Thomas12e_Chapter12托马斯管理经济学章12
《西方经济学》 第十二章 chapter12 PPT课件
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总需求变动的影响：短期总供给曲线
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长期总供给曲 线的含义：总 需求的增大只 能使价格水平 提高，并不能 对产量产生影 响。
（2）短期总供给曲线：资源接近充分利 用状态。
（3）长期总供给曲线：资源已经得到充 分利用，无论价格水平怎样变化，总供给也 不会增加。（资源既定时曲线不变）
短期总供给曲线的移动
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总需求变动的影响：凯恩斯主义总供给曲线
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经济萧条和 通货膨胀不 可能同时发 生。
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对付通货膨胀的方法之一：刺激总供给
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对付通货膨胀的方法之二：抑制总需求
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学习并没有结束，希望继续努力
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管理经济学课件Chapter12
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
© 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
3. 长期均衡(Long-Run Equilibrium)
市场中如果只存在着一个厂商，则称其为垄断 厂商(Monopoly)。这个定义表明进入这个市场的大 门是关闭的。垄断厂商的决策者通过选择一个能够 使边际收益等于长期边际成本的产出水平 (MR=LMC)来达到利润最大化的目的，除非因为单
图中展示了线性需 求曲线条件下的需求和 边际收益的关系。当需 求是线性的，边际收益 曲线像需求曲线的2倍那 样陡，因此位于需求曲 线和纵轴的中间。 当MR>0，产出量在 0-1300件之间，需求是 富有弹性的； 而当MR<0,D>1300， 需求是缺乏弹性的； 另外MR=0,D=1300时 ,需求是单一弹性的。
的影响。
商品 % 商品 % 商品 % 农具 0.98 五金工刀具 3.41 体育用品 1.37 啤酒 6.56 针织品 2.01 制糖 0.19 地毯 1.11 笔 7.35 化妆品 15.22 糖果 4.78 石油制品 1.17 玩具 6.50 白酒 2.74 药品和医疗 8.65 葡萄酒 3.99 灯泡灯罩 0.31 科学仪器 2.06 服装 5.42 肥皂和洗涤剂 10.85 （加拿大的统计指标：广告费占销售额的比例）
市场力的一个重要影响因素是对生产该产品
的原材料供应的控制。
要素壁垒的另一个例子是资本市场的作用。
当需要以大规模投资进入市场时，资本市场产生
了投入壁垒。
4. 品牌效应 (Brand Loyalties)
忠诚感：随着时间的流逝，老公司一般都会
在产品需求方建立起消费者对其产品的忠诚感。
Thomas12e-Chapter12
12-4
Measurement of Market Power
Degree of market power inversely related to price elasticity of demand
~ The less elastic the firm’s demand, the greater its degree of market power
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Monopoly
Single firm Produces & sells a good or service for
which there are no good substitutes New firms are prevented from entering
market because of a barrier to entry
Select production levels at multiple plants to minimize the total cost of producing a given total output for a firm
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托马斯《管理经济学》12e中文PPT Thomas12e_Chapter15
15-5
期望值
一个概率分布的期望值（均值）为:
n
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( X ) ExEpe(cXted)Xv的aElux期epoec望ftXed值valuepoi Xf Xi pi Xi
i 1
i 1
其中 Xi 是决策的第i种结果, pi 是第i种结果 的概率, n 是可能结果的总数
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变异系数（离差系数）
当结果的期望值很不一样时，管理者应该 利用变异系数度量一个决策相对于其期望 值的风险
~ 相对风险的度量
Standard dev标ia准tio差n
Expecvted=v期al望ue值
E( X
)
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托马斯《管理经济学》12e_Chapter1
管理者、利润与市场
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1-1
Hale Waihona Puke 习目标 （1.1） 理解为什么管理经济学依赖于微观经济学和产业组织理 论来分析商业实践，并制定企业战略；
（1.2） 解释经济利润和会计利润的不同，把经济利润与企业价 值联系起来；
（1.3） 描述当企业主和管理者的目标不一致，且企业主不可能 对管理者进行监督，或者监督成本高昂时，企业所有权和经营权的 分离如何导致委托-代理问题；
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微观经济学
微观经济学
~ 研究经济个体行为的科学
商业实践或经营策略
~ 通过边际分析,微观经济学为理解日常商业决策提供了 基础
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
完整版本西方经济学第12章马工程教
第十二章短期经济颠簸模型：总需求-总供给解析1.总需求曲线为何向右下方倾斜？答案要点：总需求会随着价格水平的提高而下降，也许随着价格水平的下降而提高。
这也就是价格水平变动所引起的财富效应（实质余额效应）。
因此，总需求曲线会向右下方倾斜。
2.财政政策对增加均衡公民收入收效较好的条件是什么？答案要点：从总供求模型来说，总供给曲线越平坦，即物价水平变动很小或几乎不变动，总需求曲线越陡直，即总需求对于价格不敏感，财政政策对增加均衡公民收入的收效就越好。
自然，经济中也必定有财政政策发挥作用的重要的详尽项目。
3.钱币政策对增加均衡公民收入收效较好的条件是什么？答案要点：从总供求模型来说，总供给曲线越陡直，即物价水平变动很大也不会影响总供给，总需求曲线越平坦，即总需求对于价格很敏感，钱币政策对增加均衡公民收入的收效就越好。
自然，经济中也必定有钱币政策能够发挥作用的企业投资的重要详尽项目。
4.以财政政策促进经济恢复或增加的限制性和副作用各是什么？答案要点：若是是以增加政府支出的财政政策恢复经济或促进经济增加，必定有好的项目，同时也不能够因此引起利率上涨。
若是没有这些条件，就会产生限制性和副作用：因利率上涨而以致原来可由社会进行的投资被放弃，即产生“挤出效应”，也许因缺乏合适的投资支出的对象，而无法达到目的。
若是以减税的财政政策恢复经济或促进经济增加，也有限制性，即，企业找不到能够盈利的投资项目，就不会因减税而增加投资，从而无法达到预定的目的。
5.以钱币政策促进经济恢复或增加的限制性和副作用各是什么？答案要点：一是受限于经济中可否存在可盈利的投资项目，二是扩大性钱币政策可能以致通货膨胀。
