英语原文及其翻译
Exploring Filipino School Counselors’
Beliefs about Learning
Allan B. I. Bernardo
[Abstract] School reform efforts that focus on student learning require school counselors to take on important new roles as advocates of student learning and achievement.But how do school counselors understand the process of learning? In this study, we explore the learning beliefs of 115 Filipino school counselors who indicated their degree of agreementwith 42 statements about the process of learning and the factors thatinfluence this process.A principal components analysis of the responses to the 42 statements suggested three factors:(F1)social-cognitive constructivist beliefs, (F2) teacher-curriculum-centered behaviorist beliefs,and (F3) individual difference factors.The preliminary results are briefly discussed in terms of issues related to how Filipino school counselors’ conceptions of learning may guide their strategies for promoting student learning and achievement.
[Key words]beliefs about learning, conceptions of learning, school counselors, student learning, Philippines
School reform efforts in different parts of the world have focusedon students’learning. In particular,most school improvement programsnow aim to ensure that students acquire the high-level knowledge and skills that help them to thrive in today’s highly competitive globaleconomy (e.g., Lee & Williams, 2006). I n this regard, school reform programs draw from various contemporary theories and research on learning (e.g.,Bransford,Brown, & Cocking, 1999; Lambert & McCombs, 1998).The basic idea is that all school improvement efforts should be directed at ensuring students achieve high levels of learning or attainment of well-defined curricular objectives and standards.For example, textbooks (Chien & Young, 2007), computers and educational technology (Gravoso, 2002; Haertnel & Means, 2003;Technology in Schools Task Force, 2003), and educational assessment systems (Black & Wiliam2004; Cheung & Ng, 2007; Clark, 2001; Stiggins, 2005) are being reconsidered as regards how they can effectively provide scaffolds and resources for advancing student learning. Likewise,the allocation and management of a school’s financial resources are assessed in terms ofwhether these are effectively mobilized and utilized towards improving student learning (Bolam, 2006; Chung & Hung, 2006; Retna, 2007).
In this regard, some advocates have also called for an examination of the role of school counselors in these reform efforts (Herr, 2002). Inthe United States, House and Hayes (2002) challenged school counselors to take proactive leadership roles in advocating for the success of all
students in schools. In this line, the American School Counselor Association (1997) has advocated that “the purpose of a counseling program in a school setting is to promote and enhance the learning process.”In response to this thrust, many have documented and advocated best practices that would allow school counselors to fulfill their new roles in enhancing student learning (e.g., Rowell & Hong, 2002; Sink, 2005).
The improvement of student learning has also been an important theme in school reform efforts in the Philippines (Bernardo & Garcia, 2006; Bernardo & Mendoza, 2009).However, the push for rethinking the roles of school counselors in improving student learning has not been as pronounced. School counselors, who are often called guidance counselors in the Philippines, and their functions and competencies as collaborators in the promotion of student learning in achievement have not been highlighted in discussions on the functions of Philippine school counselors (Abrenica, 2001; Salazar-Cleme.a, 2000).These functions and competencies are also not mentioned in discussions on the perceived competencies of Philippine school counselors (Almeda-Estanislao, 2007; Guarino, 2007; Pabiton, 2003), or in the counselor education programs (Wong-Fernandez, 2000, 2001). In fact, there is hardly any published research that looks into the role of school counselors in improving student learning and achievement (Pabiton, 2001, is a rare example).
The present study aims to initiate inquiry into the possible roles of Philippine school counselors in promoting student learning, by looking into school counselors’ conceptions or beliefs regarding the learning process. Conceptions and beliefs about learning has been an important focus of research among various education stakeholders. For example, research has focused on students’ conceptions of learning (Purdie & Hattie, 2002) as these conceptions are related to the stu dents’ learning behaviors and strategies (Entwistle & Peterson, 2004; Pillay, Purdie, Boulton-Lewis, 2000).Similarly, research has also focused on conceptions and beliefs about learning of teachers (Boulton-Lewis, Smith, McCrindle, Burnett, & Campbell, 2001; Kane, Sandretto, & Heath, 2002; Samuelowicz & Bain, 2001) and pre-service teachers (Bernardo, 2008; Cliff, 1998) as these cognitions are said to guide teachers practices in the classroom (Calderhead, 1996) and may even be related to student achievement (Gao & Watkins, 2004). This study aims to extend this line of inquiry by exploring the beliefs about learning of school counselors in the Philippines.
School counselors are not the direct participants in the learning processes in schools, unlike students and teachers. Nevertheless, how school counselors conceive of their roles in promoting student learning is likely to be shaped by their own conceptions regarding the learning process. If school counselors are to be effective agents in facilitating
students learning, they should have a deep and principled understanding of the processes of learning, and the factors that may promote or hinder these processes.In this study, we inquired into the beliefs about learning of practicing school counselors in six different regions of the Philippine by asking them to assess different statements regarding the learning process and indicate their agreement with such statements. Their responses were analyzed using principal components analysis in order to reveal the structure of their beliefs about learning, and possible options for school counselors in relation to the various dimensions of the learning beliefs are discussed.
Method
Participants
One-hundred sixteen school counselors from six different regions of the country participated in the study by answering a questionnaire on conceptions of learning. Ten of the participants were male, 103 female, and three did not indicate their gender. Most of the participants are relatively young; 43.1% of the participants were in their 20s, and 30.2% were in their 30’s.Most of the participants are also relatively new in their present positions as counselors; 50.9% of the participants have been in their present positions for five years for less and 26.7% have been in their positions for 6 to 15 years. About half or 54.9% of the participants have only a bachelor’s degree, and the rest have master’s degrees.
Instrument
A questionnaire was designed to include 42 statements regarding the learning process and factors that affect this process. The statements were derived from different contemporary theories and principles regarding learning. The items were arranged in one random sequence in the questionnaire. The participants were asked to indicate whether they agree or disagree with each statement in the questionnaire, using a scale from 0 (very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree).The questionnaire also included questions referring to the school counselors’ educational and professional background and some other demographic information.
