Lecture03 Phonetics and Phonology(I)
Phonetics and Phonology
Phonetics and PhonologyKey words: phonetics, phonology, introduction, difference, relationship, IPA, Consonants, Vowels,Phone, Phoneme, Allophone, Minimal Pair,Phonological RulesIntroductions of Phonetics and Phonology1. PhoneticsPhonetics and phonology are two branches of linguistics that deal primarily with the structure of human language sounds. Without them we will live as deaf or dumb. Phonetics is about the production of sounds, including the production of sound, that is how speech sounds a re actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds. The study of sounds is divided into three main areas: Articulator Phonetics, Acoustic Phonetics and Perceptual Phonetics. Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning. The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order.It approache s speech on different levels. “At one level, it studies organs such as tongue and larynx and their function in the production of speech. At another level, it focuses on the speech sounds produced by these organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds. This is the domain of articulator phonetics. It also investigates the properties of the sound waves—acoustic phonetics. As speech is intended to be hard or perceived, it is therefore possible to focus on the way in which a listener analyses or processes a sound wave—auditory phonetics.Study of Phonetics, we…d better know something about the speech organs. For example, their places their function during an air stream producing speech sounds and so on. The knowledge of speech organs can help us in the further learning of PhoneticsThe most important part of Phonetics is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which analyses the speech sound in two ways—“the manners of articulation and the places of articulation”. IPA is the basic part of the lear ning of Phonology, too. We can‟t learn consonants without it. There are some important consonants which we should remember their place in IPA, such as [p] voiceless bilabial plosive; [d] voiced alveolar plosive; [f] voiceless labiodentals fricative and so no, especially the English consonants.----Consonants:In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. The categoriesof consonant are established on the basis of several factors: the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract, known as the manner of articulation; and where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing or the obstruction of air, known as the place of articulation. The manner of articulation: stop [p, b, t, d, k, g], nasal [m, n], fricative [f, v, si], approximant [w, j], lateral [l], trill [r], tap and flap, affricate [ts, dz, tr, dr]. The place of articulation: bilabial [p, b, m], labiodentals [f, v], dental, alveolar [t, d, n, s, z], post alveolar, retroflex, palatal [j], velar [k, g], uvular, pharyngeal, glottal [h]. Description: Three parameters to identify a consonant:①place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs.②manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished.③state of vocal cords: voiced VS. Voiceless--Vowels:A vowel is a sound in spoken language pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. A vowel is also understood to be syllabic: an equivalent open but non-syllabic sound is called a semivowel. In all languages, vowels form the nucleus or peak of syllables, whereas consonants form the onset and (in languages which have them) coda. However, some languages also allow other sounds to form the nucleus of a syllable. The description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:①the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);②the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);③the length or tenseness of the vowels (tense vs. lax or long vs. short);④the lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded)2. PhonologyPhonology is about sound patterns. “It deals with the sound system of language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal difference in meaning. English has approximately forty-five phonemes”.Another thing we should know is that the sound segments can be grouped into consonants and vowels. V owels are the speech sound made without audible stopping of the breath by the tongue, lips and so on.-- Phone: the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. It‟s a phonetic unit or segment (in the mouth). Conventionally, phones are placed within square brackets “[]”(phonetic transcription). Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning. Usually phones of different phonemes distinguish meaning.--Phoneme: A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. It‟s a basic unit in phonological analysis. It is not any particular sound, but an abstract segment. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The phoneme is the smallest meaning-distinguishing unit. Phonemes are placed in slashes “//” (phonemic transcription)--Allophone: when we have a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme, we refer to them as the allophones of that phoneme. One phoneme may have several allophones, but the choice of an allophone is rule-governed.