6.将财政政策和钱币政策配合使用的原由是什么？答案要点：能够互相填充单独使用钱币政策或财政政策时存在的限制性和弊端，防备或降低副作用。
管理经济学 原书第六版 课后答案12
Chapter 12: Answers to Questions and Problems1.a. The expected value of option 1 is()()()()()300100161200164500166200164100161=++++. The expected value of option 2 is ()()()()()11111801701,0001708030055555++++=. b. The variance of option 1 is()()()()().000,2530010016130020016430050016630020016430010016122222=−+−+−+−+−Similarly, the variance of option 2 is 124,120. The standard deviation of option 1 is 158.11. The standard deviation of option 2 is 352.31.c. Option 2 is the most risky.2.a. Risk loving.b. Risk averse.c. Risk neutral.3.a.$5. b.She will purchase, since your price is less than her reservation price. c.$6. d. She will continue to search, since the price exceeds her reservation price.4.a. ()().6$100.4$200$140Ep =+=.b. Set Ep = MC to get 140 = 1 + 4Q . Solve for Q to find your profit-maximizing output, Q = 34.75 units.c. Your expected profits are (Ep)Q – C(Q) = $140(34.75) – (34.75 +2(34.75)2)=$2,415.13.5.a. The expected value, which is $25.b. The maximum value, which is $50.6.a. With only two bidders, n = 2. The lowest possible valuation is L = $1,000, and your own valuation is v = $2,500. Thus, your optimal sealed bid is$2,500$1,000$2,500$1,7502v L b v n −−=−=−=. b. With ten bidders, n =10. The lowest possible valuation is L = $1,000, and your own valuation is v = $2,500. Thus, your optimal sealed bid is$2,500$1,000$2,500$2,35010v L b v n −−=−=−=. c. With one hundred bidders, n =100. The lowest possible valuation is L = $1,000, and your own valuation is v = $2,500. Thus, your optimal sealed bid is$2,500$1,000$2,500$2,485100v L b v n −−=−=−=.7.a. With 5 bidders, n = 5. The lowest possible valuation is L = $50,000, and your own valuation is v = $75,000. Thus, your optimal sealed bid is$75,000$50,000$75,000$70,0005v L b v n −−=−=−=. b. A Dutch auction is strategically equivalent to a first-price sealed bid auction (see part (a)). Thus, you should let the auctioneer continue to lower the price until it reaches $70,000, and then yell “Mine!”c. $75,000, since it is a dominant strategy to bid your true valuation in a second-price, sealed-bid auction.d. Remain active until the price exceeds $75,000; then drop out.8.a. Hidden actions lead to moral hazard; hidden characteristics lead to adverse selection.b. Incentive contracts can solve moral hazard problems; screening and sorting can solve adverse selection problems.9. Since this is a common value auction, bidders will not bid their own private estimates because doing so would lead to the winner’s curse. Thus, there will be an additional incentive for bidders to shade their bids below their estimated valuations. The English auction format provides bidders the most information (therefore allowing them to pool information to some extent), mitigating this problem. For this reason, the English auction would generate the highest expected revenues in this case.10.Your expected inverse demand is E(P) = .5(200,000 – 250Q ) + .5(400,000 – 250Q ) = 300,000 – 250Q. Therefore, your expected marginal revenue is E(MR) = 300,000 – 500Q . Your marginal cost is MC = $200,000. Setting E(MR) = MC yields300,000500200,000Q −=. Solving, Q = 200. The price you expect is thus E(P) = 300,000 – 250(200) = $250,000. Your profits are thus ($250,000 -$200,000)(200) - $110,000 = $9,890,000.11. One would expect higher premiums on credit life, thanks to adverse selection. Peoplewho cannot pass physicals will select toward this type of insurance, resulting in higher premiums. Furthermore, people who are healthy and can pass a physical will be unwilling to pay the higher premiums, thus exacerbating this effect.12. The expected benefit from an additional search are 0.05($110,000 - $60,000) = $2,500, while the cost of another search is $5,000. Therefore, make her an offer. 