Results
To explore the structure of the school counselors’ beliefs about learning, their responses were analyzed using an exploratory factor analysis. First, the internal consistency of the entire 42-item scale was computed and the item-total correlations were computed. The item-total correlations ranged from .27 to .66, Cronbach’s α= .94.The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was .815 indicating that the data are factorable. The raw data on the 42 items were then analyzed using principal components analysis, and the scree plot suggested three
factors. The component matrix was rotated using the promax rotation (orthogonal factors are rotated to oblique positions). The pattern matrix with three factors accounted for 42.30% of the variance. The factor loadings were determined by considering items with loading of at least .40 in one factor and not more than .35 in either of the other factors.
An examination of the items in Factor 1 (Eigenvalue = 12.62; % of variance = 30.06) indicates that most of the items refer to conceptions of learning that are consistent with cognitive constructivist views of learning. These items emphasize the importance of attaining higher level cognitive knowledge and skills, and the importance of active processes that relate old and new knowledge in the process of constructing more complex knowledge representations. Some sample items include: “Learning complex material involves being able to effectively plan how to understand a complex skill or concept” and “Learning complex materi al involves changing or reorganizing how one represents information in the mind.”
On the other hand, the items in Factor 2 (Eigenvalue = 3.26; % of variance = 7.77) refer to conceptions of learning consistent with behaviorist conceptions of learning, that also suggest that learning processes are constrained by innate capabilities but are shaped by more traditional instructional processes. The items in this factor also suggest a passive role of the learner, and the importance of external instructional processes in advancing learning.Some sample items include: “Learning complex material involves the consistent practice and reinforcement of complex skills so that this is executed fast and without error” and “Learning complex material involves the imitation of desired behaviors from models in the environment.”
Finally, the items in Factor 3 (Eigenvalue = 1.88; % of variance = 4.48) refer to factors that influence individual differences in learning, such as developmental, motivational, social, and individual cognitive styles. Most of the items in this factor refer to one or more personal or social factors that may influence the outcomes of the learning process. Example items include:“The learning process is influenced by whether the task and concepts to be learne d are relevant to the learner’s personal interest” and “The learning process is influenced by the learner’s expectations for success and failure in learning.”
The different items that loaded into the three factors were combined form three scales that represented each of the three factors. The social-cognitive constructivist beliefs scale consisted of 17 items (M=5.72, SD = .72, Cronbach’s α = .92). The behaviorist beliefs scale consisted of 9 items (M = 5.14, SD = .98, Cronbach’s α= .83). Finally, individual difference beliefs scale consisted of another 9 items (M = 5.64, SD = .78, Cronbach’s α= .82). The participants’ responses to the items in the three factors were highly related. Social-cognitive constructivists beliefs were correlated with behaviorist beliefs (r = .48,
p < .0001), and with individual difference beliefs (r = .67, p < .0001). Behaviorist beliefs were also correlated with individual difference beliefs (r = .50,p< .0001).The descriptive statistics for the three factors suggest that there is no clear preference for one set of beliefs or another, nor is there a clear distinction made among the beliefs. Other descriptive statistical analysis revealed that the responses for the three factors were not associated with any of the educational, professional, or demographic variables such as sex, age, years in the profession, educational concentration/major, or educational attainment.
Discussion
This exploratory study reveals that Filipino school counselors’ beliefs about learning are organized in terms of fairly coherent systems of principles and factors that are consistent with both traditional (behaviorist) and contemporary (constructivist) approaches to understanding learning. One could speculate that the beliefs are organized in ways that reflect formal instruction regarding theories of learning, however, research on the guidance and counseling or counselor education curriculum in the Philippines (Wong-Fernandez, 2000, 2001) indicates that such concepts are not given emphasis at all. Thus, it is u nlikely that the Filipino counselors’ beliefs about learning merely replicate the structure of formal courses on learning.
In this regard, it would be interesting to inquire into how such beliefs actually emerge if it is not likely to be a product of the formal counselor education curriculum. Perhaps, the beliefs emerge from reflections about the Filipino school counselors’ personal learning experiences or personal readings and studies. That the personal experiences of Filipino school counselors may shape their conceptions of learning seems consistent with the features of the third factor in the structure of their beliefs. The items in Factor 3 indicate that ideas regarding individual difference, developmental and social factors that influence learning comprise and important dimension of the Filipino school counselors’ beliefs about learning. The factor indicates an important predisposition among Filipino school counselors to think about the learning process in relation to the various personal and contextual factors that define the specific experiences of each learner. This conceptualization of learning reveals a degree of sensitivity to the distinctiveness in the learning experiences of each student, and mindfulness about the various developmental,social, and even cultural factors that influence the learning of each individual student. Such a conceptualization most likely relates to the Filipino school counselors’ core function of psychological assessment, which highlights individual difference variables. Basic counseling techniques also require the school counselors to inquire into specific factors that determine the learning
outcomes and experiences of underachieving students, honor students, and other distinct cases that the school counselors are likely to encounter in their professional practice.
Even as the results of the study are exploratory and preliminary, the results indicate useful categories or constructs to begin studying aspects of the Filipino counselors’ capacity to engage the function of prom oting and enhancing Filipino students’ learning. The preceding discussion highlights how learning beliefs associated with the third factor are likely to be associated with some fundamental competencies and functions of school counselors. Learning beliefs corresponding to the first two factors or dimensions may also be related to specific options for dealing with students’ learning needs.School counselors who hold strong social-cognitive constructivist learning beliefs are likely to conceptualize learning problems in terms of the use of active learning strategies, planning and other self-regulatory learning approaches, and possible personal and social factors that influence the students’ ability and motivation to implement these strategies. Moreover, social-cognitive constructivist learning beliefs might be associated with efforts to develop stronger agency and self-determination on the part of the student. On the other hand, school counselors who hold strong behaviorist learning beliefs are likely to conceptualize learning problems in terms of problems with appropriate internal and external reinforcements to effective learning behaviors, and are likely to focus on analyzing how teachers, parents, peers, and even the students themselves respond to various effective and ineffective learning behaviors of the student. Thus, behaviorist learning beliefs might be associated with interventions that will involve changing certain external contingencies in the students’ learning environment for the purpose of shaping and strengthening good learning behaviors and extinguishing bad ones.