--Minimal Pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment, which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. When two words such as pat and bat are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair. Minimal pairs are established on the basis of sound and not spelling. Three requirements for a minimal pair:①same number of segment②one phonetic difference in the same place③different meaning--Phonological RulesThe rules contain three parts: class of sounds affected; phonetic change; phonemic environment. There are several rules. Devoice a voiced consonant after a voiceless consonant. Nasalize vowels before nasals. An alveolar stop becomes a flap when preceded by a stressed vowel and followed by an unstressed vowel. Voiceless stops are aspirated when they occur initially in a stressed syllable. They are called nasalization rule, tantalization rule, and valorization rule and so on. Egg. Voiced fricaive→voiceless /__ voiceless.Difference between Phonetics and PhonologyHowever, there is difference between them. And they focus on different areas.Phonetics focuses on the physical manifestations of speech sounds and on theories of speech production and perception.Phonology is concerned with the systems of rules (or constraints) that determine how the sounds of a language combine and influence one another.For an example: in [leap] and [peel], in phonetics, we focus on the [l].In [leap],[l] is a clear sound. However, in [peel], the [l] is a dark sound. In phonology, we focus on the letters and their positions.The relationship between Phonetics and PhonologyAlthough they have difference, they influent each other in some degree.Phonetics is the basic part Phonology when we learn linguistics. As we learn Phonology step by step we can find it connects with Phonetics closely. For example, consonants and vowels belong to the categories of Phonology, while the ways of telling or naming them bases on the principles of Phonetics.First, we learn consonants by using IPA which belongs to Phonetics. From the definition of consonants we know that realizing how to pronounce them is the best way for us to learn them well. That means we should know enough knowledge about both the organs and the manners of articulation. “In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. The most important factors that the categories of consonants are established on are a) the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which their passes through certain parts of the vocal tract—the manners of articulation and b) where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air-- the places of a rticulation” . And the two factors are the basic structures of IPA.Second, the criteria of vowel description bassoon the position of tongue or the kind of opening made at the lips which are analyzed by Phonetics. Concretely, “the description of vowels needs to fulfill four criteria: the part of tongue that is raised—front, center, or back; the extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate—mid-high, mid-low, and low; the kind of opening made at the lips—rounded or unrounded; the position of the soft palate—raised for oral vowels, and lowed for vowels which have been nasalized”.At least since Trubetzkoy many have thought of phonology and phonetics as separate, largely autonomous, disciplines with distinct goals and distinct methodologies. Some linguists even seem to doubt whether phonetics is properly part of linguistics at all. The commonly encountered expression …the interface between phonology and phonetics‟ implies that the two domains are largely separate and interact only at specific, proscribed points.Now I will attempt to make the case that phonetics is one of the essential areas of study for phonology. Without phonetics, I would maintain, (and allied empirical disciplines such as psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics) phonology runs the risk of being a sterile, purely descriptive and taxonomic, discipline; with phonetics it can achieve a high level of explanation and prediction as well as finding applications in areas such as language teaching, communication disorders, and speech technology.In a word, phonetics is one of the disciplines that help to provide answers to phonology‟s questions about why speech sounds behave as they do. Moreover, in its growth over the past couple of centuries it has developed a respectable level o f scientific rigor in creating and testing models of various aspects of the speech mechanism. Phonology can benefit from phonetics‟ methods, data, and theories. Reference: 胡壮麟《语言学教程》语言学论文题目：Phonetics and Phonology。
英语语言学 第二章 Phonetics and Phonology
scope of phonetics
articulatory phonetics
auditory phonetics
acoustic phonetics
articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 From the speaker’s point of view： studying how a speaker uses his or her speech organ to articulate sounds （ 研究语音的产生）
当声带分离时，气流容易通过，由此产生的语 音叫清音（voiceless），如 [p, s, t]。 当声带贴近时，气流使其产生震动 （vibration），形成的声音成为浊音 （voicing），如[ b, z, d]。 当声带完全紧贴时，气流无法通过，不发出声 音。
pharyngeal cavity: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.
2.1 the phonic medium of language
two media of language : speech and writing Sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language.
