智能卡论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
中英文资料外文翻译文献
Introduction of smart card
A smart card, chip card, or integrated circuit card (ICC), is in any pocket-sized card with embedded integrated circuits which can process data. This implies that it can receive input which is processed —by way of the ICC applications —and delivered as an output. There are two broad categories of ICCs. Memory cards contain only non-volatile memory storage components, and perhaps some specific security logic. Microprocessor cards contain volatile memory and microprocessor components. The card is made of plastic, generally PVC, but sometimes ABS. The card may embed a hologram to avoid counterfeiting. Using smartcards also is a form of strong security authentication for single sign-on within large companies and organizations.
●Overview
A "smart card" is also characterized as follows:
◆Dimensions are normally credit card size. The ID-1 of ISO/IEC 7810
standard defines them as 85.60 × 53.98 mm. Another popular size is ID-000
which is 25 ×15 mm (commonly used in SIM cards). Both are 0.76 mm
thick.
◆Contains a security system with tamper-resistant properties (e.g. a secure
cryptoprocessor, secure file system, human-readable features) and is capable
of providing security services (e.g. confidentiality of information in the
memory).
◆Asset managed by way of a central administration system which interchanges
information and configuration settings with the card through the security
system. The latter includes card hotlisting, updates for application data.
◆Card data is transferred to the central administration system through card
reading devices, such as ticket readers, ATMs etc.
●Benefits
Smart cards can be used for identification, authentication, and data storage.[1] Smart cards provide a means of effecting business transactions in a flexible, secure, standard way with minimal human intervention.
Smart card can provide strong authentication[2] for single sign-on or enterprise single sign-on to computers, laptops, data with encryption, enterprise resource planning platforms such as SAP, etc.
●History
The automated chip card was invented by German rocket scientist Helmut Gr?ttrup and his colleague Jürgen Dethloff in 1968; the patent was finally approved in 1982. The first mass use of the cards was for payment in French pay phones, starting in 1983 (Telecarte).
Roland Moreno actually patented his first concept of the memory card in 1974. In 1977, Michel Ugon from Honeywell Bull invented the first microprocessor smart card. In 1978, Bull patented the SPOM (Self Programmable One-chip Microcomputer) that defines the necessary architecture to auto-program the chip. Three years later, the very first "CP8" based on this patent was produced by Motorola. At that time, Bull had 1200 patents related to smart cards. In 2001, Bull sold its CP8 Division together with all its patents to Schlumberger. Subsequently, Schlumberger combined its smart card department and CP8 and created Axalto. In 2006, Axalto and Gemplus, at the time the world's no.2 and no.1 smart card manufacturers, merged and became Gemalto.
A smart card, combining credit card and debit card properties. The 3 by 5 mm security chip embedded in the card is shown enlarged in the inset. The contact pads on the card enables electronic access to the chip.The second use was with the integration of microchips into all French debit cards (Carte Bleue) completed in 1992. When paying in France with a Carte Bleue, one inserts the card into the merchant's terminal, then types the PIN, before the transaction is accepted. Only very limited transactions (such as paying small autoroute tolls) are accepted without PIN.
Smart-card-based electronic purse systems (in which value is stored on the card chip, not in an externally recorded account, so that machines accepting the card need no network connectivity) were tried throughout Europe from the mid-1990s, most notably in Germany (Geldkarte), Austria (Quick), Belgium (Proton), France (Moneo), the Netherlands (Chipknip and Chipper), Switzerland ("Cash"), Norway ("Mondex"), Sweden ("Cash"), Finland ("Avant"), UK ("Mondex"), Denmark ("Danm?nt") and Portugal ("Porta-moedas Multibanco").
The major boom in smart card use came in the 1990s, with the introduction of the smart-card-based SIM used in GSM mobile phone equipment in Europe. With the ubiquity of mobile phones in Europe, smart cards have become very common.
The international payment brands MasterCard, Visa, and Europay agreed in 1993 to work together to develop the specifications for the use of smart cards in payment cards used as either a debit or a credit card. The first version of the EMV system was released in 1994. In 1998 a stable release of the specifications was available. EMVco, the company responsible for the long-term maintenance of the system, upgraded the specification in 2000 and most recently in 2004. The goal of EMVco is to assure the various financial institutions and retailers that the specifications retain backward compatibility with the 1998 version.