The relationship between school counselors’ learning beliefs and their professional approaches and practices remains speculative at this point, as the study did not attempt to gather data on these professional practices. Future research studies can focus on this important point, in the same way that some research on teachers’ and students’ beliefs about learning are associated with teacher practices (Calderhead, 1996;Gao & Watkins, 2004) and student learning behaviors (Entwistle & Peterson, 2004; Pillay, Purdie, Boulton-Lewis, 2000). One important contribution of the study is that it provides a useful instrument with high internal consistency values for doing so. The instrument may be used to study how school counselors’ different conceptualizations of learning may be related to their attributions for students’ academic performance (e.g., failure, underachievement, etc.), to the counseling and other intervention strategies they adopt for helping students improve on their
learning achievement levels, and even to how they construct their professional functions vis-à-vis student learning.
As school counselors in different parts of the world strive to define more active roles in promoting and enhancing student learning, it is important to consider the relevant cognitions that school counselors might have related to the process. In the case of Filipino school counselors, the study indicates dimensions of conceptualizations about the learning process that may provide the foundation for concretizing the school counselors’ professional functions related to enhancing learning. The results of this study represent a small but important step towards more effectively conceptualizing approaches for how Filipino school counselors may engage this function of enhancing learning among Filipinostudents.
对菲律宾学校辅导员学习观的探索
艾伦 B.I.贝尔纳多著
[摘要]学生学习改革是学校改革的重中之重，辅导员在学生的学习和进步中起着推动作用。然而，辅导员对学习过程有着怎样的理解呢？在这个研究中，我们调查了115个菲律宾学校的辅导员。就学习过程和影响学习的因素，他们对42个州的看法和做法表明了态度。一个对42个州的回应分析报告阐释了三个因素：（F1）社会认知构建主义，（F2）以教师或课程为中心的行为主义，（F3）个别差异。研究的主要成果是菲律宾学校辅导员的学习观对引导并促进学生的学习和进步起着很大影响。 [关键词]学习观，学习概念，学校辅导员，学生学习，菲律宾
世界上许多不同地区的学校改革都将重点放在学生学习上。特别是，大多数学校改进项目都将学生能接受高质量的教育和技能作为自己的目标，以帮助学生活跃于当今竞争激烈的全球经济社会（如：Lee & Williams, 2006）。在这方面，学校改革项目吸取了当代一些学习理论和研究（如：Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999; Lambert & McCombs, 1998）。其中中心思想是学校改进的重点应致力于保证学生高质量的学习或接受有明确目标和标准的课程。例如，教科书（Chien & Young, 2007），计算机与教育技术（Gravoso, 2002; Haertnel & Means, 2003; Technology in Schools Task F orce, 2003），教育评估体系（Black & Wiliam, 2004; Cheung & Ng, 2007; Clark, 2001; Stiggins, 200 5）被重新考虑，因为这些支撑性的技术和资料影响着学生学习的进步。同样地，学校财政资源的管理和分配也被评估，以验证它们是否被充分调动起来促进学生学习。（Bolam, 2006; Chung & Hung, 2006; Retna, 2007）
从这方面来说，一些支持者号召在改革中对学校辅导员进行测试（Herr, 2002）。在美国，House and Hays (2002) 提出学校辅导员在引导学生进步中应扮演积极的领导角色。与此同时，美国学校辅导员协会在1997年倡导，“学校辅导员计划视是为了促进和加强学习过程”。为了回应这个提议，一些人推荐了所谓的最好办法，让学校辅导员全面参与到促进学生学习中来。（如：Rowell & Hong, 2002; Sink, 2005）。
提高学生的学习也是菲律宾学校改革的主题之一（Bernardo & Garcia, 2006; Bernado & Mendoza, 2009）。然而，尽管学校辅导员在学生学习中的作用引起人们的第2页（共12页）
重新思考，但这股浪潮并不十分明显。在菲律宾，学校辅导员通常被叫做指导员。他们在学生学习中所起的合作者作用在菲律宾学校辅导员作用讨论中并没被强调。并且，这些作用在菲律宾学校辅导员讨论（Abrenica, 2001; Salazar-Cleme.a, 2000）和辅导员教育计划（Almeda-Estanislao, 2007; Guarino, 2007; Pabition, 2003）中也没被提及。事实上，没有任何出版物系统研究过辅导员在学生学习和进步中所起的作用（Pabition, 2001, is a rare example）。
本研究将通过调查菲律宾学校辅导员有关学生学习过程的观念或信念，以主动探究他们在促进学生学习中可能起的作用。“什么是学习，为何学习”一直是各类教育利益相关者研究的重点。例如，有的侧重于学生学习概念的研究（Purdie & Hattie，2002），因为这些概念涉及到学生的学习行为和策略（Entwistle & Peterson, 2004; Pillay, Purdie, Boulton-Lewis, 2000）。同样，一些研究侧重讨论教师（Boulton-Lewis, Smith, McCrindle, Burnett, & Campbell, 2001; Kane, Sandretto, & Heath, 2002; Samuelowicz & Bain, 2001)）和职前教师（Bernardo, 2008; Cliff, 1998）对学习的理解和信仰，因为据说这些认知可以指导教师在课堂上的行为（Calderhead,
1996），甚至关系到学生成就（Gao & Watkins, 004）。本研究旨大规模探讨菲律宾学校辅导员对学习所持的信念。
不像学生和教师，学校辅导员不是学校学习的直接参与者。然而，学校辅导员对自身在促进学生的学习方面的认识，很可能受制于他们对学习概念的理解。学校辅导员要想成为学生学习的有效帮助者，就必须客观深刻的理解学习过程以及促进或妨碍学生学习的因素。在这项研究中，我们调查了菲律宾六个不同地区的学校辅导员，要求他们评估有关学习过程不同看法，并表明他们的立场。我们用主成分分析法分析他们的回答，以揭示他们的学习观结构。我们还讨论了在众多的学习观中，辅导员将倾向于选择哪种。
方法
参与者
116个来自全国不同地区的学校辅导员参与了这项研究，研究主要采用调查问卷的方式。其中男性10人，女性103人，还有三人为注明性别。参与者大多比较年轻，20多岁的占43.1％，三十多岁的占30.2％。大多数被调查者是刚参加工作的辅导员；50.9％的受访者有五年或以下的工作经历，仅26.7％的人有五到十五年的工作经历。大约有一半或54.9％的参与者只有学士学位，其余的具有硕士以上学位。
第3页（共12页）
工具
调查问卷中有42个涉及学习过程和影响学习过程的因素。看法来自于当代的各种学习理论和学习原则。问卷中的题目按随机顺序排列。与会者被要求表明是否同意问卷中的每个声明，每题有从0（非常不同意）到7（非常同意）八个不同选项。问卷还包括调查学校辅导员的教育和专业背景及其他一些人口统计信息。结果
为探讨辅导员学习观结构，我们采用探索性因素分析法对他们的反应进行了分析。首先，对42个项目的内部一致性和该项目相关性进行计算。该项目相关性介于0.27~0.66之间，信度α=.94. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin充分抽样调查指数是0.815，这表明数据是可行的。然后，采用主成分分析法分析42个项目中的原始数据，得到三个主要因素。我们应用旋转矩阵（正交因子旋转斜职位）分析组成因子。该模式有三个因素矩阵占总数的42.30％. 因素负荷量的判别方法是，其中一个因素至少占0.40，而其他因素不能多于0.35。
