produce a single form, such as classroom, mailbox, fingerprint, sunburn. In terms of the word class of compounds, there are Noun compounds . daybreak), Verb compounds . brainwash), Adjective compounds . dutyfree) and Preposition compounds . throughout). Meanwhile compounds can be further divided into endocentric compound and exocentric compound in terms of its structural organization. The head of a nominal or adjectival endocentric compound is d is derived from a Verb, and it is usually the case that the first member is a participant of the process verb. Consider the following two examples: self-control and virus-sensitive. The exocentric nominal compounds are formed by V+N, V+A, and V+P, whereas the exocentric adjectives come from V+N and V+A. Here are some examples: Nouns scarecrow playboy cutthroat Adjectives take home Lackluster breakneck屈折变化inflection:is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached.词缀affix:the collective term for the type of formative that can be used when added to another morpheme. Affixes ina language are limited in number, and are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix, depending on their position around the root or stem of a word. Prefixes are these affixes that have be added to the beginning of a word . un- in unhappy); suffixes are those added to the end of a word . –ish in foolish); infixes, as a third type of affix, is not normally found in English but fairly commonin some other languages. As the term suggests, it is an affix that is incorporated inside another word. It is possible to see the general principle at work in certain expressions, occasionally used in fortuitous or aggravating circumstances by emotionally aroused English speakers: Absogoddamlutely! And Unfuckingbelievable! In fact, all affixes are bound morphemes.派生词derivation:is the most common word-formation process to be found in the production of new English words. It is accomplished by means of a large number of affixes of English language, and shows the relationship between roots and affixes. For exa mple: mis +represent à misrepresent, joy+ ful à joyful, sad + ness à sadness. In contrast to inflection, derivation can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged, . dis + card à discard (changed) and dis + obey à disobey (unchang ed). It is worth mentioning that word forms that come from derivation are relatively large and potentially open. Take the prefix pre- for example. One can easily list hundreds of words from any dictionary, such as preamble, pre-arrange, precaution, precede, precedent, precept, precinct, precognition, precondition, precursor, among many others 词根root:refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, the left part is the root nation. Apparently, all words contain a root morpheme. And roots can be further classified into free root morpheme and bound root morpheme. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive, and conceive; -mit in remit, permit, commit, and submit; -tain in retain, contain, and maintain; -cur in incur, recur, and occur, etc. Third, a few English roots may have both free and bound variants. For instance, sleep (/slip/) and child (/taild/) are free root morphemes, whereas slep- in the past tense form of sleep, . slept and child- in the plural form of child, namely children, cannot exist by themselves, and are hence bound. 语素变体allomorph:A morpheme, like a phoneme, is a linguistic abstraction, which must be realized as certain phonetic formsor variants in different phonetic environments. Each of the phonetic forms or variants is a morph. A single morpheme may be phonetically realized as two or more morphs. The different morphs that represent or which are derived from one morpheme is called the allomorphs of that morpheme. In practice, some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as “dog” “bark” etc. In other instances the re may be considerable variation, that is to say, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. For example, the plural sememe in English can be represented by the voiceless /s/, the voiced /z/, the vowel-consonant structure /z/, the diphthong /a/ found in the irregular form of /mas/, the nasal sound /n/ in /ksn/, the long vowel /i/ in /tiθ/ and the zero form /i/ of /ip/ and others. Each would be said to be an allomorph of the plural morpheme.词干stem:is any morpheme or combinations of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. For example, friend- in friends, and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.黏着语素bound morpheme:refers to those which can not occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme. For example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and -ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and -ed are two bound morphemes. There are two types of morphemes which fall into the “bound” category: derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. The derivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often employed to produce words of a different grammatical category from the stem. For example, the addition of the derivational morpheme –ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness. In contrast, inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word, but indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The –er inflection simply creates a different version of the adjective, indicating a comparative degree.自由语素free morpheme:refers to those which may occur alone or which may constitute words by themselves. In English cats, cat is free since cat is a word in its own right. Free morphemes therefore necessarily constitute mono-morphemicwords. So all mono-morphemic words are free morphemes. Poly-morphemic words/compound words may consist wholly of free morphemes, and English aircraft, godfather and housewife. As for its subtypes, free morphemes can be further divided into lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. The former is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that carry the “content” of message we convey, . house, long and follow. The latter consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, . but, above, the and it.