With the exception of countries such as the United States of America there has been significant progress in the deployment of EMV-compliant point of sale equipment and the issuance of debit and or credit cards adhering the EMV specifications. Typically, a country's national payment association, in coordination with MasterCard International, Visa International, American Express and JCB,
develop detailed implementation plans assuring a coordinated effort by the various stakeholders involved.
The backers of EMV claim it is a paradigm shift in the way one looks at payment systems. In countries where banks do not currently offer a single card capable of supporting multiple account types, there may be merit to this statement. Though some banks in these countries are considering issuing one card that will serve as both a debit card and as a credit card, the business justification for this is still quite elusive. Within EMV a concept called Application Selection defines how the consumer selects which means of payment to employ for that purchase at the point of sale.
For the banks interested in introducing smart cards the only quantifiable benefit is the ability to forecast a significant reduction in fraud, in particular counterfeit, lost and stolen. The current level of fraud a country is experiencing, coupled with whether that country's laws assign the risk of fraud to the consumer or the bank, determines if there is a business case for the financial institutions. Some critics claim that the savings are far less than the cost of implementing EMV, and thus many believe that the USA payments industry will opt to wait out the current EMV life cycle in order to implement new, contactless technology.
Smart cards with contactless interfaces are becoming increasingly popular for payment and ticketing applications such as mass transit. Visa and MasterCard have agreed to an easy-to-implement version currently being deployed (2004-2006) in the USA. Across the globe, contactless fare collection systems are being implemented to drive efficiencies in public transit. The various standards emerging are local in focus and are not compatible, though the MIFARE Standard card from Philips has a considerable market share in the US and Europe.
Smart cards are also being introduced in personal identification and entitlement schemes at regional, national, and intern ational levels. Citizen cards, drivers’ licenses, and patient card schemes are becoming more prevalent; For example in Malaysia, the compulsory national ID scheme MyKad includes 8 different applications and is rolled out for 18 million users. Contactless smart cards are being integrated into ICAO biometric passports to enhance security for international travel.
●Contact smart card
Contact smart cards have a contact area, comprising several gold-plated contact pads, that is about 1 cm square. When inserted into a reader, the chip makes contact with electrical connectors that can read information from the chip and write information back.[3]
The ISO/IEC 7816 and ISO/IEC 7810 series of standards define:
◆the physical shape
◆the positions and shapes of the electrical connectors
◆the electrical characteristics
◆the communications protocols, that includes the format of the commands sent
to the card and the responses returned by the card.
◆robustness of the card
the functionality
The cards do not contain batteries; energy is supplied by the card reader.
Electrical signals description
◆A smart card pinoutVCC : Power supply input
◆RST : Either used itself (reset signal supplied from the interface device) or in
combination with an internal reset control circuit (optional use by the card).
If internal reset is implemented, the voltage supply on Vcc is mandatory.
◆CLK : Clocking or timing signal (optional use by the card).
◆GND : Ground (reference voltage).
◆VPP : Programming voltage input (deprecated / optional use by the card).
◆I/O : Input or Output for serial data to the integrated circuit inside the card.
◆NOTE - The use of the two remaining contacts will be defined in the
appropriate application standards.
●Reader
Contact smart card readers are used as a communications medium between the smart card and a host, e.g. a computer, a point of sale terminal, or a mobile telephone.
Since the chips in the financial cards are the same as those used for mobile phone Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) cards, just programmed differently and embedded in a different shaped piece of PVC, the chip manufacturers are building to the more demanding GSM/3G standards. So, for instance, although EMV allows a chip card to draw 50 mA from its terminal, cards are normally well inside the telephone industry's 6mA limit. This is allowing financial card terminals to become smaller and cheaper, and moves are afoot to equip every home PC with a card reader and software to make internet shopping more secure.[citation needed]
●Contactless smart card
A second type is the contactless smart card, in which the chip communicates with the card reader through RFID induction technology (at data rates of 106 to 848 kbit/s). These cards require only close proximity to an antenna to complete transaction. They are often used when transactions must be processed quickly or hands-free, such as on mass transit systems, where smart cards can be used without even removing them from a wallet.
The standard for contactless smart card communications is ISO/IEC 14443. It defines two types of contactless cards ("A" and "B"), allows for communications at distances up to 10 cm. There had been proposals for ISO/IEC 14443 types C, D, E and F that have been rejected by the International Organization for Standardization. An alternative standard for contactless smart cards is ISO 15693, which allows communications at distances up to 50 cm.