因素1的测试（特征值=12.62; 方差=30.06％）表明，大多数人的学习观念与认知建构主义观点是一致的。这些条目强调实现更高层次的认知知识和技能，同时积极参与更复杂的新旧知识构建。一些样本项目包括：“学习各种材料，包括能够有效地计划如何理解一个复杂的技能或概念”和“学习多种材料，包括改变或重新构建大脑的信息框架”。
另一方面，因素2（特征值= 3.26; 方差= 7.77％）指出与行为主义相一致的学习观。这也表明，学习过程受先天能力的限制，但也受到更加传统的引导教学的影响。其中的条目显示了学习者的被动，和教学过程中外部引导的重要性。一些样本项目包括：“学习复杂的材料，包括通过反复练习强化复杂技能，这种方法省力高效”，“学习各种资源，包括按意愿模仿生活中模范人物的行为”。
最后，因素3（特征值=1.88; 方差= 4.48％），是指个体差异影响因素，如发育，动机，社会和个人认知。这些条目大多是指个人、群体或社会因素会影响学习效果。示例项目包括：“在学习过程，所学任务或概念与生活有无关联影响着学生的学习兴趣”，“学习过程受到学生成功期望值的影响”。
代表三个不同因素的项目被分为三块，分别表示每个因素。社会认知的建构主义信念量表有17个项目（男= 5.72，标准差= 0.72，信度α= .92）。行为主义信念量
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表包括9项（男= 5.14，标准差= 0.98，信度α= 0.83）。最后，个体差异信念量表包括9项（男= 5.64，标准差= 0.78，信度α= .82）。参与者对不同项目的反应在三个因素中密切相关。社会认知建构主义与行为主义相关（r =0 .48，p<0.0001），也与个体差异相关（r = 0.67，p<0.0001）。行为主义信念也与个体差异信念相关（r = 0.50，p<0.0001）。这三个因素的描述性统计表明，辅导员没有明确的偏好，各个信念也没有大的差别。其他描述性统计分析显示，这三个因素与教育，职业，或个人（性别，年龄，工龄，教育专业，教育成就）无必然联系。
讨论
这样说来,如果这种信念不是正式顾问教育课程的产品，那探究这种信念如何出现将是一件有趣的事情。也许,这些信念来自于菲律宾学校顾问的个人学习经验或个人的阅读资料和研究。菲律宾学校学生的个人学习经验会塑造学习概念，这和信仰结构的第三因素的特点相符合。因素3里的条目表明了个体差异,发展和社会因素影响菲律宾学校顾问学习理念的学习构成和重要视角。这个因素表明了菲律宾学校顾问的一个重要倾向：考虑与不同个人或者不同情境因素有关的学习过程，这些因素为特定的个人学习经历下定义。这个学习概念的形成揭示了，这个概念在一个程度上注意到了每个学生不同的学习经历，专注影响每一位学生学习的发展的、社会的、甚至文化因素。这样一种构想最可能关系到菲律宾学校顾问进行心理评估的核心功能,该评估突显出个体差异。基本的咨询技巧也同样需要顾问去探究特定的因素，这些因素决定那些不被看好的学生、荣誉学生和其他顾问在职业生涯中遇到的特殊学生的学习结果和经历。
即使这项研究的结果只是初步探测，但是它提示了有用的类别或构建，来用于研究菲律宾顾问推动和促进菲律宾籍学生的学习的更方面能力。前面的讨论凸显了与第三因素相关的学习观念是如何与学校顾问的基本职能和功能相密切联系。与前两个因素或视角相对应的学习理念也可能与处理学生的学习需求的特定选择相关。那些强烈坚信社会构建主义学习信念的学校顾问很可能对一些学习问题进行概念，这些问题关于学习策略的积极使用，计划和其他的自律的学习模式,以及影响学生学习能力和动机的个人和社会因素。此外,社会建构主义学习理念可能与是开发更强的机构和学生自主决定的努力相联系。另一方面,那些坚信行为学习理念的顾问倾向于对学习问题从以下方面概念：适当的内部和外部的强化有效的学习行为,他们会把注意力集中在
第5页（共12页）
分析教师、父母、同辈、甚至是学生们自己如何应对各种有效和无效的学生学习行为。因此,行为主义学习信念可能改变特定的外部事件，并影响到以扬长避短为目的的学生学习环境。
在这一点上面，学校顾问的学习信念和专业实践的关系仍然是推测性的，因为这项研究并没有试图收集关于专业操作的数据。未来的研究可以聚焦于这重要的一点,同样的，一些对教师和学生的学习理念相关的研究与教师实践(Calderhead，1996;高和沃特金斯,2004年)和学生学习行为(·恩特威斯尔&彼得
森,Purdie,2003;Pillay,Boulton-Lewis,2000年)相关。这项研究的一个重要贡献在于它提供了一个有用的工具，这具有很高的内部一致性的价值。该工具可用于研究学校顾问不同的学习理念如何联系学生的学业表现(例如,失败,成绩不良等)、咨询及其它帮助学生提高学习成绩,甚至建立自己的专业职能的策略。
由于世界不同地区的学校顾问在积极推动和促进学生的学习,那么考虑学校顾问提及的过程有关的认知, 这是很重要的。从菲律宾学校顾问的例子，研究表明了对学习过程下定义的角度,可以提供相关的专业职能,加强学习。这项研究的结果走出了一个小但重要的一步，其能够更加有效地对菲律宾学校顾问如何发挥其功能去提高学生的学习方法下定义。
英语原文及其翻译
Exploring Filipino School Counselors’ Beliefs about Learning Allan B. I. Bernardo [Abstract] School reform efforts that focus on student learning require school counselors to take on important new roles as advocates of student learning and achievement.But how do school counselors understand the process of learning? In this study, we explore the learning beliefs of 115 Filipino school counselors who indicated their degree of agreementwith 42 statements about the process of learning and the factors thatinfluence this process.A principal components analysis of the responses to the 42 statements suggested three factors:(F1)social-cognitive constructivist beliefs, (F2) teacher-curriculum-centered behaviorist beliefs,and (F3) individual difference factors.The preliminary results are briefly discussed in terms of issues related to how Filipino school counselors’ conceptions of learning may guide their strategies for promoting student learning and achievement. [Key words]beliefs about learning, conceptions of learning, school counselors, student learning, Philippines School reform efforts in different parts of the world have focusedon students’learning. In particular,most school improvement programsnow aim to ensure that students acquire the high-level knowledge and skills that help them to thrive in today’s highly competitive globaleconomy (e.g., Lee & Williams, 2006). I n this regard, school reform programs draw from various contemporary theories and research on learning (e.g.,Bransford,Brown, & Cocking, 1999; Lambert & McCombs, 1998).The basic idea is that all school improvement efforts should be directed at ensuring students achieve high levels of learning or attainment of well-defined curricular objectives and standards.For example, textbooks (Chien & Young, 2007), computers and educational technology (Gravoso, 2002; Haertnel & Means, 2003;Technology in Schools Task Force, 2003), and educational assessment systems (Black & Wiliam2004; Cheung & Ng, 2007; Clark, 2001; Stiggins, 2005) are being reconsidered as regards how they can effectively provide scaffolds and resources for advancing student learning. Likewise,the allocation and management of a school’s financial resources are assessed in terms ofwhether these are effectively mobilized and utilized towards improving student learning (Bolam, 2006; Chung & Hung, 2006; Retna, 2007). In this regard, some advocates have also called for an examination of the role of school counselors in these reform efforts (Herr, 2002). Inthe United States, House and Hayes (2002) challenged school counselors to take proactive leadership roles in advocating for the success of all
