语言学补充课后题 - 360文档中心

现代语言学前五章课后习题答案

Chapter 1 Introduction1.Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study oflanguage. 请解释以下语言学的定义:语言学是对语言的科学研究。

Linguistics investigates not any particular languagebut languages in general.Linguistic study is scientific because it is baxxxxsed on the systematic investigation of authentic language data.No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually usedformulating some hypothesesand testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.语言学研究的不是任何特定的语言，而是一般的语言。

语言研究是科学的，因为它是建立在对真实语言数据的系统研究的基础上的。

只有在语言学家做了以下三件事之后，才能得出严肃的语言学结论:观察语言的实际使用方式，提出一些假设，并用语言事实检验这些假设的正确性。

1.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?语言学的主要分支是什么?他们每个人都研究什么?Phonetics-How speech sounds are produced and classified语音学——语音是如何产生和分类的Phonology-How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning音系学——声音如何形成系统和功能来传达意义Morphology-How morphemes are combined to form words形态学——词素如何组合成单词Sytax-How morphemes and words are combined to form sentences句法学-词素和单词如何组合成句子Semantics-The study of meaning ( in abstraction)语义学——意义的研究(抽象)Pragmatics-The study of meaning in context of use语用学——在使用语境中对意义的研究Sociolinguistics-The study of language with reference to society社会语言学——研究与社会有关的语言Psycholinguistics-The study of language with reference to the workings of the mind心理语言学:研究与大脑活动有关的语言Applied Linguistics-The application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning应用语言学——语言学原理和理论在语言教学中的应用1.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?现代语言学与传统语法有何不同?Modern linguistics is descxxxxriptive;its investigations are baxxxxsed on authenticand mainly spoken language data.现代语言学是描述性的，它的研究是基于真实的，主要是口语数据。

语言学补充练习(1-3)

