Acid – Base Physiology - California State University ：酸–基础生理学-加利福尼亚州立大学
肾脏生理1北大医学部医实医检生理
•Glomerular capillary endothelium •Basement membrane •Podocytes, with filtration slits
肾小球
肾 小 球 滤 过 膜
Glomerular Filter
中层: 基底膜, 厚约330nm。决定何种溶质可以通过
网状纤维结构, 4-8nm, 带负电, 蛋白质不能通过
外层: 肾小囊脏(内)层上皮细胞层, 又称肾小球外层上皮 4-14nm, 负电, 蛋白质不能通过
神经因素： 入球小动脉和出球小动脉平滑肌受肾交感神经支配。
肾交感神经—a受体—血管收缩、血流减少, 副交感功能不详
体液因素： 去甲肾上腺素、血管紧张素II、血管升压素、内皮
素—收缩肾血管、减少肾血流； 前列腺素、NO、乙酰胆碱、心钠肽等—舒张肾
血管、增加肾血流
紧急情况下发挥作用
第二节 肾小球的滤过功能 Glomerular Filtration
Overview: Renal Failure
尿浓缩和稀释障碍 肾性骨营养不良 心血管疾病 神经系统功能改变
Overview: Renal Function
尿量、尿液的成分和理化性质
1. 尿量及尿液的成分： 正常尿量：1000-2000 ml，平均1500 ml 多尿 > 2500 ml；少尿 100-500 ml; 无尿 < 100 ml 95-97% 为水；固体成分占3-5%，包括有机物和无机物
肾小球滤过率 (Glomerular filtration rate, GFR)： 肾小球生成原尿的速率，单位时间内由两肾生 成的超滤液的量。 125 ml/min, 180L/day/双肾 血浆总量约 3 L, 肾血浆流量(Renal plasma flow) 660
Determination of catecholamines in pheochromocytoma cell
Journal of Chromatography A,870(2000)405–411/locate/chromaDetermination of catecholamines in pheochromocytoma cell (PC-12)culture medium by microdialysis–microbore liquidchromatographya,e ,a abc *Fu-Chou Cheng,Jon-Son Kuo ,Hsueh-Meei Huang ,Dar-Yu Yang ,Tsu-Fang Wu ,dTung-Hu Tsai aDepartment of Medical Research ,Taichung Veterans General Hospital ,Taichung 407,Taiwan bDepartment of Emergency ,Taichung Veterans General Hospital ,Taichung 407,Taiwan cInstitute of Biochemistry ,Chung Shan Medical &Dental College ,Taichung 402,Taiwan dDepartment of Pharmacology ,National Institute of Chinese Medicine ,Taipei 112,Taiwan eDepartment of Chemistry ,National Chung -Hsing University ,Taichung 402,TaiwanAbstractAn in vitro microdialysis system was constructed for the measurement of catecholamines in pheochromocytoma cell culture medium.The novel microdialysis device is composed of a petri dish,a dialysis membrane and two transmission tubes.The dialysis membrane is located in the space of a petri dish such that it is immersed in the culture medium.Catecholamines contained in the culture medium diffused into a designed dialysis membrane with sufficient recovery (about 60%).Dialysates were collected by a sampling loop and introduced by an on-line injector to a microbore liquid chromatographic system for analysis of catecholamines.This assay yielded a detection limit of 0.2–0.5pg/injection with acceptable intra-and inter-assay reproducibilities in 5m l of dialysates.To evaluate the on-line microdialysis system,PC-12cells were cultured in a petri dish within an incubator.The baseline concentration of dopamine in PC-12cell culture medium was about 0.29ng/ml which was elevated to 2.43ng/ml after treatment with 0.5m M potassium cyanide.In conclusion,the present microassay provides for the sensitive,direct measurement of catecholamines in culture medium while minimizing pretreatment procedures for sample preparation.©2000Elsevier Science B.V .All rights reserved.Keywords :Pheochromocytoma cells;Catecholamine1.Introductionfunctions in the peripheral and central nervous systems,and have been implicated in the neuro-Microdialysis is one of the most widely used chemistry and physiology of mental diseases and techniques for in vivo or in vitro sampling of the neurological disorders [2,3].Measurements of cat-chemical substances in extracellular fluids of animal echolamines utilizing high-performance liquid chro-tissues,or cultured cells [1].Catecholamines and matography (LC)and electrochemical detection their related compounds play a number of important(ED)[4]are useful in investigating the etiology of neurological disorders in animal models or cell cultures [5–7].Recently,microbore LC–ED detec-*Corresponding author.Tel.:1886-4-359-2525;fax:1886-4-tion has led to sub-femtomolar detection for cat-359-2705.E -mail address :c1035@.tw (F.-C.Cheng)echolamines [8–10].Microdialysis and microbore0021-9673/00/$–see front matter ©2000Elsevier Science B.V .All rights reserved.PII:S0021-9673(99)00910-3406F.-C.Cheng et al./J.Chromatogr.A870(2000)405–411LC–ED technique are complementary tools that are describe an on-line in vitro microdialysis-microboreroutinely used in this laboratory to study extracellu-LC–ED technique for the measurement of catechol-lar catecholamines or their metabolites in rat brain amines in PC-12cell culture medium.[8–10].In vitro microdialysis studies were alsocarried out in biologicalfluids[11]and tissueschambers[12,13].Dynamic secretion of steroids and 2.Experimentalpeptides in corpus luteum were carried out in aprolonged time by Maas et al.[12].Similarly,The microdialysis microbore LC–ED was com-oxytocin stimulates progesterone release from mi-prised of a micropump(CMA-100,CMA,Stock-crodialysated bovine corpus luteum was demonstra-holm,Sweden),an on-line injector(CMA-160),a ted in vitro by Miyamato and Chams[13].Microtech LC-pump(Micro-tech Scientific,Sunny-Pheochromocytoma cells(PC-12)resemble adre-vale,CA),a BAS-4C electrochemical detector nal chromaffin cells which share many physiological(Bioanalytical Systems,Inc.,West Lafeyette,IN),a and pharmacological properties of neurons[14–16].Beckman I/O406interface(AI-406),Beckman PC-12cells synthesize,store,and secrete dopamine System Gold Data Analysis Software(Beckman (DA)and norepinephrine(NE)[15].On stimulation,Instrument Inc.,Taiwan Branch),and a microbore PC-12cells release catecholamines by exocytosis reversed-phase columnfilled with Inertsil ODS-2 [16].Many studies have been carried out on PC-12(GSK-C,5m m ODS, 1.03150mm I.D.,GL18cells via catecholamine determination to investigate Sciences Inc.,Tokyo,Japan).The potential for the how particular