(完整版)医学专业英语翻译及答案
Chapter 1 Passage 1 Human Body In this passage you will learn: 1. Classification of organ systems 2. Structure and function of each organ system 3. Associated medical terms To understand the human body it is necessary to understand how its parts are put together and how they function. The study of the body's structure is called anatomy; the study of the body's function is known as physiology. Other studies of human body include biology, cytology, embryology, histology, endocrinology, hematology, immunology, psychology etc. 了解人体各部分的组成及其功能，对于认识人体是必需的。研究人体结构的科学叫解剖学；研究人体功能的科学叫生理学。其他研究人体的科学包括生物学、细胞学、胚胎学、组织学、内分泌学、血液学、遗传学、免疫学、心理学等等。 Anatomists find it useful to divide the human body into ten systems, that is, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the digestive system, the urinary system, the endocrine system, the nervous system, the reproductive system and the skin. The principal parts of each of these systems are described in this article. 解剖学家发现把整个人体分成骨骼、肌肉、循环、呼吸、消化、泌尿、内分泌、神经、生殖系统以及感觉器官的做法是很有帮助的。本文描绘并阐述了各系统的主要部分。 The skeletal system is made of bones, joints between bones, and cartilage. Its function is to provide support and protection for the soft tissues and the organs of the body and to provide points of attachment for the muscles that move the body. There are 206 bones in the human skeleton. They have various shapes - long, short, cube - shaped, flat, and irregular. Many of the long bones have an interior space that is filled with bone marrow, where blood cells are made. 骨骼系统由骨、关节以及软骨组成。它对软组织及人体器官起到支持和保护作用，并牵动骨胳肌，引起各种运动。人体有206根骨头。骨形态不一，有长的、短、立方的、扁的及不规则的。许多长骨里有一个内层间隙，里面充填着骨髓，这即是血细胞的制造场所。 A joint is where bones are joined together. The connection can be so close that no movement is possible, as is the case in the skull. Other kinds of joints permit movement: either back and forth in one plane - as with the hinge joint of the elbow - or movement around a single axis - as with the pivot joint that permits the head to rotate. A wide range of movement is possible when the ball - shaped end of one bone fits into a socket at the end of another bone, as they do in the shoulder and hip joints. 关节把骨与骨连接起来。颅骨不能运动，是由于骨与骨之间的连接太紧密。但其它的关节可允许活动，如一个平面上的前后屈伸运动，如肘关节；或是绕轴心旋转运动，如枢轴点允许头部转动。如果一根骨的球形末端插入另一根骨的臼槽里，大辐度的运动（如肩关节、髋关节）即成为可能。 Cartilage is a more flexible material than bone. It serves as a protective, cushioning layer where bones come together. It also connects the ribs to the breastbone and provides a structural base for the nose and the external ear. An infant's skeleton is made of cartilage that is gradually replaced by bone as the infant grows into an adult. 软骨是一种比一般骨更具韧性的物质。它是骨连结的保护、缓冲层。它把肋骨与胸骨连结起来，也是鼻腔与内耳的结构基础。一个婴儿的骨骼就是由软骨组成，然后不断生长、
高级英语课文翻译
青年人的四种选择 Lesson 2: Four Choices for Young People 在毕业前不久，斯坦福大学四年级主席吉姆?宾司给我写了一封信，信中谈及他的一些不安。 Shortly before his graduation, Jim Binns, president of the senior class at Stanford University, wrote me about some of his misgivings. 他写道：“与其他任何一代人相比，我们这一代人在看待成人世界时抱有更大的疑虑 ,, 同时越 来越倾向于全盘否定成人世界。” “More than any other generation, ” he said, “ our generation views the adult world with great skepticism, there is also an increased tendency to reject completely that world. ”很 明显，他的话代表了许多同龄人的看法。 Apparently he speaks for a lot of his contemporaries. 在过去的几年里，我倾听过许多年轻人的谈话，他们有的还在大学读书，有的已经毕业，他 们对于成人的世界同样感到不安。 During the last few years, I have listened to scores of young people, in college and out, who were just as nervous about the grown world. 大致来说，他们的态度可归纳如下：“这个世界乱糟糟的，到处充满了不平等、贫困和战争。 对此该负责的大概应是那些管理这个世界的成年人吧。如果他们不能做得比这些更好，他们又能拿 什么来教育我们呢？这样的教导，我们根本不需要。” Roughly, their attitude might be summed up about like this:“ The world is in pretty much of a mess, full of injustice, poverty, and war. The people responsible are, presumably, the adults who have been running thing. If they can’ t do better than that, what have they got to teach our generation? That kind of lesson we can do without. ” 我觉得这些结论合情合理，至少从他们的角度来看是这样的。 There conclusions strike me as reasonable, at least from their point of view. 对成长中的一代人来说，相关的问题不是我们的社会是否完美（我们可以想当然地认为是这 样），而是应该如何去应付它。 The relevant question for the arriving generation is not whether our society is imperfect (we can take that for granted), but how to deal with it. 尽管这个社会严酷而不合情理，但它毕竟是我们惟一拥有的世界。 For all its harshness and irrationality, it is the only world we’ ve got. 因此，选择一个办法去应付这个社会是刚刚步入成年的年轻人必须作出的第一个决定，这通 常是他们一生中最重要的决定。 Choosing a strategy to cope with it, then, is the first decision young adults have to make, and usually the most important decision of their lifetime. 根据我的发现，他们的基本选择只有四种： So far as I have been able to discover, there are only four basic alternatives: 1）脱离传统社会