2.2.2 speech
organs (发音器官)
Phonetics and Phonology
第二章语音学一、导读2.1 语音研究人类交际包括两种形式：语言交际(linguistic communication) 和非语言交际(paralinguistic communication)。
非语言交际包括手势、表情、眼神或图表等。
语言交际包括口语（spoken language）和书面语(written language)。
在多数情况下，人们主要是通过口语进行交际。
口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。
这种对语音的研究被叫做语音学(phonetics)。
口语交际是一个复杂的过程。
可以想象，当人们交际时，语音首先被说话者发出，然后，它在空气中被传递并被听话者接收。
也就是说，口语交际包括三个基本步骤：语音的发出→语音在空气中的传导→语音的接收。
根据这三个步骤, 语音研究也自然地分成三个主要研究领域。
对第一个步骤的研究是发声语音学(articulatory phonetics)，研究语音的产生。
对第二个步骤的研究是声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)，研究语音的物理特征。
对第三个步骤的研究是听觉语音学(auditory phonetics），研究和语音感知有关的内容。
2.2 发音机制语音是由各种发音器官（speech organ）而产生的。
因此，正确理解语音需要掌握相关的发音系统知识。
人体发声器官（见《语言学概论》杨忠主编，高等教育出版社2002：15）使流出的气流产生各种各样的变化，从而产生不同的音。
肺部的气流是发声的原动力。
肺部扩大时，空气从外流入，形成吸气音（ingressive sounds）。
肺部收缩时，气流流经气管(trachea)、喉头（larynx）、咽腔（pharyngeal cavity）再经口腔(oral cavity)或鼻腔(nasal cavity) 排除，形成呼气音(egressive sounds)。
大学语言学Lecture Phonetics 和Ponology
Brainstorming:
• Activity 1: • How do human beings communicate with
each other? What kinds of media/means/substances do they apply to communicate?
Speech and Writing
The articulator apparatus of a human being contains 3 important areas/cavities:
1) the pharynx (the throat)
2) the oral cavity (the mouth; most variable & active)
Position of the vocal folds: voiceless
• When the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless. Consonants [p, s, t ] are produced in this way
3) and the nasal cavity (the nose).
•The air- stream coming from the lungs is modified in various ways in these cavities, resulting in the production of various sounds.
Position of the vocal folds: glottal stop
3 phonetics & phonology
Read the following twister
I take it you already know Of tough and bough and cough and dough?
坚韧 大树枝 咳嗽 生面团
Others may stumble but not you On hiccough, thorough, lough and through.
The story in Pinyin: shíshì shīshì shīshì, shì shī, shì shí shí shī. shì shíshí shì shì shì shī. shíshí, shì shí shī shì shì. shìshí, shì shīshì shì shì. shì shì shì shí shī, shì shí shí sh shì, sh shì shí shī shìshì. shì shí shì shí shī shī, shì shíshì. shíshì shī, shì sh shì shì shíshì. shíshì shì, shì sh shì shí shí shī shī.shí shí, sh shí shì shí shī shī shí shí shí shī shī.shì shì shì shì.
stress
import Import
( n. ) ( v. )
(glass house for growing plants) greenhouse (house printed green)
green house
intonation
That's not the book he wants.
That's not the book he ↘wants. That's not the book he ↗wants. That's not the ↘book he ↗wants.