drugs affect the release or uptake of glassy carbon working electrode was set at10.75V, dopamine by PC-12cells[15–17].In general,PC-12with respect to a Ag/AgCl reference electrode[18]. cells have been plated in culture dishes and incu-Chromatograms were recorded on the Beckman I/O bated in an incubator.At different times after406interface,and analyzed via the Beckman System incubation or certain treatments,the supernatant of Gold Data Analysis Software.To increase the de-cells are removed and analyzed via conventional tection sensitivity of the microbore LC system,a pretreatment prior to LC–ED analysis.There is no very thin spacer(16m m)was used instead of a difficulty in the measurement of intracellular cat-conventional one(51m m)to create a sub-microliter echolamines in PC-12cells because of their rela-thin-layer electrochemical cell.Very slowflow-rates tively high concentrations(20–200ng/ml).How-were used to minimize pulsefluctuations and noise. ever,the measurement of extracellular catechola-NE,EPI,DA,DOPAC,ethylenediaminetetraacetic mines in culture medium using conventional LC–ED acid(EDTA),1-octanesulfonate(SOS),NaOH,and has been difficult and challenging.First,the extreme-N-[2-hydroxyethyl]piperazine-N9-[2-ethanosulfonic ly low concentration of catecholamines in medium acid]sodium salt(HEPES)were purchased from requires an analytical detection limit in low pico-Sigma(St.Louis,MO,USA).HPLC grade acetoni-grams for successful measurement.Second,it is trile(CH CN)and tetrahydrofuran(THF)were3necessary to centrifuge the cells andfiltrate cell obtained from E.MERCK(MERCK-Schuchardt, debris to collect the culture medium,which may Darmstadt,Germany).Monochloroacetic acidcause contamination of PC-12cell culture system.(CH ClCOOH)was purchased from BDH Labora-2Third,the detected catecholamine concentrations in tory Supplies(BDH Laboratory Supplies,Poole, the PC-12cell culture medium are often low which UK).Unless otherwise stated,all reagents were of may result in either difficulty in analysis or unreli-analytical quality.able data from conventional LC–ED.Fourth,the PC-12cells were grown in NUNC T75flasks medium samples require time-consuming pretreat-(Naperville,IL)in Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle’s ments or complicated extraction prior to analysis by Medium(DMEM,Gibco,Gaithersburg,MD)sup-conventional LC–ED assays,which may result in plemented with5%horse serum and10%fetalsample losses and increases in the amount of time bovine serum(FBS),and maintained in a10%CO2 necessary to complete experiments.Based on Maas humidified incubator at378C as previously described et al.and Miyamoto and Schams studies[12,13],we[19].PC-12cells were cultured on35mm petri dishF.-C.Cheng et al./J.Chromatogr.A870(2000)405–411407 with DMEM.The working buffer was prepared by transmission tubes jutted out through the holes in the dissolving0.17g HEPES in25ml liquid medium of cover.The bottom ends of the transmission tubes DMEM Base,which contained L-glutamine,phenol were located in the receiving space of the main body, red,and sodium pyruvate.Then,the pH of the buffer and curved such that the longitudinal central line of was adjusted to7.4.the bottom ends and the longitudinal central line of The standard stock solutions of NE,EPI,DOPAC,the transmission tubes formed a predetermined angle. and DA were prepared at a concentration of2m g/ml The outer wall surface of the transmission tubes and in0.1M perchloric acid and stored at2708C in the the inner wall surface of the holes of the cover were dark.For the daily preparation of a standard mixture,secured by sealing material.The dialysis tube(D) a portion of these stock solutions was thawed at48C was made of a dialysis membrane(Spectrum,20mm and diluted to the appropriate concentration of20length,150m m outer diameter with a cut-off at27ng/ml with a solution containing10M ascorbic nominal molecular weight of13000,Laguna Hills, acid in0.1M HCl.CA),and was immersed in the PC-12cell culture The buffer consisted of9.60g monochloroacetic medium(C)as shown in Fig.1.acid,0.16g sodium1-octane sulfonate,and10mg The sampling device was perfused with the work-EDTA,adjusted to pH3.0with1M sodium hy-ing buffer at2m l/min by a micropump(CMA-100). droxide.Thefinal volume of the mixture was Microdialysates were introduced by an on-line injec-adjusted to1l with doubled distilled water.The tor(CMA-160)and analyzed by a microbore LC–mobile phase was prepared by mixing50ml acetoni-ED at30min intervals.Following a3h baseline trile and950ml phosphate buffer.The solution was collection,KCN was introduced to give afinal filtered through a nylonfilter under reduced pressure concentration of0.5m M KCN in the culture and degassed with helium for15min.Theflow-rate medium.PC-12cells under KCN-induced hypoxia was80m l/min,and the column pressure was were incubated for an additional5h.The equipped maintained at ca.12.4MPa.on-line injector(CMA-160)was used to collect As illustrated in Fig.1,a sampling device is microdialysates.Five m l of aliquots of mi-composed of a petri dish(B and E),two transmission crodialysates were automatically assayed for cat-tubes(A),and a dialysis membrane(D).The petri echolamines by a microbore LC–ED while the petri dish had a receiving space with an open top.The dish was kept in an incubator.cover contained with two holes separated by a Prior to the experiments,in vitro recovery was predetermined distance.This microdialysis system is performed using a standard mixture containing cat-similar to those reported by Mass et al.