文献翻译英文原文
https://www.360docs.net/doc/004749368.html,/finance/company/consumer.html Consumer finance company The consumer finance division of the SG group of France has become highly active within India. They plan to offer finance for vehicles and two-wheelers to consumers, aiming to provide close to Rs. 400 billion in India in the next few years of its operations. The SG group is also dealing in stock broking, asset management, investment banking, private banking, information technology and business processing. SG group has ventured into the rapidly growing consumer credit market in India, and have plans to construct a headquarters at Kolkata. The AIG Group has been approved by the RBI to set up a non-banking finance company (NBFC). AIG seeks to introduce its consumer finance and asset management businesses in India. AIG Capital India plans to emphasize credit cards, mortgage financing, consumer durable financing and personal loans. Leading Indian and international concerns like the HSBC, Deutsche Bank, Goldman Sachs, Barclays and HDFC Bank are also waiting to be approved by the Reserve Bank of India to initiate similar operations. AIG is presently involved in insurance and financial services in more than one hundred countries. The affiliates of the AIG Group also provide retirement and asset management services all over the world. Many international companies have been looking at NBFC business because of the growing consumer finance market. Unlike foreign banks, there are no strictures on branch openings for the NBFCs. GE Consumer Finance is a section of General Electric. It is responsible for looking after the retail finance operations. GE Consumer Finance also governs the GE Capital Asia. Outside the United States, GE Consumer Finance performs its operations under the GE Money brand. GE Consumer Finance currently offers financial services in more than fifty countries. The company deals in credit cards, personal finance, mortgages and automobile solutions. It has a client base of more than 118 million customers throughout the world
英语原文及翻译
高速视频处理系统中的信号完整性分析 摘要：结合高速DSP图像处理系统讨论了高速数字电路中的信号完整性问题，分析了系统中信号反射、串扰、地弹等现象破坏信号完整性的原因，通过先进IS工具的辅助设计，找出了确保系统信号完整性的具体方法。 关键词：高速电路设计信号完整性 DSP系统 深亚微米工艺在IC设计中的使用使得芯片的集成规模更大、体积越来越小、引脚数越来越多；由于近年来IC工艺的发展，使得其速度越来越高。从而，使得信号完整性问题引起电子设计者广泛关注。 在视频处理系统中，多维并行输入输出信号的频率一般都在百兆赫兹以上，而且对时序的要求也非常严格。本文以DSP图像处理系统为背景，对信号完整性进行准确的理论分析，对信号完整性涉及的典型问题[1]——不确定状态、传输线效应、反射、串扰、地弹等进行深入研究，并且从实际系统入手，利用IS仿真软件寻找有效的途径，解决系统的信号完整性问题。 1 系统简介 为了提高算法效率，实时处理图像信息，本图像处理系统是基于DSP+FPGA结构设计的。系统由SAA7111A视频解码器、TI公司的TMS320C6701 DSP、Altera公司的EPlK50QC208 FPGA、PCI9054 PCI接口控制器以及SBRAM、SDRAM、FIFO、FLASH等构成。FPGA是整个系统的时序控制中心和数据交换的桥梁，而且能够对图像数据实现快速底层处理。DSP是整个系统实时处理高级算法的核心器件。系统结构框图如图1所示。 在整个系统中，PCB电路板的面积仅为15cm×l5cm，系统时钟频率高达167MHz，时钟沿时间为0．6ns。由于系统具有快斜率瞬变和极高的工作频率以及很大的电路密度，使得如何处理高速信号问题成为一个制约设计成功的关键因素。 2 系统中信号完整性问题及解决方案 2．1 信号完整性问题产生机理 信号的完整性是指信号通过物理电路传输后，信号接收端看到的波形与信号发送端发送的波形在容许的误差范围内保持一致，并且空间邻近的传输信号间的相互影响也在容许的范围之内。因此，信号完整性分析的主要目标是保证高速数字信号可靠的传输。实际信号总是存在电压的波动，如图2所示。在A、B两点由于过冲和振铃[2]的存在使信号振幅落入阴影部分的不确定区，可能会导致错误的逻辑电平发生。总线信号传输的情况更加复杂，任何一个信号发生相位上的超前或滞后都可能使总线上数据出错，如图3所示。图中，CLK为时钟信号，D0、D1、D2、D3是数据总线上的信号，系统允许信号最大的建立时间[1]为△t。在正常情况下，D0、D1、D2、D3信号建立时间△t1<△t，在△t时刻之后数据总线的数据已稳定，系统可以从总线上采样到正确的数据，如图3(a)所示。相反，当信号D1、D2、D3受过冲和振铃等信号完整问题干扰时，总线信号就发生
《自动化专业英语》中英文翻译-中文部分
第二部分 控制理论 第1章 1.1控制系统的引入 人类控制自然力量的设计促进人类历史的发展,我们已经广泛的能利用这种量进行在人类本身力量之外的物理进程?在充满活力的20世纪中,控制系统工程的发展已经使得很多梦想成为了现实?控制系统工程队我们取得的成就贡献巨大?回首过去,控制系统工程主要的贡献在机器人,航天驾驶系统包括成功的实现航天器的软着陆,航空飞机自动驾驶与自动控制,船舶与潜水艇控制系统,水翼船?气垫船?高速铁路自动控制系统,现代铁路控制系统? 以上这些类型的控制控制系统和日常生活联系紧密,控制系统是一系列相关的原件在系统运行的基础上相互关联的构成的,此外控制系统存在无人状态下的运行,如飞机自控驾驶,汽车的巡航控制系统?对于控制系统,特别是工业控制系统,我们通常面对的是一系列的器件,自动控制是一个复合型的学科?控制工程师的工作需要具有力学,电子学,机械电子,流体力学,结构学,无料的各方面的知识?计算机在控制策略的执行中具有广泛的应用,并且控制工程的需求带动了信息技术的与软件工程的发展? 通常控制系统的范畴包括开环控制系统与闭环控制系统,两种系统的区别在于是否在系统中加入了闭环反馈装置? 开环控制系统 开环控制系统控制硬件形式很简单,图2.1描述了一个单容液位控制系统, 图2.1单容液位控制系统 我们的控制目标是保持容器的液位h 在水流出流量V 1变化的情况下保持在一定 可接受的范围内,可以通过调节入口流量V 2实现?这个系统不是精确的系统,本系 统无法精确地检测输出流量V 2,输入流量V 1以及容器液位高度?图2.2描述了这 个系统存在的输入(期望的液位)与输出(实际液位)之间的简单关系, 图2.2液位控制系统框图 这种信号流之间的物理关系的描述称为框图?箭头用来描述输入进入系统,以及