第一章语言学入门知识：I. 名词解释1．cultural transmission (as a defining property of language)Answer: While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted. They are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.2．descriptive linguistics vs. prescriptive linguisticsAnswer: A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior. Linguistic studies before the 204 century are largely prescriptive whereas modem linguistic is mostly descriptive.II. 判断正误（T for True and F for False）1. When language is used to get information, it serves an informative function.Answer: F (It serves an interrogative function).2．Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation.Answer: F (The primary units in these systems cannot be further divided into elements. So what they lack is the secondary level of articulation.) 3．Descriptive linguistics are concerned with how languages work, not with how they can be improved.Answer: TIII. 填空题1．By saying that "language is arbitrary", we mean that there is no logical connection between meaning and _______.Answer: sounds2．The distinction between langue and parole is made by the Swiss linguist E de Saussure. The distinction between competence and performance is made by the American linguist__________.Answer: Noam Chomsky3．An approach to linguistic study which attempts to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used is _______.Answer: prescriptiveIV. 选择题1．Unlike animal communication system, human language is ______.A. stimulus freeB. stimulus boundC. under immediate stimulus controlD. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interestAnswer：A2. ____ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modem linguistics.a. Chomskyb. Saussurec. Bloomfieldd. John LyonAnswer: bV. 问答题l. Is language productive or not? Why?Answer: Firstly, Language is productive or creative. This means that language users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before. Secondly, Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems have a limited repertoire, which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. Thirdly, The productivity or creativity of human language originates from its duality. Because of duality, the speaker can combine the basiclinguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences. The productivity of language also means its potential to create endless sentences. This is made possible by the recursive nature of language.2. Comment on the f ollowing statement: “In linguistics, ‘language’ onlymeans what a person says or said in a given situation”.Answer: This statement is incorrect. In linguistics, "language" has several layers of meaning: firstly, the whole of a person’s language, e.g. Sha kespeare’s language; secondly, a particular variety or level of speech or writing, e.g. scientific language, literary language, colloquial language; thirdly, an abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community, e.g. the English language, the Chinese language; lastly, there is an even more abstract sense of "language", referring to the common features of all human languages that distinguish them from animal communication systems or any artificial language.3. Point out three ways in which linguistics differs from traditional grammar.Answer: Firstly, most linguistic analyses today focus on speech rather than writing. Secondly, modem linguistics is mostly descriptive while traditional grammar is largely prescriptive. Thirdly, a third difference is the priority of synchronic description over the traditional diachronic studies.4. What is the major difference between Saussure' s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?Answer: Saussure’s langue is social product, a set of conventions for a speech community. Chomsky regards competence as a property of themind of each individual. Saussure studies language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky studies it more from a psychological point of view.第二章语音学和音位学I. 名词解释1．narrow transcriptionAnswer: There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the “broad transcription”----the transcription with letter-symbols only, and the other is “narrow transcription”---the transcription with letter-symbols accompanied by the diacritics which can help bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.2. Illustrate the term “allophone” with at least one appropriate example. Answer: Allophones are the different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word different from another in meaning. For example, in English, the phoneme /l/ is pronounced differently in "let", "play" and "tell". The first /l/ is made by raising the front of the tongue to the hard palate, while the vocal cords are vibrating; the second /l/ is made with the same tongue position as the first, but the vocal cords are not vibrating; and the third /l/ is made by raisingnot only the front by also the back of the tongue while the vocal cords are vibrating.II 判断正误（T for True and F for False）1. /o/ is a mid-high front rounded vowel.Answer: F. (/o/ is a mid-high BACK rounded vowel.)2. A phoneme in one language or one dialect may be an allophone in another language or dialect.Answer: T.III. 填空题：1. The three cavities in the articulatory apparatus are _____, _______, and _____.Answer: pharynx, the nasal cavity, the oral cavity2. By the position of the ____ part of the tongue, vowels and classified as front vowels, central vowels and back vowels.Answer: highest.3. ____refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound.Answer: Assimilation.4. You are required to fill in the blanks below abiding by the instancegiven beforehand.Example: /p/: voiced bilabial stop/s/: ________________/g/:_______________/tʃ/:______________/t/: _______________/f /: _______________Answer:/s/: voiceless alveolar fricative/g/: voiced velar stop/tʃ/: voiceless alveo-palatal/post-alveolar affricate/ t /: voiced dental fricative/f /: voiceless labiodental fricative5. Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs and minimal sets?pat, pen more, heat, tape, bun, fat, ban, chain, tale, bell, far, meal, vote, bet, heel, ten, men, pit, main, hit, eat, manAnswer:pat, fat; pat, pit; pit, hit;pen, ten; ten, men;heat, eat; heat, heel;tape, tale;bun, ban;chain, main;bell, bet;meal, heel;man, men, main.IV. 