[12]and echolamines,to determine the recoveries of all Miyamato and Chams[13].The top ends of the two analytes and the dead volume(ca.36m l)of themicrodialysis system.Experimental data were re-corded and analyzed via the Beckman System GoldData Analysis Software.3.Results and discussionFig.2A shows a typical chromatogram of astandard mixture(ca.0.02ng/ml each)containingNE(3.6min),EPI(4.8min),DOPAC(6.9min),andDA(9.4min).Analysis was completed within10min.Fig.2B and C show typical chromatograms ofmicrodialysates obtained from PC-12cell culturemedium.All components under study were well Fig.1.A schematic diagram of a novel dialysis petri dish.(A):resolved.Retention times of NE,DOPAC,and DA in Transmission tubes;(B):Petri dish cover;(C):Culture medium;(D):Dialysis membrane(20mm in length);(E):Petri dish body.Fig.2A,B,and C were identical.In the preliminary408F.-C.Cheng et al./J.Chromatogr.A870(2000)405–411Fig.2.Typical chromatograms obtained from(A)a standard mixture containing(1)NE,(2)EPI,(3)DOPAC,and(4)DA;(B)a microdialysis of baseline;and(C)a microdialysate after KCN-induced hypoxia.F.-C.Cheng et al./J.Chromatogr.A870(2000)405–411409Table2experiments,EPI was always undetectable in cultureAnalytical precision on the stabilities of intra-assay(n512,at1h medium.which was in agreement with other inves-intervals)and inter-assay(n56,in six consecutive working days) tigators[20].The baseline concentrations of NE,of standard mixtures and PC-12cells dialysates in the microbore DOPAC,and DA in PC-12cell culture medium were LC–ED system0.77,0.55and0.29ng/ml,respectively.SeveralCoefficient of variation(%) unknown peaks appeared within30min.In order toNE EPI DOPAC DA prevent carry-over peaks from previous runs,acomplete run was set at30min.Intra-assayStandard mixtureIn general,the amounts of each injected analytein0.1M HClwere linearly related to chromatographic areas ob-(ca.1pg each) 3.9 2.4 6.2 2.42tained from standard mixtures(R$0.999)over a(ca.50pg each) 2.3 3.5 4.2 2.1large range of concentrations(1–2000pg,Table1)PC-12cellsin microbore LC–ED.However,calibration curvespooled dialysates 4.8N.D. 5.2 3.3 were constructed with three standard mixtures(con-taining ca.1,10,and100pg of catecholamines,Inter-assayStandard mixturen53)prior to LC–ED analyses on the day ofin0.1M HClexperiments.Concentrations of NE,DOPAC,and(ca.50pg each) 4.3 5.2 5.3 4.0 DA in dialysates were determined by these cali-bration curves.The precision of the assays was tested using a the relative recovery and is usually expressed as astandard mixture and pooled dialysates of PC-12cell percent value.For in vitro microdialysis recovery,culture medium(Table2).The intra-assay var-the dialysis device was calibrated in a standardiabilities were assessed with12replicates at1h solution containing100ng/ml of each analyte.Theintervals and expressed as coefficients of variation working buffer solution was perfused atflow-rates(C.V.,%).The intra-(n512)and inter-assay(n56)ranging from0.3to 5.0m l/min.The in vitrovariabilities were assessed and the C.V.values of all recovery(R%)of each analyte was calculatedin v itroanalytes in dialysates were less than7%.In general,from the concentration of each analyte(C)inoutthe C.V.s for DA and NE were lower than the C.V.s dialysates divided by the concentration of the analytefor EPI and DOPAC in the chromatographic mea-in the petri dish(C).The higher the perfusioninsurements.The detection limits(signal-to-noise ratioflow-rate,the lower the recovery as shown in Table53)of all analytes in the present assay were 3.In general,experiments were carried out at1.0–between0.2and0.5pg per injection(or0.04–0.1 3.0m l/min to collect sufficient amount of samples ng/ml).and to overcome the dead volume of the dialysis The concentration of an analyte in the dialysate device.The perfusionflow-rate wasfixed at 2.0 relates to the concentration of that analyte in the m l/min in the present study(recovery values be-PC-12cell culture medium.This relation is called tween56and66%).In vitro recovery values of allTable1Table3Correlation of anodic current with the amount of biogenic amines,In vitro recovery values(%)of catecholamines at varied perfusion and their metabolites in standard mixtures(ranging from1pg toflow-rates for the novel dialysis device2000pg)measured by the microbore LC–ED systemFlow rate(m l/min)NE EPI DOPAC DAa2Standard curve equation R0.393998797 NE Y54020X13 1.0000.589928190 EPI Y53865X1140.9991828273791.572726371 DOPAC Y56360X25 1.000265665664 DA Y55880X118 1.000350514250529312731a Y5peak area measured;X5amount of analytes in pg.410F.-C.Cheng et al./J.Chromatogr.A870(2000)405–411analytes at 2.0m l/min were also recorded and late.The entire time profiles of catecholamines validated on each dialysis device prior to experi-obtained from PC-12cell culture medium before and ments.after KCN-induced hypoxia are shown in Table4.It Extracellular catecholamine concentrations in is evident that these analytes varied very soon after dialysates of PC-12cells did not change much within administration of KCN.In general,increased release an8h period as shown in Table4.However,NE of catecholamines was demonstrated during KCN-concentrations(0.77ng/ml at baseline)dramatically induced hypoxia.These data are in agreement with increased to15.8ng/ml within5h after0.5m M those of other investigators[22,23].However,the KCN treatment,as shown in Table 4.DOPAC detailed mechanism of the release of catecholamines concentrations(0.55ng/ml at baseline)slowly in-during KCN-induced hypoxia requires further in-creased to about3fold