语用学笔记
邢福义《语言学概论》(第2版)复习笔记和课后习题详解(语用学)【圣才出品】
第6章语用学
6.1 复习笔记【知识框架】
【考点归纳】
考点一：语用和语用学
1．语言运用（语用）
语言运用是指交际双方在一定场合，为着一定目的，以某种方式进行的话语表达和话语理解的活动。
表6-1 语言运用（语用）
2．语用学
（1）语用学的兴起
表6-2 语用学的兴起
（2）语用学的任务
表6-3 语用学的任务
（3）语用学与相关学科
表6-4 语用学与相关学科
考点二：语言环境
1．含义
语言环境（context）简称语境。
语境是语用研究中的一个核心概念。
语境有狭义和广义之分。
表6-5 语言环境的含义
2．语境的构成
语境是由影响言语交际的各种相关因素构成的，主要包括语言内部的上下文语境和语言外部的情景语境、背景语境。
表6-6 语境的构成
3．语境的功能
语境的功能指语境对意义的表达和理解所产生的影响，语境并不是独立地发挥功能，而是参与、协助话语的表达和理解。
可以分别从话语的表达和话语的理解两个角度考察语境的功能。
表6-7 语境的功能
考点三：语用原则
1．合作原则
表6-8 合作原则。
英语专业语用学考试笔记
一、名词解释1、Psychological distance: it may be that the truly pragmatic basis of special deixis is actually psychological. Physically close objects will tend to be treated by the speaker as psychologically close. Also ,sth that is physically distant will generally be treated as psychologically distant.2、Reference: reference is an act in which a speaker, or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener, or reader, to identify something.3、inference: Inference is the act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true.4、Presupposition: a presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance, speakers, not sentences, have presupposition.5、Entailment: an entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance, sentences, not speakers, have entailments.6、Face,: face means the public self-image of a person. It refers that emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize.7、Politeness: in an interaction, can then be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person's face.二、简答题1、what's pragmatics ? T ypes of it.P r agmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker( or writer) and interpreted by a listener{or reader}①pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning.②pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning.③pragmatics is the study of how more gets it communicated than is said.④pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance.2、what's deixis ?Deixis is a technical term( from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterance. It means 'pointing' via language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this 'pointing' is called a deictic expression. Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexicals. They are among the first forms to be broken by very young children and can be used to indicate people via person deixis( me, you), or location via spatial deixis( here, there), or time via temporal deixis( now, then).3、T ypes of presupposition.①The existential presupposition is not only assumed to be present in possessive construction ( for example, ' your car '>> 'you have a car)②The presupposed information following a verb like ' know ' can be treated as a fact, and is described as a factive presupposition, such as …realize‟ and …regret‟..③General speaking, in lexical presupposition, the use of one form with its asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another ( non-asserted ) meaning is understood, such as …stop‟, …star‟, and…again‟.④In addition to presupposition which are associated with the use of certain words and phrases, there are also structural presupposition. ( for example, when did he leave? >> he left. / where did you buy the bike ? >> you bought the bike. )⑤A non-factive presupposition is one that is assumed not to be true. ( example, I dreamed that I was rich.>> I was not rich/ we imagined we were in Hawaii.>>we were not in Hawaii. / hepretends to be ill.>>he is not ill. )⑥At end of the discussion of deixis, a structure that is interpreted with a non-factivepresupposition. Indeed, this type of structure creates a counter-factual presupposition, meaning that what is presupposed is not only true, but is the opposite of what is true, or ' contrary ' to ' facts'.( example, if you were my friend, you would have helped me.