选择题1. All syllables contain a(n) _______.a. nucleusb. codac. onsetAnswer: a2. _____is one of the supersegmental features.a. Stopb. Voicingc. Deletiond. ToneAnswer: d3. Which of the following consonants does not exist in English?a. dental stopb. bilabial stopc. alveolar stopd. velar stopAnswer: a4. _____is not an English consonant.a. Labiodental plosiveb. Alveolar nasalc. Velar stopd. Dental fricativeAnswer: aV. 辨音选择1. What are the distinctive features that group the following sounds in these sets?1) /f, v ,s/2) /p, f, b/3) /g, z, b/4) /k, g, w/5) /m, n, ŋ/Answer: 1) fricative 2) obstruent 3) voiced 4) velar5) nasal2. There is one segment that does not belong to the natural class in each of the following groups of speech sounds. You are required to identify that segment and label the natural class, using a descriptive term asspecific as possible.a) /m/, /n/, /w/, / ŋ /b) /v/, /w/, /z/, /t/c) /n/, /f/, /l/, /s/, /t/, /d/, /z/Answer:1) /w/ is a semi-vowel, and the others are all nasals.2) /t/ is voiceless, and the others are voiced.3) /f/ is labiodental, and the rest are alveolarVI. 问答题1．Circle the words that contain a sound as required:1) a low vowel: pipe, gather, article, leave, cook2) a bilabial consonant: cool, lad, leap, bomb, push3) an approximant: luck, boots, word, once, table4) a front vowel: god, neat, pit, lush, cook5) a velar: god, fast, chat, lake, quick2．Exemplify the relationship between phone, phoneme and allophone. Answer: Firstly, a “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones may or may not distinguish meaning. Secondly, a "phoneme" is a phonological unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound. It is represented orrealized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Thirdly, the phones representing a phoneme are called its "allophones". How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random but rule-governed in most cases.3．When we are pronouncing the following phrases, how do we actually articulate the "n" sound in the word "ten"? Do we still pronounce it as /n/?1) ten houses 2) ten teachers 3) ten colleges 4) ten pupils 5) ten buildings 6) ten classesAnswer: 1) /n/2) /n/3) / ŋ /4) /m/5) /m/6) / ŋ /4．How many functions do the vocal cords have in the production of speech sounds?Answer: They have three functions: to make a glottal stop, to produce a voiced sound and to produce a voiceless sound.第三章形态学I. 名词解释1．morphemeAnswer: The morpheme is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering its meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. For instance, the word "barks" in "The dog barks" consists of two morphemes ― "bark" and "-s", neither of which can be further divided into other smaller meaningful units.2．lexemeAnswer: The term "lexeme" is postulated to reduce the ambiguity of the term "word". It is the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts. For example, "write" is the lexeme of the following set of words: "writes", "wrote", "writing", "written".3．inflectional morphemesAnswer: Inflectional morphemes are also called inflectional affixes. They manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case. In English, all inflectional morphemes are suffixes, e.g. -(e)s, -ing, -(e)d, -est.II. 判断正误1．A root is not always a free form.Answer: T (There are such bound roots as “-ceive”.)III. 填空题1．Polymorphemic words other than compounds have two parts: the roots and the ____.Answer: affixes2．On, before and together are_____words ― they are words which do not take inflectional endings.Answer: grammatical (functional/form)IV．选择题1．"Radar" is a/an____.a. acronymb. blendingc. coinaged. clippingAnswer: a2．Compound words consist of______ morphemes.a. boundb. freec. both bound and freeAnswer: bV. 匹配题Match each expression under A with the one statement under B that characterizes it.A B1. a noisy crow a. compound noun2. eat crow b. root morpheme plus derivational prefix3. scarecrow c. phrase consisting of an adjective plus noun4. the crow d. root morpheme plus inflection affix5. crowlike e. root morpheme plus derivational suffix6. crows f. grammatical morpheme followed by lexical morphemeg. idiomAnswer: 1. c 2. g 3. a 4. f 5. e 6. dVI. 问答题1. Divide the following words into Roots, IA (inflectional affix) and/or DA (derivational affix).1) transformations 2) looseleaves3) destructive 4) geese 5) misledAnswer:1) trans- (DA) form (Root) -ation (DA) s (IA)2) loose (Root) leave (Root) s (IA)3) de- (DA) struct (Root) -ive (DA)4) geese (IA)5) mis- (DA) led (IA)2. Label the morphological category of the morphemes underlined in each of the English expressions.a) I' ve been here.b) transformc) oxend) recurAnswer: a) bound morpheme b) derivational prefix c) inflectional suffix d) bound root3. Each of the following Persian words is poly-morphemic. You are required to match each of the notions given below with a morpheme in Persian. (Note that xar means "buy" and -id designates the past tense). xaridiYou (singular) bought.naxaridamI did not buy.namixaridandThey were not buying.xaridHe bought.naxaridimWe did not buy.mixaridHe was buying.mixarididYou (plural) were buying.xaridamI bought.Match each of the notions given below with a morpheme in Persian:a) Ib) you (singular)c) notd) was/were V-ing (continuous)Answer: a) amb) ic) nad) miVid4．It is a fact that morphological processes may be sensitive to certain phonological context. The English data given below illustrate this fact. You are required to state the phonological contexts where the addition of -en is possible.a bwhiten *bluenmadden *stupidenredden *greenenFatten *fartheren quicken *slowendeafen *difficultenLiven *abstractenharden *shallowensoften *angryendeepen *vividenAnswer: The suffix -en, which attaches to adjectives to form verbs, can only attach to monosyllabic bases ending in oral stops or fricatives.VerbAdjective-en if Adjective ends in an obstruent (oral stop or fricative).- <Φ> if Adjective ends in a sonorant (nasal, approximant, vowel) Meaning: to make (more) Adjectives5．The word uneasiness may be analyzed in either of the two ways below. You are required to find an argument to support one of the two analyses.a)NPrefixNoununAdjectiveSuffixeasinessb)NAdjectiveSuffixPrefixAdjectivenessuneasiAnswer: b) is the correct analysis, because un- only attaches to adjectivesto form other adjectives. Un- cannot be attached to a noun.。