语言学教程课件2 Phonetics and Phonology
2.1 Phonetics
The field study Speech sounds and non-speech sounds Pulmonic and non-pulmonic speech
Position of the vocal folds: voicing (initial & the widest aperture)
Position of the vocal folds: glottal stop
Description of speech sounds
We use Phonetic Alphabets to describe speech sounds
mouth Soft palate in lowered position Uvula: the loose hanging end of the soft palate Pharynx Blade of the tongue: including the tip, the part
Diacritics: any mark in sound description additional to letters or other basic elements. [¨], [˜]
Narrow description: detailed Broad description: general
opposite the teeth ridge
Speech Organs 2
Front of the tongue: the part opposite the hard palate
语言学资料 phonetics and phonology
Chapter 2 Phonetics and Phonology◆Teaching Objectives✓To know the difference between phonetics and phonology✓To have some ideas about the classification of English consonants and vowels✓To understand some important concepts in phonology◆Time Arrangement✓Altogether 3 periods.2.1 The Phonic Medium of LanguageSpeech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basis than writing. Language is primarily spoken. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when there are needs.Language is first perceived through its sounds. Thus the study of sounds is of great importance in linguistics. Naturally, linguists are not interested in all sounds that humans are capable of producing; they are concerned with those sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication. These sounds are not only limited in number, but also universal to some extent.The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language, and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics2.2.1 Definition and Scope◆Phonetics is the scientific study of the phonic medium of language and is concernedwith defining and classifying speech sounds◆Generally, the study of phonetics is composed of the 3 separate branches: articulatoryphonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.--- aritculatory phonetics: study the sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e., how a speaker uses his speech organs to produce the sounds. It also deals with theidentification and classification of individual sounds.--- acoustic phonetics: focus on the analysis and measurement of sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one personto another.--- auditory phonetics: study the sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e., how the sounds are perceived (感知) by the hearer.◆The 3 branches are closely related to each other. Speech sounds cannot be divorcedfrom the organs that articulate them and a sound wave does not exist in isolation from the source that generates it. All the approaches are indispensable to an understanding of phonetics.◆In this part we’ll focus on articulatory phonetics and at the same time make somereference to the acoustic properties of sounds when necessary.2.2.2 Vocal Organs / Articulatory Apparatus (p.16)The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in 3 important areas: the pharyngeal cavity – the throat, the oral cavity – the mouth, and the nasal cavity – the nose.The air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in the larynx, and in these cavities in various ways. Such modification results from kind of interference with the movement of the air stream.➢The pharyngeal cavity--- when vocal cords are relaxed and folded back at each side to let air flow through freely and silently without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such acondition are voiceless.--- when vocal cords are held together tightly so that the air stream vibrates them at different speeds while forcing its passage through them, the vibration of the vocalcords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of allvowels and some consonants in English.➢The oral cavity--- the greatest source of modification of the air stream is found here.--- of all the speech organs in this cavity, the tongue is the most flexible and is responsible for more varieties of articulation. [k] [g] [j] [t] [d] [] [] --- apart from the tongue and the roof of the mouth, obstruction can be created between the upper teeth and the lower lip and between the lips [f] [v] [p] [b] ➢The nasal cavity--- when the passage of air to the mouth is closed so that air is allowed to exit through the nose, the sounds pronounce are nasalized. [m] [n] []2.2.3 Transcription of Sounds （p.17）✓With the need for a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)came into being in 1888,whose basic principle is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent speech in the form of segments, or individual speech sounds.✓As some speech sounds produced differ only in some detailed aspects, the IPA provides its users with another set of symbols called diacritics, which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.✓Thus there are two ways to transcribe speech sounds: broad transcription-- the transcription with letter-symbols only and narrow transcription -- the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.✓Broad transcription is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Narrow transcription is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.