>>you are not my friend.)4.Cooperation and implicature.The cooperative principle: Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at stage it which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.①Quantity,i.Make your contribution as informative as is required ( for the current purposes of theexchange).b)Do you make your contribution more informative than is required.②Quality. Try to make your contribution one that is true.a)Do not say what what you believe to be false.b)Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.③Relation. Be relevant.④Manner. Be perspicuous.a)A void obscurity of expression.b)A void ambiguity.c)Be brief( avoid unnecessary prolixity).d)Be orderly.Properties of conversational implicatures1.Conversational implicatures are deniable. They can be explicitly denied(or alternatively,reinforced) in different ways.2.Implicatures can be calculated by the listeners via inference. In terms of their definingproperties, then, conversational implicatures can be calculated, suspended, cancelled, and reinforced.Speech actThe action performed by producing an utterance will consist of three related acts.1.Locutionary act, which is the basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguisticexpression,2.The illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance.3.Depending on the circumstances, you will utter on the assumption that the hearer willrecognize the effect you intended. This is also generally known as the perlocutionary effect.Positive and negative politenessA positive politeness atrategy leads the requester to appeal to a common goal, and even friendship,via expressions such as those in the following example(a. how about letting me use your pen? b.hey, buddy, I‟d appreciate it if you‟d let me use your pen.)However, in most English-speaking contexts, a face saving act is more commonly performed via a negative politeness strategy. For example(a. could you lend me a pen? B. I‟m sorry to bother you, but can I ask you for a pen or something? C. I know you are busy, but might I ask you if-em-if you happen to have an extra pen that I could,you know-eh-maybe borrow?)三、论述题1. Speech act classification.①Declaration are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their utterance. ( example. Priest: I now pronounce your husband and wife./ Referee: you're out. / Jury Foreman: we find the defendant guilty.)In using a declaration, the speaker changes the world via words.②Representatives are those kind of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to be the case or not. ( example. The earth is flat. / Chomsky didn't write about peanuts. / it was a warm sunny day.)In using representative, the speaker makes the words fit the world( of belief)③Expressive are those kind of speech acts that state what the speaker feels. ( example. I'm really sorry. / congratulations / Oh, yes, great, mmmm, ssahh. )In using an expression, the speaker makes words fit the world( of feeling).④Directives are those kinds of speech that speakers use to get someone else to do something. (example. Gimme a cup of coffee. Make it black. / could you lend me a pen, please?/ don't touch that.In using a directive, the speaker attempts to make the world fit the words( via the hearer).⑤Commissives are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to some future action. ( I'll be back/ I'm going to get it right next time/ we will not do that. ) In using a commissive, the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words (via the speaker)These five general functions of speech acts, with there key features, are summarized in Table 6. I.The role of co-text1.The co-text clearly limits the range of possible interpretations we might have for a word like“Brazil”. It is consequently misleading to think of reference being understood solely in terms of our ability to identity referents via the referring expression. The