Examples of widely used contactless smart cards are Hong Kong's Octopus card, South Korea's T-money (Bus, Subway, Taxi), London's Oyster card, Japan Rail's Suica Card and Mumbai Bus transportation service BEST uses smart cards for bus pass, which predate the ISO/IEC 14443 standard. All of them are primarily designed for public transportation payment and other electronic purse applications.
A related contactless technology is RFID (radio frequency identification). In certain cases, it can be used for applications similar to those of contactless smart cards, such as for electronic toll collection. RFID devices usually do not include writeable memory or microcontroller processing capability as contactless smart cards often do.
Like smart cards with contacts, contactless cards do not have a battery. Instead, they use a built-in inductor to capture some of the incident radio-frequency interrogation signal, rectify it, and use it to power the card's electronics.
●Cryptographic smart cards
Cryptographic smart cards are often used for single sign-on. Most advanced smart cards are equipped with specialized cryptographic hardware that let you use algorithms such as RSA and DSA on board. Today's cryptographic smart cards are also able to generate key pairs on board, to avoid the risk of having more than one copy of the key (since by design there usually isn't a way to extract private keys from a smart card).
Such smart cards are mainly used for digital signature and secure identification, (see applications section). [4]
The most common way to access cryptographic smart card functions on a computer is to use a PKCS#11 library provided by the vendor. On Microsoft Windows platforms the CSP API is also adopted.
The most widely used cryptographic algorithms in smart cards (excluding the GSM so-called "crypto algorithm") are 3DES (Triple DES) and RSA. The key set is usually loaded (DES) or generated (RSA) on the card at the personalization stage.
●Computer security
The Mozilla Firefox web browser can use smart cards to store certificates for use in secure web browsing[5].
Some disk encryption systems, such as FreeOTFE or TrueCrypt, can use smart cards to securely hold encryption keys, and also to add another layer of encryption to critical parts of the secured disk[6].
Smartcards are also used for single sign-on to log on to computers
Smartcards support functionality has been added to Windows Live Passports
●Financial
The applications of smart cards include their use as credit or ATM cards, in a fuel card, SIMs for mobile phones, authorization cards for pay television, pre-pay utilities in household, high-security identification and access-control cards, and public transport and public phone payment cards.