of baseline(1.84ng/ml)at5vestigation.h after0.5m M KCN treatment.DA concentrations The present method requires no pretreatment of demonstrated a transient elevation(18fold,from samples,whereas conventional pretreatment proce-0.29to 2.43ng/ml)at the beginning of KCN dures require more than4hours to prepare8–10 treatment and drastically decreased to relatively samples[24–26].The cumbersomeness of pretreat-lower levels(about two folds of baseline)within3h ment procedures of small volumes of culture medium after0.5m M KCN treatment.The mechanism by is still a problem for culture systems.Another which KCN increased catecholamine levels in the advantage of this method is its low detection limits extracellular space probably reflects both an in-(0.2–0.5pg/per injection,typically).This on-line creased release of catecholamines into the medium as method can increase the experimental speed,provide well as a decreased removal of these substances from high sensitivity,minimize required sample volume, the medium.Removal of substances from the enhance detection limits,and decrease degradation of medium is largely due to an uptake mechanism the analyzed compounds.which is an adenosine triphosphate(ATP)-dependent In vitro microdialysis system described by Maas et process.KCN-induced hypoxia is known to cause al.[12]and Miyamoto and Schams[13]was modi-ATP depletion[21].Therefore,the uptake mecha-fied.An autosampler and an incubator were used in nism is blocked and catecholamine levels accumu-this study.In conclusion,the dialysis device is Table4Concentrations of NE,DOPAC,and DA in PC-12cell culture medium dialysates obtained from petri dishes incubated under control or KCN treatmentTime(h)NE DOPAC DAControl KCN Control KCN Control KCN 0.50.16 1.030.250.240.100.18 10.48 1.770.230.310.140.25 1.50.58 1.810.210.400.070.18 20.73 1.980.220.580.090.13 2.50.91 1.740.420.640.050.19 a30.570.770.500.550.310.29 3.50.60 3.160.450.690.540.53 40.53 4.210.47 1.020.07 2.43 4.50.63 5.480.60 1.240.07 1.51 50.508.340.61 1.200.190.99 5.50.499.620.550.920.080.61 60.419.940.42 1.080.020.57 6.50.5712.510.78 1.080.230.65 70.5112.770.66 1.520.380.52 7.50.4915.060.78 1.840.220.7880.7315.800.71 1.840.140.48a KCN was given at3h.F.-C.Cheng et al./J.Chromatogr.A870(2000)405–411411[3]D.M.A.Mann,P.O.Yates,B.Marcyniuk,Clin.Neuropathol. capable of taking samples for examining the ex-3(1984)199.tracellular catecholamines with minimal disruption of[4]E.Kempf,P.Mandal,Anal.Biochem.112(1981)223. the normal growth of cells in PC-12cell culture.The[5]C.Y.Chai,A.M.Y.Lin,C.K.Su,S.R.Hu,L.S.Kao,J.S.Kuo, device also avoids contamination of cell culture and D.S.Goldstein,J.Auton.Nerv.Syst.33(1991)35. minimizes the disturbance on the closed system for a[6]C.A.Altar,M.R.Marien,J.F Marshall,J.Neurochem.48(1987)390.prolonged period of time.Microdialysis samples are[7]H.Nissbrandt,A.Carlsson,J.Neurochem.49(1987)59. free from impurities and macromolecules and can be[8]F.C.Cheng,L.L.Yang,F.M.Chang,L.G.Chia,J.S.Kuo,J. directly analyzed via LC.Microbore LC–ED has theChromatogr.B582(1992)19.advantages of signal enhancement and noise reduc-[9]F.C.Cheng,J.S.Kuo,J.Chromatogr.B665(1995)1. tion.As a result,low detection limits and short[10]F.C.Cheng,Y.Shih,Y.J.Liang,L.L.Yang,C.S.Yang,J.Chromatogr.B682(1996)195.analysis times can be obtained.The novel dialysis[11]F.C.Cheng,L.L.Yang,F.M.Chang,L.G.Chia,J.S.Kuo,J. device described in the present study is relativelyChromatogr.582(1992)19.simple in construction and is compatible with an[12]S.Maas,H.Jarry,A.Teichmann,W.Rath,W.Kuhn,W. on-line injection analyzer.The present study is Wuttke,J.Clin.Endocrinol.Metab.74(1992)306. relatively efficient,cost-effective,and less vulnerable[13]A.Miyamoto,D.Schams,Biol.Reprod.44(1991)1163.[14]Y.Shoji-Kasai,A.Yoshida,K.Sato,T.Hoshino,A.Ogura, to human error,as compared with conventionalS.Kondo,Y.Fujimoto,R.Kuwahara,R.Kato,M.Takahashi, studies in which a number of petri dishes are used.Science256(1992)1820.Indeed,the present study minimizes pretreatment[15]L.A.Greene,A.S.Tischler,A73 procedures for sample preparation,decreases pos-(1976)2424.sible contamination from sampling of culture[16]M.Schultzberg,C.Andersson,A.Under,M.Troye-Blom-berg,S.B.Svenson,T.Bartfai,Neuroscience30(1989)805. medium,and enhances the detection sensitivity of[17]H.M.Huang,L.S.Kao,J.Neurochem.66(1996)124. catecholamines in PC-12cell culture medium.Fur-[18]F.C.Cheng,J.S.Kuo,Y.Shih,i,D.R.Ni,L.G.Chia, thermore,this novel microdialysis device can also beJ.Chromatogr.B615(1993)225.applied to the measurement of chemical substances[19]L.A.Greene,A.S.Tischler,Adv.Cell.Neurobiol.3(1982) in other culture systems.373.[20]F.Bussolino,F.Tessari,F.Turrini,P.Braquet,G.Camussi,M.Prosdocimi,A.Bosia,Am.J.Physiol.255(24)(1988)C559.Acknowledgements[21]Y.Cheng,P.Wixom,M.R.James-Kracke, A.Y.Sun,J.Neurochem.63(1994)895.This study was supported in part by grants from[22]A.G.Kanthasamy,E.U.Madhu,R.W.Peoples,J.L.Borowitz,G.E.Isom,Toxicol.Appl.Pharmacol.110(1991)275. Taichung Veterans General Hospital(TCVGH-[23]G.K.Kumar,J.L.Overholt,G.R.Bright,K.Y.Hui,H.W.Lu, 897304C)and the National Science Council(NSC-M.Gratzl,N.R.Prabhakar,Am.J.Physiol.274(1998) 88-2113M-075A-002)of the Republic of China.C1592.[24]J.Odink,H.Sandman,W.H.P.Schreurs,J.Chromatogr.377(1986)145.[25]M.Picard, D.Olichon,J.Gombert,J.Chromatogr.341 References(1985)297.[26]G.Eisenhofer, D.S.Goldstein,R.Stull,H.R.Keiser,T.[1]T.E.Robinson,J.B.Justice Jr.(Eds.),Microdialysis in the Sunderland,D.L.Murphy,I.J.Kopin,Clin.Chem.32(1986)Neurosciences,Elsevier Science,Netherlands,1991,p.1.2030.[2]H.Yao,K.Fukiyama,Y.Takada,M.Fujishima,T.Omae,Jpn.Heart J.37(1985)593.。
