行为矫正原理与方法2

CHAPTER 3GETTING A BEHAVIOR TO OCCUR MOREOFTEN WITH POSITIVE REINFORCEMENTAnswers to Study Questions on Main Text1. A baseline is a measure of behavior in the absence of a treatment program. For example, in Danny’s case, his cooperative and commanding behaviors were assessed before Danny’s mother was instructed to react to them differently than she had in the past. Other examples may be appropriate.2. Behavior (or instances of cooperative behavior).3. Time (or sessions, or sessions in 10-minute intervals).4. A positive reinforcer is an event which, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to increase in frequency.5. This principle states that if, in a given situation, somebody does something that is immediately followed by a positive reinforcer, that person is more likely to do the same thing again when he or she next encounters a similar situation.6. Operant behaviors are those that operate on the environment to generate consequences, and are in turn influenced by those consequences. For example, if a person walks into a dark room and emits the behavior of turning on a light switch, then the consequence of the light going on increases the likelihood that flipping the light switch will occur in asimilar situation in the future. Flipping the light switch is therefore an operant behavior.7. They are both laws of nature.8. Students can describe any plausible example, such as the following:Situation: A student in class did not understand a part of a lecture of one of the authors.Response of student: Approached professor after class to request help.Immediate consequence: Professor smiled warmly, and said, “Of course! How can I help you?”Long-term effect: Student is more likely to approach professor (and perhaps other professors) for help in the future.CHAPTER 4DEVELOPING AND MAINTAINING BEHA VIORWITH CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENTAnswers to Study Questions on Main Text1. Unconditioned reinforcers are stimuli which are reinforcing without prior learning, or without having to be associated with any other reinforcers. Food for someone who has not eaten for several hours, or water for someone who has not had a drink for several hours, are unconditioned reinforcers. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.2. A conditioned reinforcer is a stimulus which was not originally reinforcing but which acquired reinforcing power through association with a stimulus that is reinforcing. For example, a piece of green paper that constitutes a dollar bill is not likely to be a reinforcer for an infant or a young child who has had no experience with money. However, after the dollar bill is paired with a variety of backup reinforcers while making various purchases in stores, the dollar bill becomes a powerful reinforcer. Any two appropriate examples are acceptable.3. A backup reinforcer is a reinforcer on which a conditioned reinforcer is based. In a token system it is a reinforcer for which tokens can be exchanged in order to maintain their reinforcing power. For example, at the end of a poker game, poker chips can be exchanged for money. In this case, the money is the backup reinforcer. Any two appropriate examples are acceptable.4. The backup reinforcers included time on Facebook or YouTube.5. Any appropriate example is acceptable.6. Tokens are conditioned reinforcers that can be accumulated and exchanged for other reinforcers.7. A token system is a behavior modification program that uses tokens to reinforce desirable behavior. The tokens can be exchanged for more powerful reinforcers called backup reinforcers.8. Yes, money is a token because it can be accumulated and exchanged for a variety of backup reinforcers (the things that money can buy).9. Examples might include two of the following: praise, a call to dinner, the sight of a lovedone, or a friendly greeting. These are all associated with more powerful reinforcers. 10. A conditioned punisher is a stimulus which is not originally punishing, but which acquires punishing power through association with a stimulus that is punishing. Examples might include criticism, scoldings, a failing grade, and the sight of a muggerin a dark alley. These are all typically punishers because they have been paired with other aversive events.11. A simple conditioned reinforcer is one that is paired with a single backup reinforcer. A generalized reinforcer is a conditioned reinforcer that is based on a number of different backup reinforcers. At any given time at least one of the backup reinforcers should be powerful enough to maintain the reinforcing effectiveness of the generalized reinforcer.12. Yes, praise is likely a generalized reinforcer for most of us. That is because when people praise us, they are disposed to favor us in a variety of ways so that praise ispaired with a variety of backup reinforcers. Also, positive adult attention (which might be considered a form of praise) is provided by parents when they feed their infants, wash them, play with them, and meet their needs in other ways.13. The points in Erin’s program were likely a genera lized reinforcer because they were paired with two backup reinforcers, time on Facebook and time on YouTube, both ofwhich provide a variety of conditioned reinforcers.14. The three factors influencing the effectiveness of conditioned reinforcers include:(a) the strength of backup reinforcers; (b) the variety of backup reinforcers; and (c) the number of pairings of the conditioned reinforcer with a backup reinforcer.15. If a conditioned reinforcer is presented a number of times without being associated with other reinforcers, it will eventually lose its reinforcing effectiveness.16. Pitfall Type 1 states that people who are unfamiliar with the principle of conditioned reinforcement may unknowingly misapply it in various ways. For example, if an adult scolds a child