高级英语lesson2原文及其翻译
“Hiroshima! Everybody off!” That must be what the man in the Japanese stationmaster's uniform shouted, as the fastest train in the world slipped to a stop in Hiroshima Station. I did not understand what he was saying. First of all, because he was shouting in Japanese. And secondly, because I had a lump in my throat and a lot of sad thoughts on my mind that had little to do with anything a Nippon railways official might say. The very act of stepping on this soil, in breathing this air of Hiroshima, was for me a far greater adventure than any trip or any reportorial assignment I'd previously taken. Was I not at the scene of the crime? The Japanese crowd did not appear to have the same preoccupations that I had. From the sidewalk outside the station, things seemed much the same as in other Japanese cities. Little girls and elderly ladies in kimonos rubbed shoulders with teenagers and women in western dress. Serious looking men spoke to one another as if they were oblivious of the crowds about them, and bobbed up and down re-heatedly in little bows, as they exchanged the ritual formula of gratitude and respect: "Tomo aligato gozayimas." Others were using little red telephones that hung on the facades of grocery stores and tobacco shops. "Hi! Hi!" said the cab driver, whose door popped open at the very sight of a traveler. "Hi", or something that sounds very much like it, means "yes". "Can you take me to City Hall?" He grinned at me in the rear-view mirror and repeated "Hi!" "Hi! ’ We set off at top speed throug h the narrow streets of Hiroshima. The tall buildings of the martyred city flashed by as we lurched from side to side in response to the driver's sharp twists of the wheel. Just as I was beginning to find the ride long, the taxi screeched to a halt, and the driver got out and went over to a policeman to ask the way. As in Tokyo, taxi drivers in Hiroshima often know little of their city, but to avoid loss of face before foreigners, will not admit their ignorance, and will accept any destination without concern for how long it may take them to find it. At last this intermezzo came to an end, and I found myself in front of the gigantic City Hall. The usher bowed deeply and heaved a long, almost musical sigh, when I showed him the invitation which the mayor had sent me in response to my request for an interview. "That is not here, sir," he said in English. "The mayor expects you tonight for dinner with other foreigners or, the restaurant boat. See? This is where it is.” He sketched a little map for me on the back of my invitation. Thanks to his map, I was able to find a taxi driver who could take me straight to the canal
英文翻译(原文)
GRA VITY RETAINING?WALL 1. INTRODUCTION Retaining walls are structures used to provide stability for earth or other material where conditions disallow the mass to assume its natural slope, and are commonly used to hold back or support soilbanks,coal or ore piles, and water. Retaining walls are classified, based on the method of achieving stability, into six principal types (Fig.1). The gravity-wall depends upon its weight, as the name implies, for stability. The cantilever wall is a reinforced-concrete wall that utilizes cantilever action to retain the mass behind the wall from assuming a natural slope. Stability of this wall is partially achieved from the weight of soil on the heel portion of the base slab. A counterfort retaining wall is similar to a cantilever retaining wall, except that it is used where the cantilever is long or for very high pressures behind wall and has counterforts, which tie the wall and base together, built at intervals along the wall to reduce the bending moments and sheers. As indicated in Fig.1c, the counterfort is behind the wall and subjected to tensile forces. A buttressed retaining wall is similar to a counterfort wall, except that the bracing is in front of the wall and is in compression instead of tension. Two other types of walls not considered further are crib walls, which are built-up members of pieces of precast concrete, metal, or timber and are supported by anchor pieces embedded in the soil for stability, and semigravity walls, which are walls intermediate between a true gravity and a cantilever wall. (a)(b)(e)
测绘专业英语原文和部分翻译(1-39)