✓Example 1:[l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], health [hel] and play [plei] –differ [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, --- a clear [l]清晰音, no diacritic is needed[l] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, --- a dark [l]模糊音--- in narrow transcription the diacritic [~] is used [l] in [hel], followed by the dental sound and affected by it, --- a dental [l] --- in narrow transcription the diacritic is used[l] in [plei], following a voiceless plosive (p), -- a devoiced [l] 清音化--- in narrow transcription the diacritic [0] is used.✓Example 2:[p] in [pit] and [spit][p] in [pit], pronounced with a strong puff of air --- aspirated [p] --- [p h it][p] in [spit], pronounced with a withheld puff of air--- unaspirated [p] --- [spit]✓Example 3:play broad [plei] narrow [ ] aspiration, devoicingtenth broad [ten] narrow [ ] aspiration, nasalization, dentalization 2.2.4 Classification of English sounds2.2.4.1 English Consonants (24 / 28) p.18An initial classification will divide the speech sounds into two broad categories: vowels and consonants,In the pronunciation of consonants the air that comes from the lungs meets with obstruction in one way or another.Traditional linguists think there are altogether 28 consonants. But modern linguistics believe that there are 24 consonants, not including /tr/, /dr/, /ts/, /dz/because they are notconsidered as independent sounds, but the consonant clusters.Consonants are usually classified according to their place of articulation and manner of articulation.--- in terms of manner of articulation:6 stops / plosives; 9 fricatives; 2 affricates; 2 liquids (a lateral & a retroflex)3 nasals; 2 glides / semivowels; (trills in some regional accents）--- in terms of place of articulation:4 bilabials; 2 labiodentals; 2 dental sounds; 7 alveolar sounds;5 palatal sounds; 3 velar sounds; 1 glottal2.2.4.2 English Vowels (20/25) p.20As in the production of vowels the air stream meets with no obstruction, they cannot be classified in terms of manner of articulation or place of articulation as consonants. Other criteria have to be found for their classification.1) Openness of the mouth (close, semi-close, semi-open, open)2) Position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back)3) Degree of lip rounding/shape of lips (rounded, unrounded)4) Length of the vowel (long, short)5) Pure or gliding (monophthong, diphthong, triphthong)Diphthongs – A vowel sound that glides from one quality to another: 8Triphthongs -- a vowel sound that glides successively through three qualities: 52.3 Phonology2.3.1 Phonology and PhoneticsSimilarity: research objects ---- the speech soundsDifference: research approaches and focusesPhonetics – general study of all the speech sounds used in all human languages about how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phoneticfeatures they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology – about how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how they areused to convey meaning in linguistic communication.2.3.2 Phone, Phoneme, and allophone◆Phone and phonemeA phone is A phoneme isA phonetic unit, concrete A phonological unit, abstractOne of many possible sounds Not any particular sound, but represented or heard or produced in languages realized as a certain phoneThe smallest identifiable unit The smallest contrastive unit distinguishing found in a stream of speech, not between meanings of words in the sound necessarily distinguish meaning system of a particular language.Pronounced in a defined way. Pronounced in one or more ways,depending on the number of allophones.Represented between brackets Represented between slashesby convention. E.g. [b], [j], [o] by convention. E.g. /b/, /j/, /o/◆Allophones--- different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment.--- variants of a phoneme which do not change the meaning with substitution--- For example, /p/ → [p h i: k] & [spi:k]/t/ → [t h i: k] & [sti:k]/l/ → [li:k] & [fi:l] & [hel] & [milk]--- Distinctive features (p.24):the features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes;shown in the form of a binary opposition, only one of two values [+] or [-];e.g.: /p/ → -syllabic +consonantal –sonorant +anterior –coronal -voiced –nasal构成音节的响音前面的舌尖音的/i:/ → +syllabic –consonantal +sonorant +high – back –round +continuant响音：all vowels + consonants /l/, /m/, /n/, / /, /r/, /w/, /j/2.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimalpair (p.24)➢Phonemic contrast--- formed by two distinctive phonemes➢Complementary distribution--- Allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. That is, they occur in different phonetic environmentsand they are said to be in complementary distribution.➢Minimal pair--- a basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two soundsthen represent different phonemes.--- an easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs:2 different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment whichoccurs in the same place in the strings → the 2 sound combinations forming aminimal pair → the 2 sounds representing different phonemes.more than 2 sound combinations → constituting a minimal set together.