语言学概论课后习题

语言学概论课后习题总分105分，其中选择和填空一共85分，最后自动出现的分数只有选择和填空的分数一、选择题1.我国传统的语文学是（） [单选题] *A. 文字学、音韵学、训诂学(正确答案)B. 词汇学、音韵学、语法学B. 音韵学、语法学、词汇学D. 文字学、词汇学、语法学2. 语言学家吸收和使用比较方法来研究梵语和希腊语、拉丁语、日耳曼语等的关系，创造了（），用来研究和揭示语言的发展规律。

（） [单选题] *A. 结构主义语言学B. 功能主义语言学C. 认知语言学D.历史比较法(正确答案)3.（）是“现代语言学之父”也是结构主义的鼻祖。

（） [单选题] *A. 梅耶B.索绪尔(正确答案)C. 利奇D.赵元任4.一个中国孩子从小在英国长大，结果他只会讲英语而不会说汉语，这说明( )。

[单选题] *A．语言具有阶级性B．语言是个人现象C．语言是社会现象(正确答案)D．语言是自然现象5.同样表示“书”这一事物，汉语中用shū这个音来指代，英语中则用book[buk]这一语音形式来指代。

这是因为语音和它所指代的意义之间的关系是( )。

[单选题] * A．国家规定的B．有本质的联系C．社会成员约定俗成的(正确答案)D．有必然的联系6.下列说法正确的是（） [单选题] *A．语言可以表达不同阶级的思想意识，所以是有阶级性的。

B．语言既不属于上层建筑也不属于经济基础(正确答案)C．语言可以离开社会而独立存在D．语言在无阶级社会是没有阶级性的，在有阶级社会是有阶级性的7.语言成分按线性次序组合起来所形成的关系是( )。

[单选题] *A.层级关系B.组合关系(正确答案)C.聚合关系D.没有关系8.下列说法只有不正确的是（） [单选题] *A．语言符号不可以拆卸拼装，不具有生成能力。