referring expression actually provides a range of reference, that is, a number of possible referents.2.Of course, co-text is just a linguistic part of the environment in which a referring expression Iused. The physical environment, or context, is perhaps more easily recognized as having a powerful impact on how referring expressions are to be interpreted.3.Reference are depends on local context and the local knowledge of the participants. It maycrucially depend on familiarity with the local socio-cultural conventions as the basis for inference (for example, if a person is in a hospital with an illness, then he or she can be identified by nurses via the name of illness). These conventions may differ substantially from one social group to another and may be marked differently from one language to another.Reference, then, is not simply a relationship between the meaning of a word or phrase and an object or person in the world. It is a social act, in which the speaker assumes that the word or phrase chosen to identify an object or person will be interpreted as the speaker intend.。
邢福义《语言学概要》笔记和课后习题详解(语用学)【圣才出品】
圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
③修辞学与语用学区别 a．研究目的不同 第一，修辞学是规范的、实用性的，注重修辞技巧； 第二，语用学是解释的，通过分析语用活动，建立意义解释理论，寻找语用规律。 b．研究方法不同 第一，修辞学主要运用归纳法，如修辞格的确立、语言变异的表现方式等； 第二，语用学以理论解释和推理分析为主。 c．研究兴趣和学科传统不同 第一，修辞学以辞格、句子、词语的交际特色、语体风格等为研究对象； 第二，语用学以言语行为、会话结构、预设、含义、指示语、信息结构等为研究对象。
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圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
c．语用学研究符号与使用者之间的关系。 它研究特定情景中的特定话语，特别是不同语言交际环境下如何运用语言。 ②语用分析、语法分析 a．语用分析 第一，着眼于“现用状态”的活的动态的语言； 第二，看重要素和过程； 第三，语用分析是一组策略和原则，透过语法运用达到成功的信息交流。 b．语法分析 第一，着眼于“备用状态”的静态语言； 第二，看重部件和结构； 第三，语法分析是一个产生和解释信息的抽象形式系统。 （3）语用学与相关学科 ①语用学与语义学 其关系如前所述。（见 1.3.2） ②语用学与社会语言学 a．社会语言学 第一，以一个社会内部言语共同体的语言状况为研究对象； 第二，把言语交际活动看作一种社会行为； 第三，重点研究言语行为规范与其他行为规范的相互差异，揭示形成差异的社会根源、 地位、作用、特征、表现。 b．语用学 研究交际活动本身——语言材料在使用过程中的价值，尤其是语境决定的价值。
二、语用原则 1．合作原则 （1）提出 美国哲学家格赖斯 1967 年提出了合作原则。 ①言语交际双方遵循合作原则来达到预期的目的； ②当说话人故意或者被迫违反某些合作原则，听话人可能上当受骗，可能知道对方不愿 意合作，也可能透过话语字面意思领会说话人的言外之意，即会话含义。 （2）内容 ①真实准则 要求说话人所说话语是真实的，不能说假话或缺乏根据的话。 ②适量准则
语言学笔记The-Use-of-English
The Use of English8.1 Pragmatic Approach to Language8.1.1Pragmatics（语用学）It is the study of meaning in use. meaning in context. speaker meaning. contextual meaning.Pragmatics studies communication (utterance production and comprehension) from a functional (i.e. social, cultural, cognitive) perspective.8.1.2 Semantics(语义学) V.S PragmaticsSemanticism: semantics includes pragmaticsPragmaticism: pragmatics includes semanticsComplementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.8.2 Deictic Expressions （指示语）8.2.1DeixisDeixis: (from Greek) anchoring, pointing (toward the context) phenomenon.The linguistic means used in this function are known as deictics, indexicals ( or indexical / deictic expressions).Examples: pronouns, demonstratives, time and place adverbs, and some grammatical categories such as tense.8.2.2 Characteristics in useThe egocentricity of deixisDeictic expressions are anchored to specific points in the communicative event. The unmarked points, called the deictic center, are typically assumed to be as follows (S. Levinson: Pragmatics): I love this game!1) the central person is the speaker2) the central time is the time at which the speaker produces the utterance3) the central place is the speaker’s location at utterance time4) the discourse center is the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of his utterance5) the social center is the speaker’s social status and rank, to which the status or rank of addressees or referents is relative.8.2.3 Deictic VS. Non-deicticDeictic: gestural/symbolicYou, you, but not you, are dismissed. (gestural)What did you say? (Symbolic)Non-deictic: anaphoric /non-anaphoricJack is a student. He comes from Britain.You can never tell what sex