--- This way applies both to the consonants and vowels--- E.g.: pill & bill, bill & kill, kill & till, till & pill → minimal pairspill, bill, kill, till →a minimal set (identical in form except for the initialconsonant) → /p/, /b/, /k/, /t/ phonemesbeat, bet, boot, but, bait, bite, boat → a minimal set (identical except for thevowel) →/i:/, /e/, /u:/, //\/, /ei/, /ai/,/eu/ phonemes2.3.4 Phonological rules (p.25)2.3.4.1 Sequential rulesThe phonemes of a language cannot not strung together in any random order to formwords. The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.e.g.: /b/ , /l/, /i/, /k/ p.25If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following 3 rules;(1)The first phoneme must be /s/(2)The second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/(3)The third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/e.g.: spring /spri/, strict /strict/, square/skew/, splendid /splendid/, scream /skri:m/Every word must contain at least one vowel-like segment.The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific. What is not permissible in English might be permissible in another language.2.3.4.2 Assimilation rule⏹When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendencymay become regularized as rules of language. The assimilation rule assimilates onesound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making thetwo phones similar.Nasalization of vowels in certain phonetic contexts.e.g.: [i:] – bean, green, team, screamThe varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal /n/ in some sound combinatione.g.: alveolar nasal /n/ -- still alveolar nasal in indiscreet (for /d/ is an alveolar stop)alveolar nasal /n/ -- velar nasal // in incorrect ( for /k/ is a velar stop) The sound assimilation is actually reflected in the spelling in most cases.Inpossible → impossible, as the /n/ sound is assimilated to /m/Inplausibel → implausible, inlegal → illegal, inregular --. irregular2.3.4.3 Deletion rule⏹It tells when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.e.g.: sign, design, paradigm → no /g/ sound though it is represented in spelling bythe letter gsignature, designation, paradigmatic →/g/ represented by the letter g ispronouncedThe rule is: delete a /g/ when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.2.3.5 Suprasegmental FeaturesSegment -- any linguistic unit in a sequence which may be isolated from the rest of the sequence, e.g. a sound in an utterance or a letter in a written textSuprasegmental – (in phonetics and phonology) a unit which extends over more than one sound in an utterance., e.g. syllable, word, sentence.2.3.5.1 StressStress is the pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than thesurrounding words or syllables. Briefly, stress is syllable prominence.Stress in a syllable is achieved by changing the pitch, making the syllablelouder, or making it longer.In a word, the basic difference is between stressed and unstressed syllables.The syllable with the greatest prominence had the primary stress and the nextstressed syllable the secondary stress. A word, if long enough, may haveseveral nonprimary stresses. However, no word has more than one primarystress.Stress has two main semantic functions: distinguishing between two words which are alike, e.g. \import (n.) and im\port (v.); emphasizing the syllable or word,e.g. I said induce, not deduce.There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress.Word stress – the location of stress distinguishes meaning.(1) a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word form a noun to averb.e.g.: \increase (n.) – in\crease (v.); insult (n.) – insult (v.); rebel (n.) – rebel (v.)(2) the alteration of stress occurs between a compound noun and a phraseconsisting of the same elementse.g.: \blackbird (compound) – a particular kind of bird, which is notnecessarily black.black \bird (noun phrase) – a bird whose color is blackgreenhouse – green house; hotdog – hot dog(3) the meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the–ing + noun combinations.e.g.: \dining room (compound) -- -ing serving as a modifier of the nounreading glasses, sewing machinesleeping \baby (noun phrase) – noun as the doer of the action indicatedby the –ing form , which is an –ing participle modifierswimming fishSentence stress(1)the parts of speech that are normally stressed in English are nouns, mainverbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns.(2)The other categories of words like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs,prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.(3)To give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in a sentence that isusually unstressed can be stressed.e.g.: He is driving my car.2.3.5.2 ToneTone is pitch variations which are associated with the pronunciation of syllables orwords and which affects the meaning of the word.A tone language is a language in which the meaning of word depends on the toneused when pronouncing it.Mandarin Chinese, a typical ton language, makes a distinction between fourdifferent tones.Other tone languages are spoken in Vietnam, Thailand, West Africa, and CentralAmerica.2.3.5.3 IntonationWhen speaking, people usually raise and lower the pitch of their voice, formingpitch patterns. They also give some syllables in their utterances a greater degree ofloudness and change their speech rhythm. These phenomena are called intonation.In other words, when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence ratherthan the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones – the falling tone,the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone.。
语言学chapter 3 phonetics and phonology教材课程