and then gives the child a treat because the adult “feels guilty,” the scolding may become a conditioned reinforcer. Pitfall Type 2 states that individuals who are not aware of the principle of conditioned reinforcement may cease to pair a conditioned reinforcer with a backup reinforcer causing the conditioned reinforcer to lose its effects. For example, a teacher who awards stars for good behavior, but fails to use effective backup reinforcers, will cause the stars to lose their value as conditioned reinforcers.Chapter 3: Getting a Behavior to Occur More Often withPositive ReinforcementMultiple Choice Questions on Main Text (Note: * indicates the correct answer)1. A positive reinforcer is defined as:a) an event which, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to decrease in frequencyb) an event which is preferred by a subjectc) an event which the subject finds rewarding* d) an event which, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to increase in frequency2. The principle of positive reinforcement states that:a) if, in a given situation, an individual is given a choice of two or more items, the item chosen will be the positive reinforcer* b) if, in a given situation, somebody does something that is immediately followed by a positive reinforcer, then that person is more likely to do the same thing againc) if, in a given situation, an individual is positively reinforced, then that individualwill select that situation in future opportunitiesd) a reinforcer can be used to strengthen behavior3. The best way to determine if something is reinforcing is to:a) ask the individual what they prefer for a reinforcerb) watch others perform the same behavior and find out what reinforces them and then use that with the individual of concern* c) conduct an experimental test in which you present an item following some behavior onseveral trials to see if the frequency of that behavior increasesd) provide a choice situation in which the “something” is presented along with known reinforcers to see if it will be chosen by the subject instead of the known reinforcers 4. In training programs in which reinforcers are dispensed frequently, it’s best to use a small amount of the reinforcer on any one trial in order to:a) let the client know that there’s more to come* b) minimize satiation and maximize the number of trials in a training sessionc) ensure that the program is cost-effectived) prevent the client from becoming greedy5. _____________ developed the principle that states: For any pair of responses, the more probable one will reinforce the less probable one.a) Skinner b) Michael* c) Premack d) Greenspoon6. Unprogrammed reinforcers that occur in the normal course of everyday living are called:* a) natural reinforcers b) arbitrary reinforcersc) contrived reinforcers d) rewards7. If a response increases in frequency because of its immediate reinforcing consequences, this is known as:* a) the direct-acting effects of positive reinforcementb) a functional response-reinforcer relationshipc) the indirect-acting effects of positive reinforcementd) natural reinforcement8. A parent tells a child, “If you pick up the toys in your room, then I’ll take you to buy your favorite ice cream after dinner.” This is an example of:a) direct acting reinforcementb) the Premack principlec) a natural reinforcer* d) indirect acting reinforcement9. Which of the following is not one of the reasons for explaining a reinforcement program to the individual whose behavior is to be reinforced?a) Instructions may speed up the learning process for individuals who already understand them.* b) Instructions increase the effects of deprivation for making a reinforcer more effective.c) Instructions may influence an individual to work for delayed reinforcement.d) Instructions about reinforcement programs may help to teach individuals (such as young children) to follow instructions.10. Eating is reinforced by the taste of food. This is an example of:a) indirect acting reinforcement b) arbitrary reinforcement* c) natural reinforcement d) the Premack principle11. A coach of young hockey players always has a scrimmage at the end of each practice, something that the players really enjoy. This is an example of:* a) noncontingent reinforcement b) direct acting reinforcementc) contingent reinforcement d) indirect acting reinforcement12. Giving a person salty foods, or depriving that person of water are examples of:a) discriminative stimuli b) unconditioned stimulic) direct-acting reinforcers * d) motivating operations13. Behaviors that operate on the environment to generate consequences, and are in turn influenced by those consequences, are called:a) behaviors b) respondent behaviorsc) reflexive behavior * d) operant behaviors14. Strengthening a response by adding an event immediately following that response is referred to as:* a) positive reinforcement b) negative reinforcementc) escape conditioning d) the Premack principle15. Events or conditions that temporarily alter the effectiveness of a reinforcer, and increasethe frequency of behavior reinforced by that reinforcer, are called:a) positive reinforcers b) direct-acting eventsc) indirect-acting events * d) motivating operations16. If a reinforcer is presented at a particular time, irrespective of the preceding behavior, we say that the reinforcer is:* a) noncontingent b) contingentc) direct-acting d) indirect-acting17. When a behavior must occur before a reinforcer will be presented, we say that the reinforcer is ______________ upon that behavior.a) noncontingent * b) contingentc) direct-acting d) indirect-acting18. When reinforcers are manipulated deliberately in a behavior modification program, we say that they are ____________ reinforcers.a) direct-acting b) indirect-actingc) natural * d) programmed19. Behaviors that act on the environment to generate consequences and are in turn influenced by those consequences, are called _____________ behaviors.