physiology系列单词
physiology系列单词English Answer:Cardiovascular Physiology.The study of the heart and blood vessels.Includes the study of blood pressure, heart rate, and blood flow.The cardiovascular system is responsible for delivering oxygen and nutrients to the body's tissues and removing waste products.Renal Physiology.The study of the kidneys.Includes the study of urine formation, fluid and electrolyte balance, and acid-base balance.The renal system is responsible for filtering blood, removing waste products, and regulating fluid and electrolyte balance.Respiratory Physiology.The study of the lungs and breathing.Includes the study of gas exchange, lung volumes, and respiratory mechanics.The respiratory system is responsible for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the air.Gastrointestinal Physiology.The study of the digestive system.Includes the study of food digestion, absorption, and excretion.The gastrointestinal system is responsible for breaking down food into nutrients that can be absorbed into the bloodstream.Endocrine Physiology.The study of the endocrine system.Includes the study of hormones, their secretion, and their effects on target tissues.The endocrine system is responsible for regulating a wide range of bodily functions, including metabolism, growth, and reproduction.Neurophysiology.The study of the nervous system.Includes the study of neurons, synapses, and neural circuits.The nervous system is responsible for controlling movement, sensation, and thought.Neuromuscular Physiology.The study of the interaction between the nervoussystem and the muscular system.Includes the study of motor neurons, muscle fibers,and neuromuscular junctions.The neuromuscular system is responsible forcontrolling movement.Reproductive Physiology.The study of the reproductive systems.Includes the study of gamete production, fertilization, and pregnancy.The reproductive system is responsible for producingoffspring.Immunology.The study of the immune system.Includes the study of white blood cells, antibodies, and antigens.The immune system is responsible for protecting the body from infection.Physiology of Homeostasis.The study of how the body maintains a stable internal environment.Includes the study of thermoregulation, fluid and electrolyte balance, and acid-base balance.The homeostatic mechanisms of the body work together to maintain a stable internal environment that is essentialfor survival.中文回答：生理学。
buffering system in blood
Buffering system in blood Introduction to bufferBuffer,a agent noun from obsolete verb buff(“make a dull sound whenstruck”)(mid-16c.),from old French buffe(“blow”).[1]The etymology of the word somewhat implies its function compensation for changes in different conditions.Specifically,a buffer(more precisely,pH buffer or hydrogen ion buffer)is an aqueous solution containing a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugated base,or vice vers.When an acid or base is added to it, a buffer has the ability to minimize changes in pH and brings it back to its optimal value by addition or removal of hydrogen ions.[2][3]The working principles of buffer are in accordance with“The Equilibrium Law”,or morewell-known as Le Châtelier's principl.Specifically to a buffer,when its equilibrium of between the acid HA and its conjugate base A-−is subjected to change in concentration of hydrogen ions (or pH),then the buffer readjusts itself to(partially)counteract the effect of the applied change and a new equilibrium is established.[4]Buffer capacity,β,is a quantitative measure of the resistance of a buffer solution to pH changeon addition of hydroxide ions.It can be defined aswhere dn is an infinitesimal amount of added base and d(p[H+])is the resulting infinitesimal change in the cologarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.With this definition the buffer capacity of a weak acid,with a dissociation constant K a,can be expressed aswhere C A is the analytical concentration of the acid.[1][2]pH is defined as-log10[H+].The buffer capacity of a buffering agent is at a local maximum when p[H+]=pK a.[3]The Henderson-Hasselbalch equationdescribes the derivation of pH as a measure of acidity in biological and chemical systems.The equation is also useful for estimating the pH of a buffer solution and findingthe equilibrium pH in acid-base reactions(it is widely used to calculate the isoelectric point of proteins).[5]This equation is often used for preparing buffer of desired pH.Buffering system in bloodIn human body,the buffering system is crucial for the maintenance of homeostasis owing to its effect on keeping the acid-base equilibrium balanced.The biological buffering system is mainly composed of three parts--the dihydrogen phosphate system operates mainly in the internal fluid of all cells;the the bicarbonate buffering system mainly in blood and the protein buffer system works in both intracellular and extracellular fliud.However due to the interaction of intracellular and extracellular fliud,all buffering agents in the mentioned systems can be found in blood acounting for its important role in limiting changes in pH in human body.[6] Among three,the bicarbonate buffering system is mainly involved.The ideal range of pH in blood rge deviations from this range are extremely dangerous.Values greater than7.8or less than6.8often result in death.Any condition in which the blood blood pH drops below7.35is known as acidosis.If the pH rises above7.45,it is known as alkalosis.