---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------1 / 5语言学chapter 3 phonetics and phonology 教材课程Chapter 3 Phonetics and Phonology Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in language, and to explain the variations that occur. Relationship: Phonetics Phonology Both are concerned with the same aspect of language---the speech sounds. the study of all possible speech sounds as individuals the study of the rules that govern the combination of those sounds into meaningful units. focuses on chaos focuses on order, system Part 1 Phonetics Articulatory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. (发声语音学) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. （声学语音学） Perceptual or auditory phonetics is concerned with of theperception of speech sounds. （感知语音学 / 听觉语音学） 2.1.2ptedusing a different letter for each distinguishable speech sounds.and linguists. 2.2 Consonants and Vowels Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction. A vowel is produced without such obstruction so that air escape in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose. 2.2.1 Consonants 2.2.1.1 The manner of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished. Stop / plosive (塞音/爆破音) in the production of a plosive, the air-stream is obstructed completely both in the oral and nasal tracts, so that when the closure in the oral tract is suddenly released, the compressed air rushes out and produces an explosive sound. [p, b, t, d, k, g] Nasal（鼻音） in the production of a nasal, the air-stream is completely obstructed in the oral tract but not in the nasal tract (the soft palate is lowered), so that the air passes through the nose freely. [m, n, ŋ] Fricative (擦音) in the production of a fricative two vocal organs are brought very close together (but not to the extent of touching each other to form a closure) so that the airstream forcing its way through the resulting narrowing becomes turbulent, and this turbulence is heard as a fricative noise. [f, v, , , s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h] Lateral/Liquid （边音）－---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------in the production of a lateral the airstream is obstructed along the center of the oral tract, but one or both sides of the tongue are away from the roof of the mouth, so that the air can go through the mouth laterally. [l] is the only lateral in English. Affricative （塞擦音） Affricatives involve more than one of these manners of articulation in that they consist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation. [t] [dЗ] 2.2.1.2 The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Labial (双唇音) the obstruction of the airstream is caused by the two lips, such as in the production of [p, b, m] of the English words pie, buy, my. Labiodental (唇齿音) the obstruction of the airstream is caused by the lower lip and the upper front teeth, such as in the production of [f, v] of the English words fie, vie. Interdental（齿音） the obstruction of the airstream is caused by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth, such as in the production of [, ] of the English words thigh, thy. Alveolar ( 齿龈音) the obstruction of the airstream is caused by the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge, such as the production of [t, d, l, n, s, z] of the English words tie, die, lie, nigh, sigh, zyme.3 / 5Palatal （硬腭音）sounds are made with the front of the tongueand the hard palate. The only English sound made here is [j]. Velar （软腭音）：Velars are made with the back of the tongue and the velum. Examples in English are velar stops [k, g], and velar nasal [ŋ] . the description of consonants: (v)+p (lace) + m (anner) [p] [b] [s] [z] [] [] [m] [n] voiceless bilabial stop voiced bilabial stop voiceless alveolar fricative voiced alveolar fricative voiceless dental fricative voiced dental fricative voiced bilabial nasal voiced alveolar nasal [t, d] voiceless voiced 2.2.2 Vowels Cardinal vowels (基本元音): as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, area set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages. monophthong vowels: A monophthong is a pure vowel sound, one whose articulation at both beginning and end is relatively fixed, and which does not glide up or down towards a new positionof articulation. diphthong vowels: A diphthong ( diphthongos, literally two sounds or two tones), also known as a gliding vowel, refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. [i] [i:] [ə] [ə:] [ɔ] [ɔ:] [u] [u:] [ʌ] [ɑ:]---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ [e] [] [ei] [ai] [ɔi] [au] [əu] [iə] [ɛə] [uə] triphthong vowel: (literally with three sounds, or with three tones) If two movements from one element to a second, then from the second to the third of the tongue are involved, the combing vowels are called triphthongs. 2.2.3 The Sounds of English RP GA tenseness: the description of vowels: h + p + t / l + r / u the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short) lip-rounding (round vs. unrounded) P47 48 [i:] [ɔ] [u] high front tense unrounded vowel low back lax rounded vowel high back lax rounded vowel [ə] mid central lax unrounded vowel5 / 5。
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2. Speech sound traveling in the air—Acoustic (声学) phonetics It analyses the physical properties of speech sounds 3. Perception of speech sounds — auditory (听觉) phonetics It focuses on perceptive mechanism of speech sounds
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Lecture 3
Phonetics
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Teaching Contents
Scope
of Phonetics Articulation of Sounds Characteristics of English Speech Sounds The Transcription of Sounds
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How do vowels differ from consonants?