Smart cards may also be used as electronic wallets. The smart card chip can be loaded with funds which can be spent in parking meters and vending machines or at various merchants. Cryptographic protocols protect the exchange of money between the smart card and the accepting machine. There is no connection to the issuing bank necessary, so the holder of the card can use it regardless of him being the owner. The German Geldkarte is also used to validate the customers age at vending machines for cigarettes.
智能卡简介
智能卡、芯片卡或IC卡（ICC ），是指任何具有嵌入式集成电路并且可处理信息的袖珍卡。这意味着，它可以接收输入并由IC卡处理程序处理后产生输出。IC卡有两大类：记忆卡只包含非易失性存储器存储组件，甚至只有一些具体的安全逻辑；微处理器卡含有挥发性内存和微处理器组成部分，该卡是由塑料（一般是聚氯乙烯，但有时是ABS树脂）制成，可嵌入一个全息图像，以避免伪造。
●“智能卡”的特点如下：
◆尺寸通常为信用卡大小，根据ISO / IEC 7810的ID-1标准定义为85.60 ×
53.98毫米，还有一种流行的尺寸根据ID-000标准为25 × 15毫米，两者
都是0.76毫米厚。
◆通常包含一个安全系统——防篡改属性（例如一个安全的密码，安全文
件系统，人类可读的功能等），并有能力提供安全服务（如对信息保密
的记忆）。
◆通过一个中央管理系统进行交流信息和配置设置的卡通过安全体系完成
信息管理。后者包括信用卡更新的应用程序数据。
◆卡数据传送到中央管理系统通过卡阅读设备，如车票的读者，自动柜员
机等
●好处：
智能卡提供了一种手段，实行商业交易灵活，安全，标准方法以最小的人为干预。
智能卡可以提供强大的身份验证[2]为单点登录或企业单点登录电脑、笔记本电脑、数据加密、SAP等企业资源规划平台等。
●历史：
自动化的芯片卡是由德国火箭科学家Helmut Grottrup和他的同事Jürgen Dethloff在1968年提出，并1982年获得专利。首次大规模使用的信用卡是开始于1983年用于在法国支付付费电话。
Roland Moreno在1974年首次提出实际概念的记忆卡。1977年，Michel Ugon 发明了第一个微处理器的智能卡。1978年，Bull获得SPOM （自可编程单片微机）的专利，它确定了其必要的结构，以进行芯片自动编程。三年后，第一个“CP8 ”由摩托罗拉公司在此基础上获得专利。到现在共有1200个有关智能
卡的专利。
智能卡结合了信用卡和借记卡的属性。3到5毫米厚度使得安全芯片可以嵌入到卡中以存储安全信息。卡上有可以通电的金属片。智能卡的第二次的使用是在1992年的法国由整合芯片制成的借记卡（蓝卡）。当在法国使用蓝卡，只需要将卡插入到商家的终端，然后输入密码，在交易被接受之后便可完成支付。只有非常有限的交易（如支付小高速公路通行费）是使用了个人识别号码。
智能卡的电子钱包系统（信息记录在卡上，而不是在外部记录帐户，使机器识别信用卡不需要网络连接）从20世纪90年代中期开始风靡在整个欧洲：最典型的有德国（Geldkarte），奥地利（Quick），比利时（Proton），法国（Moneo），荷兰（Chipknip and Chipper），瑞士（Cash），瑞典（Cash），芬兰（Avant），英国（Mondex），丹麦（Danm?nt）和葡萄牙（Porta-moedas Multibanco）。
智能卡是在20世纪90年代随着使用SIM卡的GSM移动电话设备在欧洲广泛应用。随着手机在欧洲的普及，智能卡已成为非常普遍的。
国际支付品牌的MasterCard，Visa和Europay商定于1993年开发共同的标准，使用智能卡无论是作为借记卡还是信用卡都能在支付时使用。EMV系统的第一个版本的公布于1994年。在1998年发布了稳定的标准。EMVco 公司负责系统的长期维护，并在2000年升级了标准，最近一次是在2004年。EMVco的目标是要保证各金融机构和零售商的标准保持1998年版向后兼容。
除了一些国家坚持的EMV标准如美利坚合众国已取得EMV兼容的销售点设备和发放借记卡和信用卡部署的重大进展。一般来说，在国家支付协会的协调下，确保同MasterCard国际组织，Visa国际组织，American Express和JCB 共同制订详细的实施计划的标准一致，使各利益相关者参与。
EMV卡的支持者声称它提供了一个支付系统的范例。在有些国家的银行目前不提供单卡支持多个帐户类型的服务的情况系，这个声明可能是有道理的。虽然一些银行在这些国家正在考虑发行一张卡，使其作为一个借记卡和信用卡，商业卡，但这仍然相当困难。在所谓的EMV概念下界定的消费者如何选择支付手段成为销售点。
至于银行感兴趣的是介绍智能卡的标准化的好处是能够显着减少欺诈行为，特别是伪造，丢失和被盗。目前许多国家正在经历欺诈行为，再加上无论是国家法律对消费者或银行或是否有商业案例的金融机构赋予的欺诈风险。一些批评者宣称，实施EMV储蓄是远远低于成本的。因此许多人认为，美国支付行业将选择等待目前的EMV的生命周期以便实施新的非接触式技术。
非接触式接口智能卡在支付和票务应用方面变得越来越普遍，如大众交通。Visa和MasterCard已同意在美国部署一个易于执行的版本（2004-2006 ）。在全
球范围内，非接触式收费系统正在实施，以推动公共交通的效率。新出现的各种标准的重点是和本地的不兼容，兼容MIFARE标准卡的飞利浦在美国和欧洲具有相当的市场份额。
智能卡还介绍了个人身份和在区域，国家和国际水平权利。市民卡，驾驶执照，和病人卡计划正变得越来越普遍，例如在马来西亚，国家强制性身份证计划MyKad 包含8个不同的应用，并推向了18万用户。非接触式智能卡正被纳入国际民航组织生物识别护照，以加强国际旅行安全。
●接触式智能卡
接触式智能卡具有包括一些镀金接触焊盘约1厘米平方米的接触面积，使得该芯片插入阅读器时与其连接可以读取信息和写入信息。
ISO / IEC 7816和ISO / IEC 7810系列标准确定：
◆物理形状；
◆电器连接的位置和形状；
◆电气特性；
◆包括发送到卡和答复命令格式的通信协议；
◆卡的健壮性。
功能：该卡不包含电池，能源由读卡器提供。
电子信号描述：
◆VCC：电源输入，
◆RST：复位信号，
◆CLK：时钟信号，
◆GND：接地端，
◆VPP：编程电压，
◆I/O：数据输入/输出端口，
◆NOTE：两个未使用端口。
●阅读器
接触式智能卡阅读器是用来作为智能卡和主机之间的通信媒介，例如：一部个人电脑，销售点终端，或移动电话。
由于芯片金融卡和用于移动电话用户识别模块（SIM卡）卡是相同的，只是程序不同，植根于不同形状的PVC片，芯片制造商正在建设的标准，更严格的GSM/3G 。因此，虽然允许的EMV芯片卡从终端提供（举例来说）50毫安的电流也适用于电话行业的6毫安的限制。这是使金融卡终端更小，更便宜，而且读卡器和软件的后面，使每个家庭电脑网上购物更安全。