they are nowadays.There you go again./There we go.I did this and that.8.2.4 Classification of deicticPerson deixisPlace deixisTime deixisSocial deixisDiscourse deixis8.3 Speech Act TheorySaying is acting. (John Austin, How to Do Things with Words, 1962)“Speech acts” refer to actions performed via utterances.Speech acts are “the basic or minimal units of linguistic communication”.8.3.1 Constatives (表述句）and performatives （施为句）a. There is a book on the desk.b. I promise I’ll be there ten sharp tomorrow.hereby-test: first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice, performative verbs (with exceptions, though)8.3.3 Collapse of Performative Hypothesisa. Not all performative utterances require a performative verb;b. An utterance with a performative verb may not be the type of act suggested by the verb;8.3.4 felicity conditions （适切条件）a. Essential condition （基本条件）b. Preparatory condition (预备条件）c. Propositional content condition （命题内容条件）d. Sincerity condition （真诚条件）Felicity conditions for a promise:1) The speaker can do what is promised; (基本）2）The promised act has not taken place yet; (预备）3）The utterance is about a future act; The promised act is to the benefit of the hearer; The promised act will be fulfilled by the speaker;（命题内容）4) The speaker means what he says. （真诚）etc.Searle’s classification of illocutionary actsRepresentatives/assertives（阐述类）describe, inform, deny, state, claim, assert, remind, etc.Directives （指令类）:request, ask, urge, tell, demand, order, advise, command, beseech, etc.Commissives （承诺类）:commit, promise, threaten, pledge, consent, refuse, offer, guarantee, etc.Expressives （表达类）:apologize, boast, thank, deplore, welcome, congratulate, greet, etc.Declarations （宣告类）:declare, resign, appoint, nominate, bless, christen, name, etc.8.4 Presupposition8.4.1Presupposition and entailment8.4.2Presupposition triggers: linguistics device that make inference possible.9.1 Cooperation in using English9.1.1Cooperative PrincipleMake your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.H. P. Grice, Logic and Conversation, 19759.1.2Maxims of the principleQuality: Be truthful.a. Do not say what you believe to be false.b. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Quantity: Be informative.a. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange)b. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.Relation: Be relevant.Make sure that whatever you say is relevant to the conversation at hand.Manner: Be perspicuous (明晰).a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief(avoid unnecessary prolixity)d. Be orderly.9.1.3 ImplicatureIt is a kind of extra meaning that is not contained in the utterance. When any of the maxims is blatantly(公然地) violated and the hearer knows that it is being violated, a particular conversational implicature arises.9.1.4 Some properties of conversational implicatureA. It can be cancelled, either by an explicit declaration that the speaker is opting out or, implicitly, by the co-text and context.(cancellability可取消性)B. It can be inferred (calculability可推导性)Ways to calculate an implicature:a.The conventional meaning of the words used, and the references of referring expressions;b.the cooperative principle and its maxims;c.the co-text and context;d.background knowledge;e.the supposition that all participants suppose that all relevant items falling under(1)-(4) are available to them all.1 Since I have good reason to believe that she has information about X’s writing skills, the speaker has deliberately failed to observe (flouted) the maxim “Be informative”2 But I have no reason to believe that she has really opted out of the cooperativeprinciple. So, she is only being apparently uninformative.3 If I draw the inference that X hasn’t got very good writing skills, then the speaker is being cooperative. She knows that I am capable of working this out.4 Therefore, she has implied (or “implicated”to use Grice’s term) that the student’s writing skills are not very good.C.It may be indeterminate:in many cases,the list of possible implicatures of an utterance is open.