13. In the absence of "guaranteed issue," an insurance company could choose to insure only those employees with a very low risk structure. In this case they offer lower rates because they experience fewer claims. But this leaves those workers with greater risk factors without insurance. By requiring insurers to offer coverage to all employees, the insurance company must take on employees that are less healthy and a greater risk. Why the controversy? By insuring those with greater health risks, the expected number of claims rises, thus increasing the cost of coverage. The workers with existing health problems benefit at the expense of healthy workers, who pay higher prices with "guaranteed issue." If the price rises high enough and healthy workers are free to drop coverage, this can result in adverse selection: The only people willing to pay the higher premiums are those in poor health.14. Brownstown Steel has better information about its financial situation than does its lenders, and is attempting to use this information advantage to enhance its bargaining position. If lenders gained full information about the financial situation of Brownstown Steel Corp., they would be in a position to squeeze the maximum amount from Brownstown Steel without fear of pushing it into bankruptcy. Absent the information, lenders will be more generous, since taking too much would increase the risk that Brownstown Steel goes bankrupt.15. The 30-day warranty and 10-point inspection. This not only reduces buyer risk from being duped by a used car dealer, but provides a costly signal about the quality of the used cars sold. An unscrupulous dealer would find it costly to mimic this strategy. Recognizing both of these facts, rational buyers will be more willing to purchase cars from the dealer.16. Offer two plans for customers with more than $1 million in assets. One plan (perhaps called the “Free Trade” Account) has an annual maintenance fee of $10,000 good for up to 400 “free” transactions (computed as $10,000/$25) per year (each additional transaction is priced at $25 each). The other plan (perhaps called the “Free Service” Account) has no annual maintenance fee but charges $100 per transaction. Given these two options, investors will sort themselves into the plans based on their individual characteristics.17.With 5 other bidders, n = 6. The lowest possible valuation is L = $5,000, and your own valuation is v = $12,000. Thus, your optimal first-price, sealed-bid is$12,000$5,000$12,000$10,833.336v L b v n −−=−=−=.18. A risk-neutral Oracle’s bid of $7 billion is low since the expected value of the presentvalue of the stream of profits is $7.6 billion. The public bidding process described most resembles an independent, private value English auction (each company places a different probability assessment on the value of the company that depends onpotential realized synergies). SAP’s expected value of the present value of the stream of profits is $8.4 billion. Since this is greater than Oracle’s expected value, SAP will win the “auction” and acquire PeopleSoft. SAP will pay just over $7.6 billion for PeopleSoft.19.The expected value of aggregate ten-year profits of a McDonald’s franchise is ()()()75.4$1$25.5$50.10$25.=−++million. Similarly, the expected value of a Penn Station East Coast Subs’ franchise is ()()75.4$)30$(025.5$95.30$025.