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毕业论文外文翻译模版
吉林化工学院理学院 毕业论文外文翻译English Title（Times New Roman ，三号） 学生学号：08810219 学生姓名：袁庚文 专业班级：信息与计算科学0802 指导教师：赵瑛 职称副教授 起止日期：2012.2.27～2012.3.14 吉林化工学院 Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology
1 外文翻译的基本内容 应选择与本课题密切相关的外文文献（学术期刊网上的），译成中文，与原文装订在一起并独立成册。在毕业答辩前，同论文一起上交。译文字数不应少于3000个汉字。 2 书写规范 2.1 外文翻译的正文格式 正文版心设置为：上边距：3.5厘米，下边距：2.5厘米，左边距：3.5厘米，右边距：2厘米，页眉：2.5厘米，页脚：2厘米。 中文部分正文选用模板中的样式所定义的“正文”，每段落首行缩进2字；或者手动设置成每段落首行缩进2字，字体：宋体，字号：小四，行距：多倍行距1.3，间距：前段、后段均为0行。 这部分工作模板中已经自动设置为缺省值。 2.2标题格式 特别注意：各级标题的具体形式可参照外文原文确定。 1．第一级标题（如：第1章绪论）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题1”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：三号，1.5倍行距，段后11磅，段前为11磅。 2．第二级标题（如：1.2 摘要与关键词）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题2”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：四号，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 3．第三级标题（如：1.2.1 摘要）选用模板中的样式所定义的“标题3”，居左；或者手动设置成字体：黑体，居左，字号：小四，1.5倍行距，段后为0，段前0.5行。 标题和后面文字之间空一格（半角）。 3 图表及公式等的格式说明 图表、公式、参考文献等的格式详见《吉林化工学院本科学生毕业设计说明书（论文）撰写规范及标准模版》中相关的说明。
毕业论文参考文献格式示例
例： 参考文献： [1]毛蕴诗. 跨国公司战略竞争与国际直接投资[M].广州: 中山大学出版社 [2]ALEXANDER N. International Retailing [M].Oxford:Blackwell Business,1997 .日本税法[M].战宪斌,郑林根,译.北京:法律出版社.信息技术与信息服务[M]//许厚泽,赵其国.信息技术与应用.,於方,蒋红强,等. 建立中国绿色GDP 核算体系:机遇、挑战与对策[C]//潘岳,绿色GDP 核算体系国际研讨会论文集. 北京:中国环境科学出版社, 2004:35-42. 黄祖洽.软凝聚态物理研究进展[J].北京师范大学学报:自然科学版,2005,41(1) :N, MYERS H. European Retail Expansion in South East Asia[J].European 1999,34(2): 45-50. 丁文祥.数字革命与竞争国际化[N]. 中国青年报, 2000-11-20 (15). 张志祥.间断动力系统的随机扰动及其在守恒律方程中的应用[D].北京:北京大学数学学院,1998. 冯西桥.核反应堆压力管 道与压力容器的LBB 分析[R].北京:清华大学核能技术设计研究院莫少强.数字式中文全文文献格式的设计与研究[J/OL].情报学报,1999,18(4):https://www.360docs.net/doc/7018407414.html,/periodical/qbxb/qbxb990407.htm. 奚纪荣,邱志方.武略文韬:军事知识趣谈[M/OL].上海: 汉语大词典出版社, 2001: [13]杜莲.“9·11”事件影响英国出版news/20010929/200109290016.htm. 英文作者姓名全部 用大写字母
英语专业毕业论文翻译类论文
英语专业毕业论文翻译 类论文 Document number：NOCG-YUNOO-BUYTT-UU986-1986UT
毕业论文（设计）Title:The Application of the Iconicity to the Translation of Chinese Poetry 题目:象似性在中国诗歌翻译中的应用 学生姓名孔令霞 学号 BC09150201 指导教师祁晓菲助教 年级 2009级英语本科（翻译方向）二班 专业英语 系别外国语言文学系
黑龙江外国语学院本科生毕业论文（设计）任务书 摘要
索绪尔提出的语言符号任意性，近些年不断受到质疑，来自语言象似性的研究是最大的挑战。语言象似性理论是针对语言任意性理论提出来的，并在不断发展。象似性是当今认知语言学研究中的一个重要课题，是指语言符号的能指与所指之间的自然联系。本文以中国诗歌英译为例，探讨象似性在中国诗歌翻译中的应用，从以下几个部分阐述：（1）象似性的发展；（2）象似性的定义及分类；（3）中国诗歌翻译的标准；（4）象似性在中国诗歌翻译中的应用，主要从以下几个方面论述：声音象似、顺序象似、数量象似、对称象似方面。通过以上几个方面的探究，探讨了中国诗歌翻译中象似性原则的重大作用，在诗歌翻译过程中有助于得到“形神皆似”和“意美、音美、形美”的理想翻译效果。 关键词：象似性；诗歌；翻译
Abstract The arbitrariness theory of language signs proposed by Saussure is severely challenged by the study of language iconicity in recent years. The theory of iconicity is put forward in contrast to that of arbitrariness and has been developing gradually. Iconicity, which is an important subject in the research of cognitive linguistics, refers to a natural resemblance or analogy between the form of a sign and the object or concept. This thesis mainly discusses the application of the iconicity