Table of Contents Uuit 1 What is Geomatics? （什么是测绘学） (2) Unit 2 Geodetic Surveying and Plane Surveying（大地测量与平面测量） (6) Unit 3 Distance Measurement（距离测量） (10) Unit 4 Angle and Direction Measurement（角度和方向测量） (14) Unit 5 Traversing （导线测量） (17) Unit 6 Methods of Elevation Determination（高程测量方法） (21) Unit 7 Robotic Total Station （智能型全站仪） (25) Unit 8 Errors in Measurement（测量工作中的误差） (29) Unit 9 Basic Statistical Analysis of Random Errors (32) Unit 10 Accuracy and Precision （准确度和精度） (35) Unit 11 Least-Squares Adjustment (38) Unit 12 Geodesy Concepts (40) Unit 13 Geoid and Reference Ellipsoid (42) Unit 14 Datums, Coordinates and Conversions (44) Unit 15 Map Projection (46) Unit 16 Gravity Measurment (48) Unit 17 Optimal Design of Geomatics Network (50) Unit 18 Construction Layout （施工放样） (53) Unit 19 Deformation Monitoring of Engineering Struvture (56) Unit 20 Understan ding the GPS（认识GPS） (59) Uuit 21 Understanding the GPS (II) 认识GPS(II) (62) Unit 22 Competition in Space Orbit（太空轨道上的竞争） (64) Unit 23 GIS Basics（GIS 的基础） (69) Unit 24 Data Types and Models in GIS GIS中的数据类型和模型 (75) Unit 25 Digital Terrain Modeling（数字地面模型） (79) Unit 26 Applications of GIS (83) Unit 27 Developments of photogrammetry (87) Unit 28 Fundamentals of Remote Sensing （遥感的基础） (90) Unit 29 Digital Image Processing and Its Applications in RS (94) Unit 30 Airborne Laser Mapping Technology（机载激光测图技术） (99) Unit 31 Interferometric SAR(InSAR) (102) Unit 32 Brief Introduction toApplied Geophysics (104) Unit 33 Origon of Induced Polarization (105) Unit 34 International Geoscience Organization (108) Unit 35 Prestigious Journals in Geomatics (110) Unit 36 Relevant Surveying Instrument Companies (115) Unit 37 Expression of Simple Equations and Scientific Formulsa (116) Unit 38 Professional English Paper Writing (119) Unit 39 Translation Techniques for EST (127)
高级英语lesson2原文及翻译
―Hiroshima! Everybody off!‖ That must be what the man in the Japanese stationmaster's uniform shouted, as the fastest train in the world slipped to a stop in Hiroshima Station. I did not understand what he was saying. First of all, because he was shouting in Japanese. And secondly, because I had a lump in my throat and a lot of sad thoughts on my mind that had little to do with anything a Nippon railways official might say. The very act of stepping on this soil, in breathing this air of Hiroshima, was for me a far greater adventure than any trip or any reportorial assignment I'd previously taken. Was I not at the scene of the crime? The Japanese crowd did not appear to have the same preoccupations that I had. From the sidewalk outside the station, things seemed much the same as in other Japanese cities. Little girls and elderly ladies in kimonos rubbed shoulders with teenagers and women in western dress. Serious looking men spoke to one another as if they were oblivious of the crowds about them, and bobbed up and down re-heatedly in little bows, as they exchanged the ritual formula of gratitude and respect: "Tomo aligato gozayimas." Others were using little red telephones that hung on the facades of grocery stores and tobacco shops. "Hi! Hi!" said the cab driver, whose door popped open at the very sight of a traveler. "Hi", or something that sounds very much like it, means "yes". "Can you take me to City Hall?" He grinned at me in the rear-view mirror and repeated "Hi!" "Hi! ’ We se t off at top speed through the narrow streets of Hiroshima. The tall buildings of the martyred city flashed by as we lurched from side to side in response to the driver's sharp twists of the wheel. Just as I was beginning to find the ride long, the taxi screeched to a halt, and the driver got out and went over to a policeman to ask the way. As in Tokyo, taxi drivers in Hiroshima often know little of their city, but to avoid loss of face before foreigners, will not admit their ignorance, and will accept any destination without concern for how long it may take them to find it. At last this intermezzo came to an end, and I found myself in front of the gigantic City Hall. The usher bowed deeply and heaved a long, almost musical sigh, when I showed him the invitation which the mayor had sent me in response to my request for an interview. "That is not here, sir," he said in English. "The mayor expects you tonight for dinner with other foreigners or, the restaurant boat. See? This is where it is.‖ He sketched a little map for me on the back of my invitation. Thanks to his map, I was able to find a taxi driver who could take me straight to the canal