(indeterminacy不确定性)D.Non-detachability [given the same proposition]9.2 Politeness in using English9.2.1Leech’s Politeness PrincipleMinimize (other things being equal) the expression of impolite beliefs andMaximize (other things being equal) the expression of polite beliefs.9.2.2The 6 maxims of Leech’s PPTact MaximMinimize cost to otherMaximize benefit to otherGenerosity MaximMinimize benefit to selfMaximize cost to selfApprobation MaximMinimize dispraise of otherMaximize praise of otherMaxim of modestyMinimize praise of selfMaximize dispraise of selfAgreement MaximMinimize disagreement between self and otherMaximize agreement between self and otherSympathy MaximMinimize antipathy between self and otherMaximize sympathy between self and other9.2.3Politeness scale:DirectnessCost - benefit9.3 Face considerations in using EnglishFace, the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself, consisting in two related aspects:Negative face and positive faceAccording to Brown and Levinson (1978/1987)Negative face: the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distractioni.e. to the freedom of action and freedom from imposition.Positive face: the positive consistent self-image or ‘personality’(crucially includingthe desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants.9.4 Developing pragmatic competenceThe Varieties of English10.1 Interrelation between language and societyIndications of interralation/relatedness between language and societyAn obvious indication of the inter-relationship between language and society is the fact that language is not always used to exchange information as is generally assumed, but rather it is sometimes used to fulfil an important social function--- to maintain social relationship between people.Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in partdetermined by his social background. When we speak we cannot avoid giving our listeners clues about our origin and our background.Chomsky (cognitive approach, ideal speaker) vs. Saussure (social semiotic approach)Any use of language is socially marked/stamped.As society changes, language will change. Language reflects society, as shown by the lexicon of "snow", "camel".Whereas English, for example, has only one word for snow ( or two if we include sleet), Eskimo has several. The reasons for this are obvious. It is essential for Eskimos to be able to distinguish efficiently between different types of snow.English, of course, is quite able to make the same distinctions: fine snow, dry snow, soft snow, and so on, but in Eskimos this sort of distinction is lexicalized---made by means of individual words.10.1.2 Approaches to the study of the interrelationMacro-sociolinguistics: a bird's-eye view: how language functions in society and how language reflects the social differentiations. [sociology of language] Micro-sociolinguistics: a worm's-eye view: how language functions in the communication between members of the society. [sociolinguistics]It is an obvious fact that people who claim to be users of the same language do not speak the language in the same manner. For example all the English –speaking people do not speak the same type of English. And the language used by the same individual varies as circumstances vary.10.2 Regional dialects of English10.2.1 Language and dialectLanguage: writing system; may include several dialects; often politically defined Dialect: [traditionally only variation with space, but now with the space, the temporal factor and social factors] usu. spoken; often part of a language; not distinct enough from other dialects of the same language to be treated as