(正确答案)B．文字和旗语都是在语言的基础上形成的。

C．语言是其它所有交际工具的基础。

D．从音位到语素，这是语言分层装置里最关键的接合部。

语言学课后习题答案

Chapter 1Introduction 1. Deﬁne the following terms brieﬂy.(1) linguistics: the scientiﬁc or systematic study of language.(2) language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(3) arbitrariness: the absence of similarity between the form of a linguisticsign and what it relates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look likea dog.(4) duality: the way meaningless elements of language at one level (soundsand letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.(5) competence: knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formalabstraction and distinct from the behavior of actual language use, i.e.performance.(6) performance: Chomsky’s term for actual language behavior as distinct fromthe knowledge that underlies it, or competence.(7) stylistics: the study of how literary effects can be related to linguisticfeatures.(8) phatic communion: Language is used to establish an atmosphere ormaintain social contact between the speaker and the hearer.(9) functionalism: the study of the forms of language in reference to theirsocial function in communication.(10) formalism: the study of the abstract forms of language and their internalrelations.(11) synchronic linguistics: the study of language and speech as they are usedat a given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.(12) diachronic linguistics: the study of linguistic change over time in contrastto looking at language as it is used at a given moment.2. No, language is human-speciﬁc. Human language has seven design features, including arbitrariness, duality, productivity, interchangeability, displacement, specialization and cultural transmission. These features are found utterly lacking in dogs’ or pigs’ noises and thus set human language apart from animal cry systems.3. Arbitrariness refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connectionbet ween a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, for the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, in Chinese as “gou”, but “yilu”in Japanese; it barks wow wow in English but wang wang in Chinese. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack” and “bang” are exceptions, but words like these are relatively few compared with the total number of words in a language.4. A human baby does not speak any language at birth. What language the baby is going to speak is determined by the culture he is born into. A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English child brought up in Beijing by a Chinese aunt will speak Chinese. That is to say, language cannot be transmitted through heredity. It is culturally transmitted.5. Firstly, linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Secondly, linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of the written language. Thirdly, traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages, while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.6. A descriptive approach attempts to tell what is in the language while the prescriptive approach tells people what should be in the language. Most modern linguistics is descriptive, whereas traditional grammars are prescriptive.7. Synchronic linguistics studies language at one particular time while diachronic linguistics studies language developments through time. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.8. No, human language has the design feature of specialization. It refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. For example, a mother can tell a story to her child while slicing up a cake. However, wolves can only respond to a stimulus and is totally involved physically in the communication process. Thus, a wolf cannot have a language similar to man’s, even though it could express a thousand different emotions. Besides, the aspect of productivity also distinguishes human language from wolf ’s postures.Chapter 2The Sounds of Language 1. Deﬁne each of the following terms brieﬂy.(1) articulator: the tongue, lips, and velum, which change the shape of the vocaltract to produce different speech sounds.(2) assimilation: a phonological process whereby a sound becomes phoneticallysimilar (or identical) to a neighboring sound, e.g. a vowel becomes [+nasal] when followed by a [+nasal] consonant.(3) consonant: a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of partof the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airﬂow and creating audible friction.Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.(4) elision: the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech.(5) intonation: the variation in pitch and stress which gives beat and rhythmto the tune the voice plays in ordinary speech.(6) phoneme: the abstract element of a sound, identiﬁed as being distinctivein a particular language.(7) phonetics: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they areproduced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(8) phonology: the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds oflanguage.(9) stress: the prominence given to certain sounds in speech.(10) voicing: the vibration in the larynx caused by air from thelungs passing through the vocal cords when they are partly closed; speech sounds are said to be either voiced or voiceless.(11) voiceless: When the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstreamfrom the lungs is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely. The sounds produced in this way are described asvoiceless sounds.(12) vowel: a speech sound produced without signiﬁcant constriction of theair ﬂowing through the oral cavity.2. Minimal pair test or substitution test.Minimal pair test or substitution test is to see whether substituting one sound for 4another results in a different word. If it does, the two sounds representdifferent phonemes. For example, as to the English word bear, if we substitute p for b, we get the word pear, the two are different words. Then /b/ and /p/ represent different phonemes. Other examples are chunk/junk, ban/bin, bet/beat, ﬁne/vine, side/site, etc.3. Take the word big for example, in the word big /big/, /b/ is the onset, /i/ is the nucleus and /g/ is the coda. The difference between open syllables and closed syllables is whether the words have codas. If there are codas, they are closed syllables, such as pig, hat and at; if not, they are open syllables, such as do, I, tea and key.4. (1) stop, consonant(2) back, rounded, vowel5. (1) voiceless / voiced(2) bilabial / labiodental(3) close / semi-open(4) stop / nasal(5) alveolar / palatal(6) alveolar / dental(1) kit/git, bucker/bugger, bag/back(2) mark/nark, smack/snack, sum/sun(3) best/vest, ober/over, lib/live(4) bore/more, abate/amate, mob/mom(5) pat/fat, apt/aft (AmE), harp (BrE)/half7. (1) The stresses are placed on the second syllable except for “promise”. We may easily conclude that the verbs usually are stressed on the second syllable. (2) Syllable representations of the words:collide [k2#laid] elect [i#lekt] consider [k2n#sid2]Chapter 3Morphology 1. Deﬁne the following terms brieﬂy.