[7] Reactions and Kinetics of the Bicarbonate Buffer SystemConversion of CO2(g)to CO2(aq)In tissue,cellular respiration produces carbon dioxide as a by-product;this CO2is rapidly removed from the tissues by its hydration to bicarbonate ion via diffusion(due to partial pressure difference of CO2)into the blood stream,where it binds with hemoglobin in red blood cells, forming what we call carbaminohemoglobin.Finnaly it is carried to the lungs,andexhaled[8[9]The bicarbonate ion present in the blood plasma is transported to the lungs,where it is dehydrated back into CO2and released during exhalation as gas form.Hydration and dehydration conversions of CO2and H2CO3are basically slow,are facilitated by carbonic anhydrase in both the blood and duodenum.[10]The concentration of carbon dioxide dissolved in water,CO2(aq),follows Henry’s Law constant (K H)and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide gas[P CO2(g)].The Reversible Reaction Between CO2(aq)and H2O(l)to Form H2CO3Reaction2is composed of two separate steps.The reaction of CO2(aq)with water to formH2CO3is given by:The value for Kc is equal to the ratio for the hydration rate of CO2(aq)and the dehydration rate of H2CO3.hydration rate constant(k h)dehydration rate constants(k d)The Reversible Ionization of H2CO3to form HCO3−and H+The value for K a1shown in Reaction2is composed of the forward reaction rate(k a1f)for the ionization of carbonic acid to form HCO3−and H+and the reverse reaction rate(k a1r)where HCO3−reacts with H+to form H2CO3.The Overall Equilibrium Reaction Constant K aIt is often assumed that the entire reaction(Reaction2)is at equilibrium where K c and K a1are combined to give an overall K a value(Eqs.(6a)and(6b))and Reaction2is simplified to Reaction5.[11]Henderson-Hasselbalch equation and blood pHUnder normal conditions,the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation will give the blood pHWhere,6.1is the acid dissociation constant of carbonic acid(H2CO3)at physiological temperature; [HCO3－]is the concentration of bicarbonate in the blood in mmol/L;pCO2or PaCO2is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood in torrA change in[HCO3−]of10mEq/L will result in a change in pH of approximately0.15pH units in the same direction.[12][13]The normal bicarbonate level in blood is approximately24mmol/L and carbonic acid is about 1.2mmol/LAcidosis and AlkalosisAcidosis is a condition in which there is too much acid(pH drops below7.35)in the body fluids or blood is known as acidosis.It is the opposite of alkalosis,a condition in which thereis too much base(pH rises above7.45)in the body fluids.The kidneys and lungs maintain the proper balance of chemicals like bicarbonate,carbonate acid and amino acids.The CO2 generated in the buffering process is mainly exhaled through lungs while the generated Na+salts of the acids are eliminated from the body by the kidneys principally with NH4+[eg.NH4CL and (NH4)2SO4],in the process of excreting NH4+,the HCO3－is regenerated and returned to the blood to compensate the HCO3－lost.The working principles of buffer system and the functions of these two organs indicates some useful treatment for both abnormal acid-base equilibrium disorders.[14]Treatments for uncompensated metabolic acidosis is focused upon correcting the underlying problem.The metabolic acidosis is principally due to anaerobic cellular respiration produced metabolic acid like lactate acid.The condition can be improved by increasing PaO2and the diffusion of O2to cells.To increase the PaO2,the chemoreceptors is firstly stimulated by the increased PaCO2.The increase alveolar ventilation,leading to respiratory compensation. When metabolic acidosis is severe and can no longer be compensated adequately by lungs neutralizing the acidosis with infusions of bicarbonate may be required.[15]Acidosis can also results from hypercapnia(an abnormally high concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood)[16]due to hyperventilation.During chronic phase,partial buffering of acidosis through renal bicarbonate retention can help.If chronic diseases caused by acidosis compromise the pulmonary function,then the medical ventilation will be applied.[17]The treatments for alkalosis is,to some extend,contrary to that for acidosis.For respiratory alkalosis,in some cases,paper bags allow more carbon dioxide maintain in body,therefor shifting the equilibrium to the ionization direction.Respiratory acidosis and alkalosis often occur accompanied because of their delicate balance during interactional compensation.[18][19]For alkolosis caused by an electrolyte imbalance(such as chloride and potassium),the dietary supplyment will be helping and some acute conditions may need injection.[20]Acid–base homeostasis,as a crucial part of human homeostasis is very delicately maintained by biological buffering system containing three parts among which the blood buffering system accounts for a major portion.And its bicarbonate buffering system is most commonly studied. The functions of buffering system in blood still has great prospects in aspects of cellular biology,drug administration and the treatment for many diseases.References1.https:///wiki/buffer#Etymology2.Worthley LI.Hydrogen ion metabolism.Anaesth Intensive Care1977Nov;5(4)347-60. pmid:23014.3.https:///wiki/Buffer_solution4.https:///wiki/Le_Chatelier%27s_principle5.https:///wiki/Henderson%E2%80%93Hasselbalch_equation6./chemweek/biobuff/biobuffers.html7.http://w /tm-ps/chm/100/dgodambe/thedisk/bloodbuf/zback.htm8.David Sadava...