修辞学讲义-2

Chapter Two Communicative (Passive) RhetoricThree levels of rhetorical operationRhetoric involves choice of words, sentence patterns, figures of speech, organization of paragraphs and composition. This process can be broken into three basic levels: Level One: words and phrasesLevel Two: sentence varietyLevel Three: organizing paragraphs into a complete textChoice of Words●Using suitable wordsCharacteristic of English vocabulary: include over a half-million words, and thousands of new ones are added every year.Principles of choosing words: To communicate our ideas precisely and effectively, we should choose the right words that are exact, fresh, vivid, and appropriate.◆Choose the most appropriate words:✧Mother Teresa is notorious for her work with the poor and sick in India.✧Because he did not know either party, the arbitrator was able to take an uninterestedview of the dispute.✧The businessperson has upheld a reputation for deception and deceit.◆Be aware of the audience or readers and suit to the occasion:✧Jack's house was destroyed by fire. Jim went to comfort him and asked him tocontact the insurance company. "Cheer up, my friend," he said, "your insuranceclaim will be proceeding like a house on a fire, I'm sure."●Denotation and connotationDefinitions◆Denotation is the specific, direct, and literal meaning of a word, as described in adictionary definition. It is also called denotative meaning or explicit meaning.✧ A man was killed and his son was seriously injured in an automobile accident. Theboy was rushed to a hospital. The surgeon took one look at him and said, "This ismy son! I can't operate on him!"◆Connotation is the associative or suggestive meaning of a word. It often implies attitudes,emotions, etc. of the speaker or writer, and is also called implicit meaning.✧"Proverb" would be the appropriate word to use in reference to saying from theBible.✧"Saw" is often used in reference to the wisdom handed down to us anonymously.✧"Epigram" is often used in reference to a witty statement.Words may have positive and negative connotations✧She has a slender figure.✧She looked thin after her illness.✧The child has skinny, freckled legs with prominent knees.✧The old horse was bony.Words have historical and social connotations✧It may yet compound the misery of Iraq in the same way Watergate followedVietnam.✧The old man is in the twilight of his career.Words have personal and general connotations✧Mother, home, peace, liberty✧Miser, radical, reactionary●General words and specific wordsDefinitions: general words refer to a group or class; specific words refer to a member of that class.✧Eiseley wrote about people prominent in science.✧Eiseley wrote about Darwin, Einstein and Franklin.✧They were specially concerned with astronomy.✧They were specially concerned with the solar system.2) Proprieties in writing or speaking specifically or generally The specific words tend togive color and tang, tend to appeal to the imagination. General words often used for thesake of diplomacy. Good writing or speaking has both general and specific information.✧He saw a ship/liner/ brig/ bark/ tank/ cargo steamer on the horizon.✧Some employees have been tying up the office phones with personal call.3) Approaches to write or speak in a specific way:◆Choosing words that bring about specific instead of vague ideas✧She uses simplicity in her style of writing.✧She writes with plain words and simple sentence patterns.✧The new expressway will shorten the journey between the two cities a great deal.✧The new expressway will shorten the journey between the two cities by 30 percent.◆Listing specific details✧Near the water there was a big tree that was rather impressive.✧On the edge of the pond, at the far side, there was an enormous walnut tree(胡桃树)，standing like an open umbrella whose ribs(枝干)extended halfway across thestill water of the pool.◆Using illustrative examples✧In this century, the president is much more cut off from contact with the peoplethan in earlier times. Ordinary citizens, for example, could get to see AbrahamLincoln directly in the White House and make their requests to him in person.●Abstract words and concrete wordsDefinitions: A concrete word has an object as its referent, while an◆abstract word，a concept. For example, peach, pear, apple and apricot are concrete words.Sweetness, fuzziness and softness are abstract words because they refer to certainqualities or certain concepts or ideas.◆Relationship between abstract/ concrete words and general/specific words:Abstract words and general words usually do not overlap. But this is not the case with concrete words and specific words. Words that refer to particular objects and particular actions are usually both concrete or specific.◆Both abstract/general words and concrete/specific words have their own advantages:●Long words and short words1) From a stylistic point of view, words that are often used may be divided into threetypes: formal, common, and colloquial words. Long words often refer to the formalwords and some common words, while short words often refer to colloquial words andsome common words.✧(1)a. If you wish to cash a cheque, please let us know well before youleave.✧ b. In order to substantiate our desire to accommodate our guests,we would appreciate your co-operation in anticipating your creditrequirements before your departure.Formal words also called learned words or big words mainly appear in formal writing, such as scholarly or theoretical writing, political and legal documents, and formallectures. Most of formal words are of Greek, Latin or French origin. Except for specialpurpose formal words are seldom used in daily conversation. So, we must useappropriate words according to the formality of the situation.✧According to a Native American myth, the Great Creator had dog hanging aroundwith him when he created the earth.✧ b. According to a Native American myth, the Great Creator was accompanied by adog when he created the earth.✧I've gotta be in court at nine on Tuesday morning. For sure I won't be back in timefor Walker's bio test. Hope the old guy lets me take a makeup.✧Excuse me, sir. I have to be in court next Tuesday and so I have to be absent fromthe biology test. Would it be possible for me to take it at some later time?I Questions1. What is the relationship between denotation and connotation? Give examples to prove that words have denotative and connotative meanings.2. What are the rhetorical functions of general words and specific words in our writing and speaking. Show examples to support your point.3. What are the rhetorical functions of abstract words and concrete words in our writing and speaking? Show examples to support your point.II Choose the correct word(s) to complete each sentence.I. The _________( preceding / proceeding ) message was brought to us by General Motors.2. He says he would write an English course book if he could find a(n)______ _( accomplice/ collaborator ) to deal with the 1ess interesting parts.3. The whole audience was ______( affected/infected ) by her sad story and many burst into tears.4. If you put too many potatoes in that bag, it will ( burst /crack ),5. For many years, Mark has been suffering from the (delusion / illusion) that he is a great man.6. I cannot _________( tolerate/suffer) any more of your nonsense.1. Changing from solid to liquid, water takes in heat from all substances near it, and this _______ (transition/absorption) produces artificial cold surrounding it.8, I didn't say anything like that at all. You are purposely ____( revising/ distorting) my ideas to prove your point.9. I ( acknowledge /express ) with thanks the help of my colleagues in the preparation of this new column.My uncle went to the police station to (claim/ demand) the lost watch.。