(1) morphology: the study of the structure of words.5(2) morpheme: the smallest unit of language that carries meaning orserves a grammatical function.(3) free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.(4) bound morpheme: a morpheme that can not stand alone as a word,e.g. ment (as in establishment), and -er (as in painter).(5) morph: the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance onthe level of parole.(6) allomorph: a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized, e.g. -s, -es,and en are all allomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.(7) derivation: the formation of new words by adding afﬁxes to other words ormorphemes in morphology and word formation.(8) clipping: the process by which parts of a word of more than one syllablehave been cut off, and reduced to a shorter form.(9) acronym: words which are composed of the ﬁrst letter of a series ofwords and are pronounced as single words. Examples: NATO, radar and yuppy.(10) initialism: Some new words are composed of the ﬁrst letters of aseries of words and pronounced by saying each letter in them. Such words are called initialism.(11) blending: A single new word can be formed by combining two separateforms. Typically, blending is ﬁnished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. For example,brunch is formed by the shortened forms of breakfast and lunch.(12) root: the morpheme that remains when all afﬁxes are stripped from a complexword, e.g. system from un- + system + atic + ally.(13) stem: the base to which one or more afﬁxes are attached to create amore complex form that may be another stem or a word. For example, book is the stem of bookish.(14) preﬁx: Afﬁxes can be joined to the beginning of the root or stem, inwhich case they are called preﬁxes.(15) sufﬁx: Afﬁxes can be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which casethey are called sufﬁxes.2. (3), (5), (7)3. (1) simple: ﬂy tree suite(2) bound morpheme rootﬂy / ﬂyreuse re- usespiteful -ful spitepreplan pre- plandesks -s desktriumphed -ed triumphsuite / suiteoptionality -ality optionuntie un- tiedelight de- lightfastest -est fastprettier -ier prettytree / treejustly -ly justdeform de- formmistreat mis- treatdislike dis- likepayment -ment paydisobey dis- obeypremature pre- mature4. (1) Column I: ablaut (vowel modiﬁcation)Column II: suppletionColumn III: stress modiﬁcation(2) The process in the Column I is ﬁnished by changing the vowel of each word,while in Column II, the process is ﬁnished by changing vowel and consonant of each word.(3) Column I: awake/awoke bear/bore arise/aroseblow/blew bite/bit hide/hidlie/lay know/knew foot/feetgoose/geese tooth/teeth louse/liceColumn II: bad/worse are/were many/moreColumn III: ‘combine/com’bine ‘compress/com’press7‘conduct/con’duct ‘insert/in’sert‘insult/in’sult ‘intern/in’tern5. (1) Omitted.(2) Other examples:‘rerun (n.) – re’run (v.) ‘contrast (n.) – con’trast (v.)‘convert (n.) – con’vert (v.) ‘desert (n.) – de’sert (v.)‘export (n.) – ex’port (v.) ‘increase (n.) – in’crease (v.)‘conduct (n.) – con’duct (v.) ‘object (n.) – ob’ject (v.)‘content (n.) – con’tent (v.) ‘protest (n.) – pro’test (v.)‘insult (n.) – in’sult (v.) ‘produce (n.) – pro’duce (v.)When a word belongs to different word classes, the stress of the word will be sometimes placed on different syllables. When all the words above are stressed on the ﬁrst syllables, they are nouns, but if they have the second syllables stressed, the words become verbs.6. (1) It means “the inhabitant of ”.(2) It means “the person who does”.(3) The morphological rule working here is “n. + -er –– n.”, and thelast phoneme of the noun, which the sufﬁx -er is added to, should be aconsonant.(4) The rule in (3) doesn’t work in the word discoverer because the last phoneme of discoverer is a vowel /2/.7. (1) inﬂection (2) derivation (3) inﬂection (4) inﬂection (5) derivationChapter 4Syntax 1. Deﬁne the following terms brieﬂy.(1) syntax: the term used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the studyof sentence structure.(2) word class: a group of words which are similar in function; words which aregrouped into word classes according to how they combine with other words, how they change their forms, etc.(3) prescriptive approach: This view regards grammar as a set ofrules for the 8“proper”use of a language, that’s to say, it tries to lay down rules to tell people how to use a language.(4) descriptive approach: the approach of linguistic studies, with whichlinguists collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as they are used, not according to some view of how they should be used.(5) IC analysis: the approach to divide the sentence up into its immediateconstituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimateconstituents. For example, the immediate constituents of “The man bought a car”are the man and bought a car. The immediate constituents of the man are the and man, and so on until no further cuts can be made. The ultimate constituents of “The man bought a car”at the word level are the, man, bought, a, and car.(6) structural analysis: a type of descriptive approach to study thedistribution of linguistic forms in a language through such methods as the use of “test frames”.(7) immediate constituent: Linguistic units can be divided into smallconstituents, which can be further analyzed into smallerconstituents. This process continues until no further divisions arepossible. The ﬁrst division or units are known as immediate constituents.(8) ultimate constituent: Linguistic units can be divided into smallconstituents, which can be further analyzed into smallerconstituents. This process continues until no further divisions arepossible. The ﬁnal division or units are known as ultimate constituents.(9) constituent structural grammar: It refers to a grammar which analyzessentences using only the idea of constituency, which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels.(10) transformational grammar: a type of grammar which attempts to deﬁne anddescribe by a set of rules or principles all the grammatical sentences(without ungrammatical ones) of a language.(11) ideational function: the use of language as a means of giving structure toour experience of the real or imaginary world.(12) interpersonal function: the use of language for maintaining social rolesand interacting with others.(13) textual function: to create written or spoken texts which cohere withinthemselves and which ﬁt the particular situation in which they are used. 2. Yes. As we know, morphology is the study of the internal structure, forms and 9classes of words, while syntax focuses on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence. The major distinction between morphology and syntax is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, while the latter is concerned with the combination of words.3. (2) Instead of using the form “suggest somebody to do something”, weusually use “suggest + that-clause” or “suggest doing”, here we’d better substitute “advise” for “suggest”(4) The word “request”is a transitive verb which should take an object directly,so the word “for” should be omitted.(6) The word “donate” cannot be followed by double objects as “donatesomebody something”. Instead we always use “donate something to somebody”.(10) The subject of the verb “write”is usually a human; an “article”cannot writeitself. In this case the passive construction is normally used: The article was very well writen.(11) Usually we don’t use “be bored of something/somebody”, but “be bored withsomething/somebody” which means losing interest in somebody/something.(13) Here “myself ” is a reﬂexive pronoun, which can’t be used as subject, andit should be replaced by “I”.(14) The word “surprise” is usually used as a transitive verb, so theexpression “…surprise for you” is ungrammatical, and it can bereplaced by “surprise somebody (with something)”or “I was surprised by your getting married.”(15) The word “sleep” is usually used as an intransitive verb, which can’t takean object. The cases of “sleep” being used as a transitive verb aresemantically limited, as in “to sleep a good sleep” or “the room can sleep3 people”.4. It’s ungrammatical, because “us” is the objective case which can’t serve asthe subject, while “she”is the subjective case which can’t serve as the object.The sentence should be “We visit her on Sundays”. The personal pronouns “you”and “it” have the same form whether used as the subject or object.5. (1) NP: A Guns “N”Roses concert, an arena, some 2500 fans, a full-ﬂedged riot,A Guns “N” Roses concert at an arena , A Guns “N” Roses concert at an arena near ST. Louis ,The trouble, venue security, a camera, the front, the stage, the front of the stage. PP: at an arena, at an arena near ST. Louis, near ST. Louis, in disaster, near the front, of the stage, near the front of the stage. VP: staged a full-ﬂedged riot, asked venue security, conﬁscate a camera.(2) N: Guns, Roses, concert, arena, ST. Louis, disaster, fans, riot, trouble, Axl 10Rose, venue, security, camera, front, stage. Prep: at, near, in, of. V: end, stage, start, ask, conﬁscate, see.6. (1) You mustn’t end a sentence with a preposition.You mustn’t split inﬁnitives7. (i)(ii)8. (1) a. Terry loves his wife and I love his wife,too. b. I love my wife as well as Terry loveshis wife.(2) a. It’s yesterday that they said she would go. b. She would go yesterdayas they said.(3) a. The governor is a street ﬁghter who is dirty.b. The governor is a ﬁghterin a dirty street.(4) a. The design has squares and circles, both of which are big. b. The designhas big squares, and it also has some circles. (The sizes of the circlesare not mentioned.)Chapter 5Semantics 1. Deﬁne the following terms brieﬂy.(1) semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.(2) truth-conditional semantics: an approach that knowing the meaning ofthe sentence is the same as knowing the conditions under which the sentenceis true or false, and knowing the meaning of a word or expression is knowingthe part that it plays in the truth or falsehood of the sentence containingit.(3) naming theory: the view that the meaning of an expression is what it refersto, or names.(4) behaviorist theory: the view that the meaning of a linguistic form is deﬁnedas observable behaviors which is an approach drawing on psychology.(5) use theory: the semantic theory according to which the meaning ofan expression is determined by its use in communication and moregenerally, in social interaction.(6) sense: the inherent part of an expression’s meaning, together with thecontext, determines its referent. For example, knowing the sense ofa noun phrase such as the president of the United States in 2004 allows oneto determine that George W. Bush is the referent.(7) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and thethings, actions, events and qualities they stand for. An example in Englishis the relationship between the word tree and the object “tree”(referent) in the real world.(8) conceptual meaning: It means the meaning of words may be discussed interms of what they denote or refer to, also called denotative or cognitivemeaning. It is the essential and inextricable part of what language is and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication.For instance, the conceptual meaning of “he”in English is any male personor male animal.(9) connotative meaning: It is the communicative meaning that a word ora combination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over its purelyconceptual meaning. For example, the connotative meaning of “woman” isemotional, frail, inconstant, irrational, etc.(10) semantic field: the organization of related words and expressionsinto a system which shows their relationship to one another. For example,kinship terms such as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt belongto a semantic ﬁeld whose relevant features include generation, sex,membership of the father’s or mother’s side of family.(11) lexical gap: the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic ﬁeldof a language. For instance, in English we have brother versus sister,son versus daughter, but no separate lexemes for “male”and “female”cousin.(12) componential analysis: (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaningwhich analyzes a word into a set of meaning components or semanticfeatures. For example, the meaning of the English word boy may be shownas [+human][+male][-adult].