an independent language; often marked by geographical or social barriers; restricted purposesChinese vs. CantoneseRegional dialect often coincides with geographical barriers, like mountains, rivers, etc. [accent]Transition from one dialect to another is gradual rather than abrupt. Two neighboring dialects are often intelligible.10.2.2 Temporal dialectLanguage is also determined by the time we live in. [temporal distance] Old English; Middle English; Modern English [diachronic/historical linguistics vs.synchronic linguistics]10.3 Social dialects of English10.3.1Social dialect (also social-class dialect, sociolect, class dialect) [social distance] arises from the separation brought about different social conditions. It refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.10.3.2 Social factorsSocial factors that are believed to influence our language behavior: class, gender, age, ethnic identity, education background, occupation, and religious belief.10.4 Register theory10.4.1Field of discourse: related to what is going on, the purpose and the subject matter of communication; answers the questions of why and about what communication takes place.Technical: linguistic lectures, specialist communication [vocabulary]Non-technical: shopping, chatting10.4.2Tenor of discourse: answers the question of to whom the speaker is communicating, determines the level of formality of language use.10.4.3Mode of discourse: answers the question of how communication takes place ; spoken or written; spontaneous or non-spontaneous.11.1 Speech communitySpeech Community is a concept in sociolinguistics, it is a group of speakers who share the same regularities of language use, and have the same language attitude toward communitiy language variation.Virtual SC, migrant worker SC, urban SC, rural SC, international student SC, etc. Five elements of a SC: population, region, public facilities, interaction, identity.11.2 Pidgin and CreolePidgins(洋泾浜) are mixed or blended languages used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.Chinese-English pidgin: limited vocabulary and reduced grammar.1)Phonetics: [l]→[r] room-loom right-light2) the word side was widely used to signify space, top-side=above, bottom-side=below, farside=beyond, allo-side=around, what-tim=when nother tim=again3) basic words origin from English: chin-chindie-lo, buy-lo, pay-lo, wailo, numpa one,plopa=proper, you belong to plopa? = Are you well?When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their mother tongue, it is said to be a Creole(混合语).The original pidgin is expanded in terms of its grammar and vocabulary. English-based Creole of Jamaica and the French-based Creole of Haiti.11.3 Bilingualism and DiglossiaBilingualism（双语）: two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; language switching/code switching occurs when the situation changes. It is often a result of immigration.Diglossia（双言）: two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. [Ferguson in 1959]11.4 Code Mixing and Code SwitchingCode switching: Weinreich (1953)Intersentence code-switchingIntrasentential code-switchingTag code-switchingCS has its social values and communicative aims.日期： 6 月30 日（星期四）我喜爱的书是：《假如给我三天光明》喜爱的原因：海伦·凯勒那坚强不屈的意志深深地感染了我。
语用学何伟彭漪教程五单元知识点(一)
语用学何伟彭漪教程五单元知识点(一)语用学何伟彭漪教程五单元知识点整理一、什么是语用学？•语用学是研究语言使用的学科领域•研究语言在特定情境中的使用规则和意义•强调语言与上下文的关系，关注交际意义和信息传递二、语用学的基本概念•语用学三要素：说话人、听话人、语言材料•言外之意：言外之意是指在语言表达中，不直接表达的内容•语绩：语用言外之意的实现效果，即言外之意被听话人所理解的程度•语用推理：根据上下文和常识推断出的言外之意三、话语行为理论•话语行为理论：对话语的言外之意进行分析的理论•类型话语行为：常见的类型话语行为有陈述、命令、请求、劝说等•言外之意与行为意图：言外之意是指话语背后所表达的更深层的意图，与说话人的行为意图相关四、言外之意的推理•含蓄和虚化：通过不直接陈述言外之意，而采用隐喻、暗示等表达方式•猜测与推断：根据对话语上下文和背景知识的推理，获取言外之意•领域知识与语境：对言外之意推理的重要依据是对话语所在领域或语境的了解五、言外之意的跨文化差异•礼貌与文化：不同文化对待言外之意的态度和表达方式存在差异•跨文化误读和理解：言外之意容易受到说话人和听话人文化背景的影响而产生误读•适应和理解：在跨文化交际中，要尽量适应对方的文化习惯，提高对言外之意的理解能力以上是对语用学何伟彭漪教程五单元相关知识的整理和详解。
语用学作为研究语言使用的学科，强调语言与上下文的关系，关注交际意义和信息传递。