to the translation of Chinese poetry. The paper is better described from the following parts: (1) The development of the iconicity; (2) The definition and classification of the iconicity; (3) The standards of the translation to Chinese poetry; (4) The application of the iconicity to the translation of Chinese poetry, mainly discussed from the following aspects: sound iconicity, order iconicity, quantity iconicity, and symmetrical iconicity. Through in-depth discussion of the above aspects, this paper could come to the conclusion that the iconicity is very important in the translation of poetry. It is conductive to reach the ideal effect of “the similarity of form and spirit” and “the three beauties”. Key words: the iconicity; poetry; translation
软件工程中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译 (文档含英文原文和中文翻译) Application Fundamentals Android applications are written in the Java programming language. The compiled Java code — along with any data and resource files required by the application — is bundled by the aapt tool into an Android package, an archive file marked by an .apk suffix. This file is the vehicle for distributing the application and installing it on mobile devices; it's the file users download to their devices. All the code in a single .apk file is considered to be one application. In many ways, each Android application lives in its own world: 1. By default, every application runs in its own Linux process. Android starts the process when any of the application's code needs to be executed, and shuts down the process when it's no longer needed and system resources are required by other applications. 2. Each process has its own virtual machine (VM), so application code runs in isolation from the code of all other applications. 3. By default, each application is assigned a unique Linux user ID. Permissions are set so that the application's files are visible only to that user and only to the application itself — although there are ways to export them to other applications as well. It's possible to arrange for two applications to share the same user ID, in which case they will be able to see each other's files. To conserve system resources, applications with the same ID can also arrange to run in the same Linux process, sharing the same
大学毕业论文---软件专业外文文献中英文翻译
软件专业毕业论文外文文献中英文翻译 Object landscapes and lifetimes Tech nically, OOP is just about abstract data typing, in herita nee, and polymorphism, but other issues can be at least as importa nt. The rema in der of this sect ion will cover these issues. One of the most importa nt factors is the way objects are created and destroyed. Where is the data for an object and how is the lifetime of the object con trolled? There are differe nt philosophies at work here. C++ takes the approach that con trol of efficie ncy is the most importa nt issue, so it gives the programmer a choice. For maximum run-time speed, the storage and lifetime can be determined while the program