[et;Bell,David R.(2014).Life:The Science of Biology(10th ed.).Sunderland, MA:Sinauer Associates.ISBN9781429298643.9.McKinley,Michael(2012).Human Anatomy(3rd Ed).New York:McGraw Hill.pp.638–643, 748.ISBN978-0-07-337809-1.10.Bear,R.A.;Dyck,R.F.(1979-01-20)."Clinical approach to the diagnosis of acid-base disorders.".Canadian Medical Association Journal120(2):173–182.ISSN0008-4409.PMC1818841.PMID76114511.”In Vivo Predictive Dissolution:Transport Analysis of the CO2,Bicarbonate In Vivo Buffer System”Brian J.Kring,1Seyed Mohammad Taghavi,2Gordon L.Amidon,1Gregory E.Amidon1 Published online11September2014in Wiley Online Library().DOI 10.1002/jps.2410812.https:///wiki/Arterial_blood_gas13.https:///wiki/Bicarbonate_buffering_system14."The Kidney and Acid-base Regulation"Bruce M.Koeppen.Advances in Physiology Education Publish1December2009Vol.33no.4,275-281DOI:10.1152/advan.00054.200915.https:///w/index.php?title=Acidosis&oldid=68305721116./hypercapnia17.https:///w/index.php?title=Acidosis&oldid=68305721118.https:///wiki/Alkalosis19.https:///medlineplus/ency/article/001181.htm20.https:///wiki/Alkalosis。
神经酰胺–皮肤屏障修复明星(附产品推荐)
神经酰胺–皮肤屏障修复明星（附产品推荐) -神经酰胺是近年来开发出的最新一代保湿剂，它和构成皮肤角质层的物质结构相近，能很快渗透进皮肤，和角质层中的水结合，形成一种网状结构，锁住水分。
随着年龄加大和进入老年期，人体皮肤中存在的神经酰胺会渐渐减少，干性皮肤和粗糙皮肤型等皮肤异常症状的出现也是由于神经酰胺量减少所致。
因此要防止这类皮肤异常，补充神经酰胺是较理想的办法。
今天我们就来叨叨一下神经酰胺的前世今生。
一、什么是神经酰胺？神经酰胺是一种天然纯在于皮肤里的脂质。
神经酰胺在皮肤表面形成了一层防水的屏障。
它们不仅能帮助皮肤锁住水分，还能促进皮肤屏障自我修复及调控皮肤细胞。
初生婴儿的皮肤往往裹着一层蜡质一样的物质。
这种物质叫做胎脂，主要由神经酰胺组成，可以防止皮肤水分流失。
皮肤中神经酰胺的分泌会随着年龄增长而减少，进而引起皮肤干燥，皱纹以及一些皮肤炎症。
从其化学结构上看，神经酰胺由神经鞘氨醇长链碱基（占结构~50%）和一个脂肪酸组成。
不同的神经鞘氨醇碱基和脂肪酸组合形成不同的神经酰胺。
目前发现了9种天然形成的神经酰胺。
除此以外，还有植物神经酰胺（phytoceramides），类神经酰胺（psuedoceramides）和合成神经酰胺（synthetic ceramides）。
神经酰胺：一种天然纯在于皮肤里的蜡脂质。
由长链的鞘氨醇碱基和一个脂肪酸组成。
植物神经酰胺：构成其的鞘氨醇碱基常见于酵母，植物以及一些哺乳动物的细胞组织。
不要被名字里的“植物二字”混淆了。
类神经酰胺：也是一种脂质，跟神经酰胺属性相似但结构不同。
例如，神经酰胺 E 与花生酰胺 MEA 都是类神经酰胺。
类神经酰胺通常都是人工合成的，但可能也有天然存在的形式。
合成神经酰胺：人工合成天然存在的神经酰胺。
大多数情况下，化妆品里使用的神经酰胺都是合成的（无论是神经酰胺还是类神经酰胺），因为植物中的神经酰胺含量太低，而从动物中提取又太昂贵。
不管是合成的还是天然萃取的，只要化学结构一样，就能达到一样的效果。
有机化学牛人博客
近年来随着中国对基础研究的经费投入不断增加，中国在基础研究领域取得了长足发展，个人感觉以下10人在化学领域年富力强，所作工作都属国际水平，国内领先。
由于个人学识有限，观点难免有失偏颇，还请见谅。
加之不同研究领域不好作出比较，本人主要参考依据是其所发文章，及其引用次数，排在后面的几位尽管还不是院士，所发IF>5.0的paper基本也都有30篇左右，国内同一水平的学者应该还可以找出一些，但要明显高出这10人的恐怕没有几位。
纯属一家之言，还望各位大仙指正！No.1 侯建国院士——中国科技大学（选键化学）他的工作国外同行比较关注，作了副校长依旧发science，鱼和熊掌他兼得了！No.2 李灿院士——中科院大连化物所（催化化学）天才出于勤奋，科学乐在其中！No.3 麻生明院士——中科院上海有机所（金属有机化学）他是在两家权威杂志上《Chemical Reviews》，《Accounts of Chemical Research》都撰写过文章的的唯一大陆学者，最年轻的院士。
No.4.吴奇院士——香港中文大学（高分子化学）美国物理学会会士，他2003年评上院士时，有130篇文章的IF>3.0No.5 吴云东院士——香港科技大学（理论有机化学）50多篇jacs，05年上的院士应该没有人不服吧！No.6 高濂——中科院上海硅酸盐所（无机材料化学）他是大陆仅有2位论文被高频引用的学者之一。
不晓得为什么就是上不了院士。
No.7 李亚栋——清华大学（无机化学）他是正宗本土培养的青年才俊，土鳖可以做的比海龟更为出色No.8 赵东元——复旦大学（分子筛材料）已经是全国劳模，明师出高徒。
与当年哈佛同门杨，冯等人相比，只有他选择了回国。
No.9 江雷——中科院化学所（界面材料化学）很年轻就坐上863首席，不仅仅是血气方刚。
化学所第一牛人。
No.10 杨丹——香港大学（生命有机化学）香港十大杰出青年国外的牛人多,牛人写的牛博客更多,各位虫友有拿得出手的有机化学牛人博客吗能分享下吗化学牛人主页在校内网上看到一同学收集的化学牛人主页，顺便和大家分享一下有机合成方法学（含Organometallics）：1. B.M. Trost（Stanford University）课题组网址：/group/bmtrost/(其实Trost也做全合成也做方法学的)2. J.F. Hartwig（University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign）课题组网址：/hartwig/3. K.B. Sharpless (The Scripps Research Institute)课题组网址：/chem/sharpless/4. E.J. Corey ( Harvard University)课题组网址：/research/faculty/elias_corey.php（其实Corey是既做方法学又做全合成的）5. R.H. Grubbs (California Institute of Technology)课题组网址：/faculty/grubbs/index.html6. R.R. Schrock (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)课题组网址：/rrs/www/home.html7. S.L. Buchwald (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)（铜催化和钯催化比较多）课题组网址：/chemistry/buchwald/8. R. Larock (Iowa State University)课题组网址：/faculty/Richard_Larock/9. P.E. Jacobsen (Harvard University)/groups/Jacobsen/index.html10.Yoshinori Yamamoto (Tohoku University)课题组网址：http://hanyu.chem.tohoku.ac.jp/~web/lab/pages/e/index.html11.David W.C. MacMillan (Princeton University)课题组网址：/~dmacgr/index.html还有很多人也很牛，有些不比上面列的人差，比如：李朝军（McGill university）, Oshima Koichiro (Kyoto University), M.C. White (University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign)，Phil S. Baran(The Scripps Research Institute).全合成（Total Synthesis）:1.K.C. Nicolaou (The Scripps Research Institute)课题组网址：/chem/nicolaou/课题组网址：/3.A.B. Smith (University of Pennsylvania)课题组网址：/absgroup/rry E. Overman （University of California, Irvine）课题组网址：/LEO/index.html5.Samuel Danishefsky （Columbia University）课题组网址：超分子化学Peter J. Stang（University of Utah）课题组网址：/faculty/stang/微流控芯片:1.R.N. Zare (Stanford University )课题组网址：/group/Zarelab/2.J.M. Ramsey(University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill)课题组主页：/people/f ... jmrgroup/index.html 分子反应动力学：A.H. Zewail（California Institute of Technology）课题组网址：/~femto/index.html Nanoscience&Nanochemistry:1.M.G. Bawendi (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)课题组网址：/课题组网址：/~heathgrp/3.戴宏杰(Stanford University)课题组网址：/dept/chemistry/faculty/dai/index.html4.杨培东(University of California, Berkeley)课题组网址：/pdygrp/main.html5.王中林(Georgia Institute of Technology)课题组网址：/pdygrp/main.html（王中林氧化锌纳米材料做的比较多）6. 夏幼南(Washington University in St. Louis.)课题组网址：/7. C. Lieber (Harvard University)课题组网址: /8. G. Whitesides (Harvard University)课题组网址：/（Whitesides组的方向很多微流控，纳米等都做，姑且把他放到纳米里吧）9.C.Mirkin（Northwestern University ）课题组网址：/mirkingroup/还有鲍哲南做的也很好。
病原分子生物学-总论
疾病
成人T细胞白血病/淋巴瘤 莱姆病 艾滋病（AIDS） 出血性肠炎 溶血尿毒综合征 胃炎 胃出血 胃癌 幼儿急疹（婴儿玫瑰疹） 肠道外传播非甲非乙型肝炎 肠道外传播非甲非乙型肝炎 新类型霍乱 猫抓病 细菌性血管瘤 汉坦病毒肺综合征 非A-C肝炎 新型变异克鲁兹非德得-雅柯病 流感 脑炎
SARS 甲流 细菌感染
Robert Gallo, MD
Director, Institute of Human Virology and Division of Basic Science, University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute snallo@
Rodents(?)