在语用学中，关注的重点包括言外之意、话语行为理论、言外之意的推理以及跨文化差异等内容。
通过深入了解这些知识点，我们可以更好地理解语言的使用规则和意义，提高交际能力和理解能力。
六、言语行为和联邦关系•言语行为与社会关系：言语行为不仅仅是交流信息，还与社会关系密切相关•礼貌和尊重：通过适当的言语行为表达对他人的尊重和礼貌•冲突和解决：言语行为中可能存在冲突，需要通过有效的沟通和解决来维护关系七、言语行为和权力关系•权力和影响：通过言语行为可以表达权力和影响力•政治正确和语言权力：言语行为中的政治正确与权力关系相互影响•欺骗和操控：言语行为可以用于欺骗和操控他人，需要警惕和辨别八、言语行为和媒体•媒体言语行为：媒体中的言语行为对舆论和观点形成有很大影响•公众舆论和倾向性报道：媒体的言语行为对公众舆论的形成和倾向性报道有一定影响•网络言语行为：网络中的言语行为对信息传播和社会互动具有重要影响九、言语行为和社会变革•言语行为与社会变革：言语行为反映了社会变革的需求和愿望•言语行为的积极作用：言语行为可以推动社会变革和进步•反思和批判：言语行为也需要被反思和批判，警惕不良影响和言语暴力这些知识点涉及到言外之意的推理、跨文化差异、言语行为与社会关系、权力关系、媒体和社会变革等方面，对于我们更深入地了解语用学及其在实际生活中的应用具有重要意义。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第8-9章
Chapter 8 Language in Use1. 语义学与语用学的区别1.1 语用学（Pragmatics）Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.（语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。
）1.2 区别Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.（语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，语义学研究的句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。
）2. 合作原则及其准则（Herbert Paul Grice）2.1. 合作原则(Cooperative Principle)说话人经常在话语中传达着比话语表层更多的信息，听话人也能够明白说话人所要表达的意思。
格莱斯认为一定存在一些管理这些话语产生和理解的机制。
他把这种机制称作合作原则。
2.2. 准则(maxims)数量准则(quantity)①使你的话语如（交谈的当前目的）所要求的那样信息充分。
②不要使你的话语比要求的信息更充分。
质量准则(quality)设法使你的话语真实①不要讲明知是虚假的话②不要说没证据的话关系准则(relation)所谈内容要密切相关方式准则(manner)要清晰。
①避免含糊不清②避免歧义③要简练（避免冗长）④要有序3. 言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）---John Austin3.1. 施为句&叙事句(Performatives & Constatives)施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证真假。
语用学概论知识点总结
语用学概论知识点总结语用学是语言学的一个重要分支领域，研究语言在特定语境中的使用和理解。
语用学主要关注语言的交际功能，研究语言的使用方式、用语者的意图和言语行为等方面。
在日常生活中，语言的使用涉及到很多细节和差异，语用学的研究可以帮助我们更好地理解和运用语言。
一、语用学的基本概念1. 语言的交际功能语言不仅仅是一种工具，它更是人们进行交际的重要方式。
语用学研究的重点就是语言在交际过程中的使用和理解。
2. 语用言语行为语用言语行为是指用语者在言语行为中所包含的具体交际目的和意图。
通过语用学研究，可以揭示用语者的意图，帮助我们更好地理解言语行为。
3. 语境的重要性语用学强调语境对语言使用和理解的重要性。
语境包括语境的环境、参与者的身份、前后文的内容等多个方面，对语言的使用产生着重要影响。
4. 言外之意言外之意是指言语中不直接表达的含义和信息，它可能依赖于语境、用语者的意图等多种因素。
二、语用学的研究内容1. 语用能力语用能力是指语用者在语言交际中的能力，包括语言的适应能力、交际策略的运用等方面。
语用能力的高低直接关系到语言交际的效果和质量。
2. 言语行为的分类言语行为可以根据其所包含的交际目的和意图而分类，如陈述、疑问、命令、祝愿等。
3. 言语行为与语用规则语用规则是指语言交际中的一些约定俗成的规则，如礼貌用语、语用禁忌等。
语用规则对交际的顺利进行起着重要的作用。
4. 言语行为的承受能力言语行为的承受能力是指用语者对言语行为的接受程度和态度。
不同的文化和人群对于言语行为的承受能力可能有所不同。
三、语用学的相关理论1. 言语行为理论言语行为理论是语用学中的一个重要理论，强调言语行为的目的和意图，将言语行为看作是一种特殊的行为活动。
2. 言语行为的演化理论言语行为的演化理论是指言语行为的发展和演变过程。
语言交际在不同历史时期和文化环境中有着不同的使用方式和规则，言语行为的演化理论可以帮助我们更好地理解这种规律。
语言学语用学知识点
语言学语用学知识点1. 概述语言学是研究语言的科学，而语用学是语言学的一个分支领域，关注语言在社会交际中的使用和理解。
本文将介绍语言学语用学的主要知识点，包括交际意图、言辞行为、场景适应、语用推理和言语间关系等。
2. 交际意图交际意图是指说话人使用语言表达时的意图和目的。
在语用学中，我们常常会分析说话人的交际意图，以理解他们使用特定语言表达的含义和目的。
交际意图可以通过直接问句、反话、暗示等方式来实现。
通过研究交际意图，我们能够更好地理解语言在社会交际中的功能和作用。
3. 言辞行为言辞行为是指说话人通过语言所实现的特定行为。
根据语用学的观点，说话人的语言使用不仅仅是传递信息，还包含着言辞行为。
例如，当我们说“请帮我关一下窗户”时，实际上是在表达一个请求行为。
言辞行为可以分为直陈陈述、承诺、威胁、命令等不同类型。
4. 场景适应场景适应是指说话人根据语境和交际环境来选择合适的语言表达方式。
语境包括时间、地点、参与者身份等因素，而交际环境则涉及到社会文化和情境。
在语言交际中，我们需要根据具体的场景适应自己的语言选择和表达方式，以确保对方能够准确理解我们的意思。
5. 语用推理语用推理是指我们通过语境和常识对言语进行的推理和理解。
在语用学中，我们意识到语言表达的含义不仅仅取决于字面意思，还需要通过推理来理解隐含的意思。
通过语用推理，我们能够更好地解读他人的言辞，准确理解对方的意图和目的。
6. 言语间关系言语间关系是指多个句子或言语之间的关联和衔接。
在交际过程中，说话人通常会使用多个句子或言语来表达连续的思想和意思。
通过理解这些句子或言语之间的关系，我们可以更好地理解对方的观点和意图。
言语间关系包括因果关系、对比关系、条件关系等。
结语通过学习语言学语用学的知识点，我们能够更好地理解语言的使用和理解。
掌握语用学的理论和方法，可以帮助我们更准确地理解他人的意思，有效地进行社会交际。
希望本文能够为读者提供有关语言学语用学的基础知识，并对相关研究领域产生兴趣。
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语用学笔记一基础知识一语用学定义1 Levinson关于语用学的9个定义及批评2 定义：语用学研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当表达和准确理解，寻找并确立使上述目标的基本原则和准则。
二语用学的由来、产生与发展1提出：语用学（Pragmatics）这一术语最早是由美国哲学家（C.W.Morris）于1938年在其专著《符号理论基础》（Foundations of the Theory of Signs）提出。
他指出符号学（Semiotics）包括三部分，即：句法学（Syntax）、语义学（Semantics）和语用学（Pragmatics）。