is being written, by placing the objects on the stack (these are sometimes called automatic or scoped variables) or in the static storage area. This places a priority on the speed of storage allocatio n and release, and con trol of these can be very valuable in some situati ons. However, you sacrifice flexibility because you must know the exact qua ntity, lifetime, and type of objects while you're writing the program. If you are trying to solve a more general problem such as computer-aided desig n, warehouse man ageme nt, or air-traffic con trol, this is too restrictive. The sec ond approach is to create objects dyn amically in a pool of memory called the heap. In this approach, you don't know un til run-time how many objects you n eed, what their lifetime is, or what their exact type is. Those are determined at the spur of the moment while the program is runnin g. If you n eed a new object, you simply make it on the heap at the point that you n eed it. Because the storage is man aged dyn amically, at run-time, the amount of time required to allocate storage on the heap is sig ni fica ntly Ion ger tha n the time to create storage on the stack. (Creat ing storage on the stack is ofte n a si ngle assembly in structio n to move the stack poin ter dow n, and ano ther to move it back up.) The dyn amic approach makes the gen erally logical assumpti on that objects tend to be complicated, so the extra overhead of finding storage and releas ing that storage will not have an importa nt impact on the creati on of an object .In additi on, the greater flexibility is esse ntial to solve the gen eral program ming problem. Java uses the sec ond approach, exclusive". Every time you want to create an object, you use the new keyword to build a dyn amic in sta nee of that object. There's ano ther issue, however, and that's the lifetime of an object. With Ian guages that allow objects to be created on the stack, the compiler determines how long the object lasts and can automatically destroy it. However, if you create it on the heap the compiler has no kno wledge of its lifetime. In a Ianguage like C++, you must determine programmatically when to destroy the
文献综述和外文翻译撰写要求与格式规范
本科毕业论文（设计）文献综述和外文翻译 撰写要求与格式规范 一、毕业论文（设计）文献综述 （一）毕业论文（设计）文献综述的内容要求 1．封面：由学院统一设计，普通A4纸打印即可。 2.正文 综述正文部分需要阐述所选课题在相应学科领域中的发展进程和研究方向，特别是近年来的发展趋势和最新成果。通过与中外研究成果的比较和评论，说明自己的选题是符合当前的研究方向并有所进展，或采用了当前的最新技术并有所改进，目的是使读者进一步了解本课题的意义。文中的用语、图纸、表格、插图应规范、准确，量和单位的使用必须符合国家标准规定，引用他人资料要有标注。 文献综述字数在5000字以上。 正文前须附500字左右中文摘要，末尾须附参考文献。 参考文献的著录按在文献综述中出现的先后顺序编号。 期刊类文献书写方法:[序号]作者（不超过3人，多者用等表示）.题（篇）名[J].刊名,出版年,卷次（期次）:起止页次.
图书类文献书写方法:[序号]作者.书名[M].版本.出版地:出版者,出版年:起止页次. 论文集类文献书写方法:[序号]作者.篇名[C].论文集名.出版地:出版者,出版年:起止页次. 学位论文类书写方法:[序号]作者.篇名[D].出版地:单位名称,年份. 电子文献类书写方法:[序号]主要责任者. 题名:其他题名信息[文献类型标志/文献载体标志 ]出版地:出版者,出版年（更新或修改日期）[引用日期].获取和访问途径. 参考文献篇数应符合学院毕业论文（设计）工作的要求。 （二）毕业论文（设计）文献综述撰写与装订的格式规范 第一部分：封面 1.封面：由学院统一设计，“本科生毕业论文（设计）”根据作业实际明确为“论文”或“设计”，其它文本、表格遇此类情况同样处理。 第二部分：文献综述主题 1.中文摘要与关键词 摘要标题（五号，宋体，顶格，加粗）
毕业论文 外文翻译#(精选.)