=−++million. The variance and standard deviation of owning a McDonald’s franchise is()()()1875.1575.4125.75.4550.75.41025.2222'=−−+−+−=s McDonald σand 8971.31875.152''===s McDonald s McDonald σσ, respectively. Similarly, the variance and standard deviation for Penn Station East Coast Subs’ is()()()1875.4675.430025.75.4595.75.430025.2222=−−+−+−=Penn σand7961.61875.462===Penn Penn σσ, respectively. Since the expected values are thesame we can compare the standard deviations to determine the most risky investment. Since s McDonald Penn 'σσ>there is more risk associated with a Penn Station East Coast Subs’ franchise.20. There are several things for a student to consider in deciding to enroll in a traditionalMBA program or an online MBA program. It is likely that students with a spouse and family may be more attracted to online MBA programs, since these individuals are value stability and have others relying on them for income. In contrast, traditional MBA programs are more likely to attract singles who are willing to bear theopportunity cost associated with this form of education. Thus, there is an adverse selection issue. The individual who selects the traditional MBA program is likely to have a stronger signaling value regarding underlying characteristics.21.Market collapse is likely since “outsiders” will be unwilling to participate in equity (or other) markets since they know “insiders” will only sell a stock when they know the price is too high. Similarly, insiders will only buy when the price of a stock is known to be low. This is a losing proposition for outsiders, who would rationally choose not to participate in the market. This is an example of a moral hazard and is one of the primary reasons the SEC exists.。
管理经济学 超强整理共62页文档
45、自己的饭量自己知道。——苏联
管理经济学 超强整理
11、用道德的
12、法律是无私的，对谁都一视同仁。在每件事上，她都不徇私情。—— 托马斯
13、公正的法律限制不了好的自由，因为好人不会去做法律不允许的事 情。——弗劳德
14、法律是为了保护无辜而制定的。——爱略特 15、像房子一样，法律和法律都是相互依存的。——伯克
41、学问是异常珍贵的东西，从任何源泉吸 收都不可耻。——阿卜·日·法拉兹
42、只有在人群中间，才能认识自 己。——德国
43、重复别人所说的话，只需要教育； 而要挑战别人所说的话，则需要头脑。—— 玛丽·佩蒂博恩·普尔
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12-11
垄断厂商的需求和边际收益
市场需求曲线就是厂商的需求曲线 垄断厂商为卖出更多的产品必须降低价格
~ 除了销售的第一单位产品外，其他所有单位产品的 边际收益均小于价格
当MR 为正 (负), 需求是富有弹性 (缺乏弹性) 的 对于一个线性市场需求来说，垄断厂商的边际 收益也是线性的，其纵轴截距与需求曲线相同， 而斜率是它的2倍
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市场力的度量
市场力的强弱与需求的价格弹性负相关
~ 企业的需求弹性越小，市场力就越大 ~ 企业产品的相近替代品越少，需求的弹性（绝对值） 就越小，企业的市场力就越大 ~ 完全弹性的需求（需求曲线为水平线）没有任何市 场力
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
1-1
学习目标
（12.1） 定义市场力，描述如何用价格弹性、需求交叉 弹性和勒纳指数来度量市场力； （12.2） 解释对于长期中的市场力，为什么进入壁垒是 必要的，并讨论进入壁垒的主要类型； （12.3）求出垄断企业利润最大化的产量和价格； （12.4）求出垄断企业利润最大化的投入使用量； （12.5）求出在垄断竞争条件下，利润最大化的价格和 产量； （12.6） 利用经验估计或预测的需求、平均变动成本和 边际成本，来计算垄断企业或垄断竞争企业实现利润最 大化的产量和价格； （12.7） 在给定总产量的多工厂企业中，选择各工厂的 生产水平，使生产总成本最小化。
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垄断厂商的需求和边际收益
(图 12.1)
价格和边际收益（美元）
数量
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
12-10
普通进入壁垒
消费者锁定
~ 当很高的转换成本使消费者不愿意更好品牌时， 潜在消费者就难以进入
网络外部性
~ 当产品的收益或效用随着消费者购买和使用的 人数增加而增加时，存在网络外部性 ~ 已有企业已经建立了庞大的基础或购买者网络， 这使得新企业进入市场更困难
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
12-7
进入壁垒
新企业的进入使得替代品数量增加，削弱 了已有企业的市场力 只有当存在强进入壁垒时，一个企业才能 拥有高度的市场力
~ 使新企业进入市场变得困难的条件，此时市场 上存在经济利润
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
12-8
Байду номын сангаас
普通进入壁垒
规模经济
~ 在与产品需求相关的生产量范围内，如果厂商 的长期平均成本呈下降趋势，那么其他大的生 产者进入市场的机会就比较小
政府设置的壁垒
~ 许可证，专利权法
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
12-5
市场力的度量
勒纳指数用价格超过边际成本的比例来测度市 场力
P MC Lerner index 勒纳指数 P
~ 完全竞争下，该指数为零 ~ 随着市场力的增加，该指数越来越大 ~ 也等于–1/E, 这表明该指数（市场力）对于弹性时反向 变化的 ~ 需求的弹性（绝对值）越小，该指数和市场力越大
12-6
市场力的度量
如果消费者视两种产品为替代品，那么需 求的交叉价格弹性(EXY)为正
~ 交叉价格弹性越大，两种产品之间的替代性越 强，两个企业的市场控制力就越小
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
12-3
垄断
单个企业 生产并销售没有替代品的产品或服务 由于存在进入壁垒新企业无法进入市场
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
12-2
市场力
企业在能够提高价格而又不损失销售量的 能力
~ 任何面临向下倾斜需求曲线的企业都具有市场 力
赋予企业将价格定在平均成本以上并获得 经济利润的能力 (如果需求和成本条件允许 的话)
© 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.