其中：1）句法学：研究“符号之间的形式关系”；2）语义学：研究“符号及其所指对象的关系”；3）语用学：研究“符号与解释者interpreters（后改为使用者users）之间的关系”2 发展：1）语言哲学家Ba r·Hillel提出语用学的具体研究对象是指引词语（indexical expressions）；2）英国哲学家奥斯丁（J.Austin）和塞尔（J.Searle）的言语行为理论（Speech-Acts Theory）；3）美国哲学家格赖斯（H.P.Grice）的会话含义理论（Conversational Implicature）及合作原则（）；4）列文森（S.C.Levinson）的《语用学》（Pragmatics）；5）利奇（G.N.Leech）的语用原则（Principles of Pragmatics）；6）Wilso n﹠Sperber的关联理论（Relevance Theory）；7）范叔伦（Verschueren）的语言适应理论（Theory of Linguistic Adaptation）及综合论（）；8）新格赖斯会话机制（Neo-Gricean Pragmatic Apparatus）；9）范叔伦（Verschueren）的统一理论框架（Coherent Theoretical Framework）三结构主义语言学的功过1 区分语言（langue）和言语（parole），指出语言是语言学真正的研究对象；区分内部要素和外部要素，主张就语言而研究语言；F.de.Saussure 区分共时状态（synchronic）和历时状态（diachronic），认为共时状态的语言系统是语言研究的重点；提出语言系统共时描写的理论和方法。
哥本哈根学派→布拉格学派→Chomsky的转换生成语法伦敦学派美国描写语言学派2 功：主张研究语言系统、结构，重视语言能力（linguistic competence）描写，尽力追求语言描写形式化，在语言结构描写尤其是音位研究和语法研究上成就卓著3 过：从结构主义语言学到转换生成语法，存在以下明显缺陷：1）忽视语言运用（linguistic performance）研究；2）语义研究薄弱。
四语用学研究内容1 语境（context）2 指示词语（indexical expressions）3 会话含义（conversational implicature）4 预设（presuppositon）5 言语行为（speech acts）6 会话结构（conversational structure）五语用学研究方法1 纯语用学（Pure pragmatics）：又称形式语用学，研究语用学的形式和范畴；2 描写语用学（Descriptive pragmatics）：语用学家关注的重点；3 应用语用学（Applied pragmatics）：外语教学、人工智能、人机对话，不同语言间的语用对比研究等六语用学与语义学的区别（Leech的观点）1 语义学和语用学是互不相同又互相补充的研究领域；1 语义学和语用学的区别就是意义和用法之间的区别，换言之，语言能力（linguistic competence）和语言运用（linguistic performance）的区别；2 现代语义学最显著的特点是：从以词为中心的语义研究（词义学）发展到句子意义、话语意义、语篇意义的研究；3 是否属于语用学范围有以下几个明显的判断标准：1）是否考虑了言者和听者；2）是否考虑了言者的意图或听者的解释；3）是否考虑了语境；4）是否考虑了通过使用语言或依靠语言实施的那种行为或行动。
二语境（Context）一国内外研究综述1 国外语言学界：1）波兰人类学家马林诺夫斯基（B.Malinowski）将语境分为文化语境（context of culture）和情景语境（context of situation）；2）伦敦学派创始人弗思（J.R.Firth）创立了完整的语境理论（见附）；3）韩礼德（M.A.K.Halliday）受到Firth情景语境（context of situation）的启示，提出语域（registers）概念（实为语境）（见附）4）美国社会语言学家Hymes把语境归为8部分，即话语形式、内容、背景、参与者、目的、音调、媒介、风格和相互作用的规范；提出“交际能力”5）英国语言学家莱昂斯（Lyons）提出构成语境的6个方面知识，即每个参与者必须知道：✧自己在整个语言活动中所起的作用、所处的地位；✧语言活动发生的时间和空间；✧语言活动情景的正式程度；✧对特定情景来说，什么是合适的交际媒介；✧怎样使自己的话语适合语言活动的话题及话题的重要性；✧怎样使自己的话语适合情景所归属的语域。
2 国内语言学界：1 刘勰《文心雕龙》：“人之立言，因字而生句，积句而成章，积章而成篇。
篇之彪炳，章无疵也；章之明靡，句无玷也；句之精英，字无妄也。
”2 陈望道《修辞学发凡》1）题旨与情境相适应理论；2）六何说（何时、何地、何人、何事、何故、何如）；3）成功的修辞必须依赖情境理论二语境的定义和研究内容1 定义：人们运用自然语言进行言语交际的言语环境。
2 研究内容：1）上下文语境（context）：由语言因素构成✧口语的前言后语；✧书面语的上下文2）情景语境（context of situation）：由时间、地点、话题、场合等非语言因素构成；3）民族文化传统语境：✧历史文化背景；✧社会规范和习俗；✧价值观3 附Firth 和Halliday的语境研究内容1）Firth上下文语境参与者的有关特征（分为言语行为和非言语行为）：人物、个性情景上下文有关事物言语行为的效果Firth认为语言有三种含义：✧语言是一种自然倾向；✧语言是一个系统；✧泛指许多人的话语或者社会生活中无数的话语事件。
2）Halliday话语范围（field）：言语活动涉及的范围，如政治、文艺、科技等；语域（registers）话语方式（mode）：言语活动的媒介，如口头方式、书面方式；话语风格（tenor）：交际者的地位、身份、关系等Halliday指出：✧范围、方式和交际者一起组成一段话语的情景语境，任何一部分改变都能产生新的语域；✧范围包括话语的主题；方式是事件中的话语功能，包括语言采用的渠道（口头或书面，即席或事先准备）以及语言的风格（或称为修辞方式，叙述、说教、劝导、应酬）；交际者指交际中的角色类型，即话语的参与者之间的永久或暂时性的相应的社会关系。
三指示词语（Deixis Expressions）一指示词语的语用含义1 指示词语是语用学最早选定的研究对象巴尔—希勒尔（Ba r·Hillel）于1954年发表《指示词语》（Indexical Expressions）一文中提出该观点；2 指示系统是以言者为中心的方式组织起来的指示词语的指示中心（deictic centre）一般是：1）中心人物是言者；2）中心时间是言者时间；3）中心地点是言者地点；4）语篇中心是一句话中言者当时正说到的部位；5）社交中心是言者相对于听者的社会地位。
二指示词语的不同用法1 指示用法（Fillmore，1971年）1）身势用法（gestural usage）2）象征用法（symbolic usage）2 非指示用法1）照应用法（anaphoric）：一个词语的所指与前面出现的词语所指是同一对象；2）非照应用法（non-anaphoric）：三指示词语的分类（根据Fillmore和Levinson观点归纳）1 人称指示（person deixis）：1）一二三人称；2）称呼语：包括呼唤语（summons）和称唤语（addresses）2 时间指示（time deixis）1）编码时间（coding time，CT）：言者将其想要传递的信息进行语言编码的时间；2）接收时间（receiving time，RT）：听者收到信息的时间3 地点指示（place deixis）：以言者为中心参照点,here近指，there远指莱昂斯的情感指示（empathetic deixis）4 语篇指示（discourse deixis）：是指前和指后的关系，不同于照应关系（互指关系）1）定义：用词语指语篇的某一部分，所用词语就在此语篇话语内2）分类：✧用时间指示词语：last, next, preceding, following✧用地点指示词语：this, that✧用表示前后话语之间关系的词和短语：but, therefore, in conclusion, anyway, all in all5 社交指示（social deixis）1）定义：语言结构中能反映语言使用者的身份和相对社会地位的那些词语和语法范畴2）涉及三方面：社交指示的参照点是言者的社会地位✧言语交际参与者的身份；✧言者和听者之间相对的社会地位；✧言者和所谈到的第三者之间相对的社会地位3）现代英语中的两种方式：✧选用不同的称呼来表示言者和听者之间的关系；✧使用只限于某些具有特殊身份或地位的人的正式称呼。
四会话含义（Conversational Implicature）一格赖斯的会话含义理论1 合作原则（cooperative principle）：格赖斯于1967年提出1）定义：在参与交谈时要使你说的话符合你所参与的交谈的公认目的或方向2）四条准则✧量准则（the maxim of quantity）：包含但不多于所需要的信息的量✧质准则（the maxim of quality）：不说虚假或缺乏足够证据的话✧相关准则（the maxim of relevance）：不要跑题✧方式准则（the maxim of manner）：力求简练、有条理、避免晦涩、歧义2 会话含义（conversational implicature）：语用学的核心内容1）当言者违反合作原则时，听者必须超越话语表面意义，设法领悟其隐含意义即会话含义。