* a) operant b) reflexivec) covert d) overt20. The principle of ___________ states that there are certain stimuli whose removal immediately after the occurrence of a response will strengthen that response.a) positive reinforcement b) non-contingent reinforcement* c) negative reinforcement d) motivating operations21. A behavior that is strengthened because it accidently precedes a reinforcer, even thoughit did not actually produce the reinforcer, is called:a) operant behavior * b) superstitious behaviorc) respondent behavior d) reflexive behaviorTrue/False Questions on Main Text (Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin) T 22. Technically speaking, a stimulus is defined as a reinforcer only by its effects on behavior.F 23. Explaining a reinforcement program to a client is necessary before a reinforcer can beused to increase the frequency of a particular behavior of that client.F 24. Natural reinforcers are those deliberately presented following a particular behavior in atraining program.T 25. The terms positive reinforcement and reinforcement are often used interchangeably.T 26. Consumable, activity, manipulative, possessional, and social are categories of reinforcers.F 27. Giving a child her favorite candy following a desirable behavior is an example of amotivating operation.T 28. Food deprivation is a type of motivating operation.F 29. The increased frequency of a response because of its immediate reinforcing consequences is referred to as the indirect-acting effect of reinforcement.T 30. When a behavior must occur before a reinforcer will be presented, we say that thereinforcer is contingent upon that behavior.F 31. Unprogrammed reinforcers that occur in the normal course of everyday living arecalled arbitrary reinforcers.Chapter 4: Developing and Maintaining Behavior withConditioned ReinforcementMultiple Choice Questions on Main Text (Note: * indicates the correct answer) 1. A stimulus which is not originally reinforcing but which acquires reinforcing power through association with a stimulus that is reinforcing is called:* a) a conditioned reinforcer b) a conditioned stimulusc) a natural reinforcer d) a back-up reinforcer2. A dollar bill may not be reinforcing for a young child who has had no experience with money. However, after the dollar bill is paired with a variety of back-up reinforcers whilemaking various purchases in the store, the dollar bill becomes a powerful reinforcer. This is an example of the development of a:a) extrinsic reinforcer * b) generalized conditioned reinforcerc) simple conditioned reinforcer d) primary reinforcer3. A reinforcer for which tokens can be exchanged in order to maintain their reinforcing power is called a(n):a) secondary reinforcer b) conditioned reinforcer* c) back-up reinforcer d) primary reinforcer4. Stimuli which are reinforcing without prior learning are called:a) conditioned reinforcers b) back-up reinforcersc) intrinsic reinforcers * d) primary reinforcers5. For someone who has not eaten for several hours, food would be a ____________ reinforcer, as it is naturally reinforcing in and of itself.* a) primary b) conditionedc) back-up d) secondary6. Conditioned reinforcers that can be accumulated and exchanged for other reinforcers are known as:a) adventitious reinforcers * b) tokensc) back-up reinforcers d) extrinsic reinforcers7. Which of the following is a stimulus that is a conditioned reinforcer (i.e., associated with more powerful reinforcers) but is not a token?a) gold stars on an improvement chart b) coupons for food products* c) the sight of a loved one d) money8. In a behavior modification token system, tokens can be exchanged for more powerful reinforcers called:a) extrinsic reinforcers b) primary reinforcersc) intrinsic reinforcers * d) back-up reinforcers9. A stimulus which is not originally punishing but which acquires punishing power through association with a stimulus that is punishing is called a(n):* a) conditioned punisher b) warning stimulusc) unconditioned punisher d) conditioned stimulus10. A reinforcer that is based on a number of different back-up reinforcers is called a(n):a) natural reinforcer * b) generalized reinforcerc) intrinsic reinforcer d) extrinsic reinforcer11. At the end of a poker game, poker chips that you have obtained can be exchanged for money. In this case, money can best be described as a(n):* a) back-up reinforcer b) unconditioned reinforcerc) natural reinforcer d) conditioned reinforcer12. In Erin’s program, the time on Facebook or YouTube are examples of:a) tokens * b) back-up reinforcersc) unconditioned reinforcers d) intrinsic reinforcers13. Which of the following is most likely to be a primary reinforcer?a) a toy b) money * c) a candy bar d) poker chips14. Which of the following is a conditioned reinforcer?a) a drink of water b) a candy bar c) warmth from a fireplace *d) money15. Praise is best referred to as a(n):a) natural reinforcer * b) generalized reinforcerc) intrinsic reinforcer d) back-up reinforcer16. Conditioned reinforcers that can be accumulated and exchanged for other reinforcers are called:a) backup reinforcers * b) tokensc) natural reinforcers d) intrinsic reinforcersTrue/False Questions on Main Text (Note: Correct answer indicated in left margin)F 17. Back-up reinforcers are stimuli that are naturally reinforcing in and of themselves, such as food for someone who has not eaten for several hours.F 18. A primary reinforcer is a reinforcer that is based on a number of different back-up reinforcers.T 19. A conditioned reinforcer that is a generalized reinforcer is more effective than one that is not.T 20. Conditioned reinforcers that can be accumulated and exchanged for other reinforcers are called tokens.T 21. A stimulus that is paired with punishment becomes a conditioned punisher.。