词位lexeme:in order to reduce the ambiguity of the term word, lexeme is postulated as the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language which appears in different grammatical contexts. For example, “write” is the l exeme of the following set of words: write, writes, wrote, writing, written.词汇lexicon:refers to the whole vocabulary of a language as against grammar of a language.语法词grammatical word:refers to those which mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. Grammatical words serve to link together different content parts. So they are also known as Function Words.词汇词lexical word:refers to those which have mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Lexical words carry the main content of a language. So lexical words are also known as Content Words.封闭类closed-class:A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others. One cannot easily add or deduce a new member.开放类open-class:is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventions, or discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.混成法blending:is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words. For example, telephone + exchange à telex; transfer + resister à transistor.借词loanword:The borrowing of a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change, in some cases, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter. For instance, English borrowed au pair, encore, coup d'etat and others from French, al fresco (in the open air) from Italian, tea from Chinese, sputnik from Russian and moccasin (a type of shoe) from an American Indian language.混合借词Loan blend:is a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. For example, the first parts of the words coconut and China-town came from Spanish and Chinese respectively, but the second parts are of the English origin.转移借词Loan shift: is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. For example, the Italian ponte means “bridge” in the literal sense, when it refers to a type of card game, the meaning was borrowed from English.缩略词acronym:is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. For example, WTO stands for World Trade Organization. This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields, . Aids—acquired immune deficiency syndrome, COBOL—common business oriented language.脱落loss:the loss of sound refers to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. Take the sound /x/ in . (old English) again for example. Apart from having changed into /f/ or /k/ in some words as mentioned above, this velar fricative was simply lost between the times of Chaucer and Shakespeare. Sounds lost may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed vowels. For example, temperature /'temprt/ à /'temprt/.逆构词法Back formation:refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. For example, the word television appeared before televise. The first part of the word television was pulled out and analyzed as a root, even though no such root occurs elsewhere in the English language.同化assimilation:refers to the change of a sound by the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation. The assimilation processes at work could be explained by the “theory of least effort”; that is, in speaking we tend to use as little effort as possible so that we do not want to vary too often the places of articulation in uttering a sequence of sounds. Assimilation takes place in quick speech very often. For instance, in expressions such as immobile, irrevocable, impolite, illegal, the negative prefixes im-, il-, or ir- should be in- etymologically. Sometimes assimilation may occur between two sounds that are not too far separated. For instance, discussing shortly (/s/ becomes This is called “non-contiguous” or “distant” assimilation.异化dissimilation:refers to the influence of one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different. For example, grammar .) à glamor .) peregrinus (Latin) à pilgrim marbre (French) à marble ，In all these examples, one of the phonemes, /r/, dissimilates to /l/ in the course of time, which has changed the morpheme in question.俗词源folk etymology:refers to the change of the form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous. For example, the word sparrowgrass in English was derived from asparagus and the Spanish cucaracha was changed into English cockroach.Chapter 4 Syntax1. Define the following terms:句法syntax:the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.共现co-occurrence:It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. For instance, what can precede a noun (dog) is usually the determiners and adjectives, and what can follow it when it takes the position of subject will be predicators such as bark, bite, run, etc. In short, co-occurrence is the syntactic environment in which a construction, with its relevant elements, can appear grammatically and conventionally. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.结构体construction:it refers to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use construct contains. It can be further divided into the external and internal properties. Take sentence The boy kicked the ball as an example, we will determine the external syntax as an independent clause, while NP (“the boy”), VP (“kicked”) and NP (“the ball”) will be assigned respectively to t he different elements in this clause.向心结构endocentric:Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, ., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable Centre or Head. In the phrase two pretty girls, girls is the Centre or Head of this phrase or word group.成分constituent:Constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: for example, in the sentence The boy ate the apple, S (A), the boy (B), ate the apple(C), each part is a constituent. Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. If two constituents, in the case of the example above, B (the boy) and C (ate the apple), are joined to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (“S”, here a sentence), then B and C are said to be immediate constituents of A.