Vowels:
In the production of them, the air stream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth. Consonants: In the production of them, it is somehow obstructed.
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Exercises on page 45
1. Articulatory phonetics deals with the identification and classification of individual sounds. It attempts to provide a framework of the nature of speech sounds and how they are produced. Acoustic phonetics focuses on the analysis and measurement of sound waves. It studies the physical characteristics of speech sounds as they are determined and measured by machines, and attempts to deduce the acoustic basis of speech production and perception.
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How do we classify the English consonants?
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Manner of articulation (发音方式） The way in which a speech sound is produced by the speech organs. There are different ways of producing speech sounds. With consonants the air stream may be a. stopped and released suddenly ( a stop), e.g. /t/ b. allowed to escape with friction (a fricative), e.g./f/ c. stopped and then released slowly with friction (an affricate), /t/ The vocal cords may be vibrating (a voiced speech sound) or not (a voiceless speech sound). With vowels, in addition to the position of the tongue in the mouth, the lips may be • rounded (收圆） , e.g. for /u/, /u:/ • Spread （展开）, e.g. for /i/, /i:/ —Longman Dictionary
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Introduction
Knowing a language includes knowing what sounds are in the language and how they may be gathered to form meaningful units. Phonetics the Study of Speech Sounds Phonology the Study of Sound Systems and Patterns
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The speech organs
Three areas:
The pharyngeal cavity (the throat) The oral cavity (the mouth) The nasal cavity (the nose) Figure 3 The speech organs 1. lips 2. teeth 3.alvealar ridge 4. hard palate 5. soft palate (velum) 6. uvula 7. tip of tongue 8. blade of tongue 9.back of tongue 10. vocal cords 11. Pharyngeal cavity 12. Nasal cavity
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I. In terms of manner of articulation, they can be classified into the following types:
Plosives : [p] [b] [t ] [d] [k] [ɡ] Nasals: [m] [n] [ŋ] Fricatives: [f] [v] [s] [z] [ø [] [h] ] Affricates: [ t] [ d ] Approximants: Liquids: [l] [r] Glides: [ j] [w] Trills & Taps: [r]
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2. The speech chain consists of three stages: the production of the message, the transmission of the message and the reception of the message. According to Saussure, there are a series of activities in the speech chain. First, there is physiological activity in the brain of the speaker. Then the brain sends instructions to a variety of muscles of vocal organs. The result is a range of muscle contractions and physical movement of structures such as the rib cage胸腔, the larynx喉, the tongue and so on. In turn, these movements give rise to an aerodynamic空气动力学的 phase of the speech chain, whereby air flows through the vocal tract. This airflow interacts with continued movement of structures such as the vocal folds, tongue, lips and soft palate to produce the different features of speech. This modified airflow through the vocal tract impinges on the air surrounding the speaker.
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3. Spelling is not the same as pronunciation in English. For example, in pronunciation, the “h” in the word “hour” is silent. “ph” in the word “elephant” is pronounced as [f], which seems to have nothing to do with its spelling. Another example might be a pair of words like “meet” and “meat”, who have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings.
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ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
Voiced & Voiceless
Sounds may be either voiced or voiceless, i.e. the vocal folds are either vibrating or not. All vowels are voiced, as are the following consonants: [d, b, g, d ,m, n, ŋ, , z, , l, r, w, j]. English has more voiced than voiceless sounds.