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Chimpanzees
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HIV-2
Primates
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Bats
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vCJD
Cattle
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H5N1 influenza A virus
Examples of human pathogens emerging via species jump
参考文献目录
参考文献目录第一章疾病概论[1]肖献忠. 病理生理学[M]. 2版. 北京：高等教育出版社，2008.[2]金惠铭，王建枝. 病理生理学[M]. 7版. 北京：人民卫生出版社，2008[3]Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molecular biology of the cell [M], 5th ed, New Y ork,Garland Science, 2008.[4]Huether SE, McCance KL. Understanding Pathophysiology [M], 4th ed, St. Louis, MO,Mosby Elsevier, 2008.[5]Copstead LC, Banasik JL. Pathophysiology [M], 4th ed, St. Louis, Missouri, Saunders Elsevier,2010[6]Gerber A, Hentzelt F, Lauterbach KW. Can evidence-based medicine implicitly rely oncurrent concepts of disease or does it have to develop its own definition [J]? J Med Ethics 2007; 33(7): 394-9.[7]Ideker T, Sharan R. Protein networks in disease [J]. Genome Res 2008; 18(4): 644-52.[8]Holtz TH, Holmes SM, Stonington S, et al. Health is still social: contemporary examples inthe age of the genome [J]. PLoS Med 2006; 3(10): e419.[9]Baudot A, Gómez-López G, V alencia A. Translational disease interpretation with molecularnetworks [J]. 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changing pCO2 via altered respiratory function
In the right panel. The red lines represent the influence of non CO2/HCO3- buffering systems. Point A1 would occur if these did not exist. Point A if these exist at 25 mM/pH (normal for whole blood) ,
pH = k + KIDNEY / LUNG
(Not a real reaction equation, but rather a descriptive relationship between the regulating components of pH in the body)
Respiratory Acidosis is the inability of the lungs to eliminate CO2 efficiently; so the equilibrium shifts toward increased H+ and HCO3-; therefore, pH decreases. Respiratory Alkalosis is excessive loss of CO2 through ventilation driving the equilibrium to the left away from H+ therefore, pH increases.
CO2 + H2O HCO3- + H+ + B(n) HB(n+1)
Now, the final pH depends on two buffering pathways that affect the [H+] with two different equilibria equations.
In biological systems, the total buffering of pH and the effects of acid-base disturbances is due to a complex interaction of many buffering systems, open and closed, with differing buffering capacities.
Acidosis will shift the balance to the left, and alkalosis will shift it to the right.
Since respiratory disturbances will shift the amount of HCO3- in solution the opposite of CO2, then respiratory acidosis will be in the top left, and respiratory alkalosis in the lower right corner of the nomogram.
Acid-base Distrubances in the pH
The abnormal loss of acid (as in vomiting gastric HCl) or addition of a weak base can lead to the condition of Metabolic Alkalosis: increasing pH above 7.4.
In contrast, abnormal removal of HCO3- or another alkali or addition of acids other than CO2 or H2CO3 (as can happen in renal failure) can lead to Metabolic Acidosis: decreasing pH below 7.4.
CO2 + H2O H+ + HCO3-
CO2 is constantly formed in the cells as the by-product of metabolic processes. Therefore there is a constant need to get rid of it. If the metabolic formation of CO2 increases, the pCO2 increases, and the ventilation rate must increase to accommodate this change to try and bring the extracellular fluid into equilibrium.
Davenport diagram: the blue curve is the pCO2 isobar represents the relationship between pH and HCO3 at a pCO2 of 40 mmHg. Orange line is in respiratory alkalosis (pCO2 =
2. The respiratory center which regulates the removal of volatile CO2 as a gas in the expired air from the plasma and therefore also regulates bicarbonate (HCO3-) from the body fluids via the pulmonary circulation. This response occurs in minutes.
all HB (n+1) H+ + all B (n)
Predictions of the effects of these disturbances is done using a
“Davenport Diagram.”
Combining chemical buffers with CO2/HCO3 such that
Negative feedback loop of H+ and alveolar ventilation
The respiratory buffering system is a buffering system with limited gain; ie, it can’t completely compensate for changes in pH (only 50-75% compensation), but the relative speed at which it can make significant changes in pH makes it efficient, and helps buffer pH changes until the renal excretion of acids and bases comes into play.
Also, the [H+] can affect the ventilation rate, since ventilation rate is directly stimulated by the pO2 because the pH directly affects the solubility of blood for O2. Increased pH decreases O2 and reflexively increases ventilation rate to increase O2 intake, thereby venting out CO2.
3. The kidneys which can excrቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱte either acid or alkaline urine, thereby adjusting the pH of the blood. This response takes place over hours or even days, but represent a more powerful regulatory system.
Since the pH of a CO2/HCO3- solution depends upon the ratio of these 2 buffer pairs, and because the lungs control CO2, but the kidney controls HCO3, the overall description of their interaction might be described as
Acid-Base Physiology
The pH of the body is controlled by 3 systems:
1. The chemical acid-base buffering by the body fluids that immediately combine with acids or base to prevent excessive changes in pH.
Respiratory Acidosis: CO2 + H2O H+ + HCO3-
Respiratory Alkalosis: CO2 + H2O H+ + HCO3-
Normally, 1.2 M/L of CO2 is dissolved in plasma, which is a pCO2 of 40 mmHg.