离心结构exocentric:Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable "Centre" or "Head" inside the group. Exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, and connective (be + complement) construction. In the sentence The boy smiled, neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.从属关系subordination:Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Thus the subordinate constituents are words which modify the Head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers. In the phrase swimming in the lake, swimming is the head and in the lake are the words modifying the head. 范畴category:The term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, ., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, and so on.并列关系coordination:A common syntactic pattern in English and other languages is formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but or or. This phenomenon is known as coordination. In the construction the lady or the tiger, both NPs the lady and the tiger have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.一致关系agreement:Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories). For instance, the syntactic relationship between this pen and it in the following dialogue:--Whose is this pen--Oh, it’s the one I lost.嵌入embedding:Embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in another clause in syntactic subordination. ., I saw the man who had visited you last year.递归性recursiveness:it mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within ., be dominated by) another constituent having the same category, but it can be used to any means to extend any constituent. Together with openness, recursiveness is the core of creativity of language. For example, “I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new”.衔接cohesion:Cohesion refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. The cohesive devices usually include: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution, and so on. In the following example, the cohesive devi ce is “Reference”, that is, “it” refers back to the door: He couldn't open the door. It was locked tight.语法主语和逻辑主语grammatical subject & logical subject:Grammatical and logical subjects are two terms accounting for the case of subject in passive voice. Take the sentences a dog bit John and John was bitten by a dog as examples. Since the core object noun (John in this case) sits in the slot before the verb in the passive, it is called grammatical subject, for the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies; the core subject (a dog), now the object of a preposition (by a dog), is called a logical subject, since semantically the core subject still does what a subject normally does: it performs an action. Chapter 5 Meaning1. Define the following terms:概念意义conceptual meaning:This is the first type of meaning recognized by Leech, which he defined as the logical, cognitive, or denotative content. In other words, it overlaps to a large extent with the notion of reference. But Leech。
Doc1语言学答案
语言学概论习题答案天北九年制学校吴丹导言一、语言学有哪些作用？请结合实际谈谈你的看法。
答：1、提高文化水平，掌握科学技术的基础：研究本族语的结构规律→指导语文教学实践2、指导我们学习语言、运用语言和研究语言：方言、本族语和外语3、有利于各项语文政策的制定和推行：扫除文盲、汉字改革、推广普通话、语言规范化4、提高文学作品的分析和鉴赏能力5、有利于科学技术的现代化：语言是信息载体，发挥很大作用——计算机对自然语言的处理第一章语言的社会功能一、为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具？答：1语言是人类特有的交际工具：语言是人类区别于其它动物的一个重要标志。
动物不具备。
2语言是适应人类需要而产生的：适应人类需要→语言产生→沟通信息、交流思想反之亦然：社会存在→人类交往→语言重要如果没有语言，交际受限→人类生活受影响；语言产生受交际促使→社会交际不需要，就不会有语言3语言是信息载体，传递信息的代码（现实的编码体系）人类认识思维成果（信息内容：无形）→交际载体（语言：有声）编码→发出→传送→接收→解码4交际职能是语言最基本的社会职能，其他功能只是它的派生物二、为什么说文字是语言最重要的辅助性交际工具？答：文字记录语言，打破了语言交际中时间和空间的限制，在社会生活中起着重大的作用，中小学语文教学主要就是教学生识字、阅读、写作。
但是，文字在交际中的重要性远不能和语言相比。
一个社会可以没有文字，但是不能没有语言；没有语言，社会就不能生存和发展。
文字是在语言的基础上产生的，只有几千年的历史。
在文字产生以前，语言早已存在，估计有几十万年。
今天世界上没有文字的语言比有文字的语言多得多。
文字产生以后要随着语言的发展而演变，它始终从属于语言，是一种辅助的交际工具。
三、语言实际上是一种社会现象，怎样理解这句话？答：称语言是一种特殊的社会现象，是说语言的社会特征有别于其他社会现象。
特殊之处有三：1、语言，是人们交流思想、表达感情、传播信息的工具，是人类最重要的交际工具。
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Chapter 2：Phonology
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. 2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution. 3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. 4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not. 5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. 6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. 7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph. 8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest. 9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing. 10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest. 11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar. 12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. 13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels. 14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.
15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning. 16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories. 17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. 18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast. 19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific. 20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21． A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds. 22． A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. 23． The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, , they are all b_______ sounds. 24． Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other. 25． English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation. 26． When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________. 27． S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.
28． The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules. 29． The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription. 30． When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________. 31． P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication. 32． The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity. 33． T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. 34． Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.