毕业论文（设计）外文翻译 题目：中国上市公司偏好股权融资：非制度性因素 系部名称：经济管理系专业班级:会计082班 学生姓名：任民学号： 200880444228 指导教师：冯银波教师职称:讲师 年月日
译文： 中国上市公司偏好股权融资：非制度性因素 国际商业管理杂志 2009.10 摘要：本文把重点集中于中国上市公司的融资活动，运用西方融资理论，从非制度性因素方面，如融资成本、企业资产类型和质量、盈利能力、行业因素、股权结构因素、财务管理水平和社会文化，分析了中国上市公司倾向于股权融资的原因，并得出结论，股权融资偏好是上市公司根据中国融资环境的一种合理的选择。最后，针对公司的股权融资偏好提出了一些简明的建议。 关键词：股权融资，非制度性因素，融资成本 一、前言 中国上市公司偏好于股权融资，根据中国证券报的数据显示，1997年上市公司在资本市场的融资金额为95.87亿美元，其中股票融资的比例是72.5％，，在1998年和1999年比例分别为72.6％和72.3％，另一方面，债券融资的比例分别是17.8％，24.9％和25.1％。在这三年，股票融资的比例，在比中国发达的资本市场中却在下跌。以美国为例，当美国企业需要的资金在资本市场上，于股权融资相比他们宁愿选择债券融资。统计数据显示，从1970年到1985年，美日企业债券融资占了境外融资的91.7％，比股权融资高很多。阎达五等发现，大约中国3/4的上市公司偏好于股权融资。许多研究的学者认为，上市公司按以下顺序进行外部融资：第一个是股票基金，第二个是可转换债券，三是短期债务，最后一个是长期负债。许多研究人员通常分析我国上市公司偏好股权是由于我们国家的经济改革所带来的制度性因素。他们认为，上市公司的融资活动违背了西方古典融资理论只是因为那些制度性原因。例如，优序融资理论认为，当企业需要资金时，他们首先应该转向内部资金（折旧和留存收益），然后再进行债权融资，最后的选择是股票融资。在这篇文章中，笔者认为，这是因为具体的金融环境激活了企业的这种偏好，并结合了非制度性因素和西方金融理论，尝试解释股权融资偏好的原因。
英语专业翻译类论文参考文献
参考文献 一、翻译理论与实践相关书目 谢天振主编. 《当代国外翻译理论导读》. 天津：南开大学出版社，2008. Jeremy Munday. 《翻译学导论——理论与实践》Introducing Translation Studies---Theories and Applications. 李德凤等译. 北京：商务印书馆，2007. 包惠南、包昂. 《中国文化与汉英翻译》. 北京：外文出版社, 2004. 包惠南. 《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. 2001. 毕继万. 《世界文化史故事大系——英国卷》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 2003. 蔡基刚. 《英汉汉英段落翻译与实践》. 上海：复旦大学出版社, 2001. 蔡基刚. 《英汉写作对比研究》. 上海：复旦大学出版社, 2001. 蔡基刚. 《英语写作与抽象名词表达》. 上海：复旦大学出版社, 2003. 曹雪芹、高鄂. 《红楼梦》. 陈定安. 《英汉比较与翻译》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 1991. 陈福康. 《中国译学理论史稿》（修订本）. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2000. 陈生保. 《英汉翻译津指》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. 1998. 陈廷祐. 《英文汉译技巧》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 2001. 陈望道. 《修辞学发凡》. 上海：上海教育出版社, 1979. 陈文伯. 《英汉翻译技法与练习》. 北京：世界知识出版社. 1998. 陈中绳、吴娟. 《英汉新词新义佳译》. 上海：上海翻译出版公司. 1990. 陈忠诚. 《词语翻译丛谈》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 1983. 程希岚. 《修辞学新编》. 吉林：吉林人民出版社, 1984. 程镇球. 《翻译论文集》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 2002. 程镇球. 《翻译问题探索》. 北京：商务印书馆, 1980. 崔刚. 《广告英语》. 北京：北京理工大学出版社, 1993. 单其昌. 《汉英翻译技巧》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 1990. 单其昌. 《汉英翻译讲评》. 北京：对外贸易教育出版社. 1989. 邓炎昌、刘润清. 《语言与文化——英汉语言文化对比》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 1989. 丁树德. 《英汉汉英翻译教学综合指导》. 天津：天津大学出版社, 1996. 杜承南等，《中国当代翻译百论》. 重庆：重庆大学出版社, 1994. 《翻译通讯》编辑部. 《翻译研究论文集（1894-1948）》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 1984. 《翻译通讯》编辑部. 《翻译研究论文集（1949-1983）》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 1984. . 范勇主编. 《新编汉英翻译教程》. 天津：南开大学出版社. 2006. 方梦之、马秉义（编选）. 《汉译英实践与技巧》. 北京：旅游教育出版社. 1996. 方梦之. 《英语汉译实践与技巧》. 天津：天津科技翻译出版公司. 1994. 方梦之主编. 《译学辞典》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2004. 冯翠华. 《英语修辞大全》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 1995. 冯庆华. 《文体与翻译》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 2002. 冯庆华主编. 《文体翻译论》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2002. 冯胜利. 《汉语的韵律、词法与句法》. 北京：北京大学出版社, 1997. 冯志杰. 《汉英科技翻译指要》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. 1998. 耿占春. 《隐喻》. 北京：东方出版社, 1993.
软件工程论文参考文献
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