(13) semantic feature: the smallest units of meaning in a word. The meaningof word may be described as a combination of semantic components orfeatures. For example, the feature [+male] is part of the meaning of father, and so is the feature [+adult], but other features are needed tomake up the whole meaning of father. Often, semantic features areestablished by contrast and can be stated in terms of [+] and [-], e.g. womanhas the semantic features [+human], [-male] and [+adult].(14) synonym: the sense relations of equivalence of meaning betweenlexical items, e.g. small/little and dead/deceased.(15) antonym: the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning betweenlexical items, e.g. big/small, alive/dead and good/bad.(16) hyponymy: the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy, where amore particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (thesuperordinate): X is a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant.(17) meronym: the sense relation between body and its parts which are not onlysections of the body but deﬁned in terms of speciﬁc functions. For example,the head is the part of the body which carries the most important sense organs,i.e. eyes, ears, nose and tongue.(18) semantic role: the way in which the referent of a noun phrase is involvedin the situation described or represented by the clause, forexample as agent, patient, or cause.(19) entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truthof one (the second) is inferred from the truth of the other, e.g. Cordayassassinated Marat and Marat is dead; if the ﬁrst is true, the second mustbe true.(20) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make anutterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken”is a presupposition of “Take some more tea!”2. (1) He waited by the bank.a. He waited by the ﬁnancial institution which people can keep their money inor borrow from.b. He waited by the bank of the river.(2) Is he really that kind?a. Is he really that type of person?b. Is he really that kind-hearted?(3) We bought her dog biscuits.a. We bought dog biscuits for her.b. We bought biscuits for her dog.(4) He saw that gasoline can explode.a. He saw that gasoline container explode.b. He saw that gasoline may explode.(5) Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes.a. Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes in total.b. Each of the ﬁfty soldiers shot three wild foxes.(6) He saw her drawing pencils.a. He saw her pencils for drawing.b. He saw her drawing the picture of pencils.3. (2) (4) (5) (8) are antonyms; (1) (3) (6) (7) are synonyms.4. charity: kindness, sympathy, church, helpfuliron: strong, brave, hard, determinedmole: traitor, betrayal, spysnow: pure, virgin, cleanstreet: homeless, living hard, pitiable5. (1) a. hoard b. scribble c. barn, method d. olfactory(2) a. acquire b. tell c. way d. smell(3) a. buy, win, steal. b. talk, tell c. road, way, path d. smell These words are less marked in their sets because they are more usual and tend to be used more frequently. They consist of only one morphemeand are easier to learn and remember than others. They are also often broaderin meaning and cannot be described by using the name of another member ofthesame ﬁeld.6. homophones: sea-see, break-brake; polysemies: sea, break, prayer, mature, trace,house homonyms: ear.7. In a semantic ﬁeld, not all lexical items necessarily have the same status.The less marked members of the same semantic ﬁeld (1) are usuallyeasier to learn and remember than more marked members; (2) consistof only one morpheme in contrast to more marked members; (3) cannot bedescribed by using the name of another member of the same ﬁeld; (4) tendto be used more frequently than more marked terms; (5) broader in meaningthan more marked members; (6) are not the result of the metaphorical usageof the name of another object or concept, but more marked are.8. (1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram.The (a) and (b) words are male.The (a) words are human.The (b) words are animals.(2) a. ask, tell, say, talk, converseb. shout, whisper, mutter, drawl, hollerThe (a) and (b) words are realized by sounds.The (a) words are normal voice quality.The (b) words are produced by modifying one’s normal voice quality.(3) a. walk, run, skip, jump, hop, swimb. ﬂy, skate, ski, ride, cycle, canoe, hang-glideThe (a) and (b) words are sports (movement).The (a) words are sports without instruments.The (b) words are sports with instruments.Chapter 6Pragmatics 1.Deﬁne the following terms brieﬂy.(1) pragmatics: a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(2) deixis: the marking of the orientation or position of entities andsituations with respect to certain points of reference such as the place(here/there) and time (now/then) of utterance.(3) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things,actions, events, and qualities they stand for.(4) anaphora: a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to anotherword or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.(5) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to makean utterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken”is a presupposition of “Take some more tea!”(6) Speech Act Theory: The theory was proposed by J. L. Austin and has beendeveloped by J. R. Searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “dothings”, to perform acts. In saying “Sorry”, you are performing an act of apology.(7) indirect speech act: an utterance whose literal meaning (location)and intended meaning (illocution) are different. For example, Can you pass the salt? is literally a yes/no question but is usually uttered as a request or polite directive for action.(8) the Cooperative Principle: a principle proposed by the philosopher PaulGrice whereby those involved in communication assume that bothparties will normally seek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning. It is composed of 4 maxims: quality, quantity, relation and manner.(9) the Politeness Principle: politeness is regarded by most interlocutorsas a means or strategy which is used by a speaker to achievevarious purposes, such as saving face, establishing and maintainingharmonious social relations in conversation. This principle requiresspeakers to “minimize the expression of impolite beliefs”. It is composed of 6 maxims: Maxims of Tact, Generosity, Approbation, Modesty, Agreement and Sympathy.。

语言学课外单元补充习题及答案4

语⾔学课外单元补充习题及答案4语⾔学课外单元补充习题及答案编写说明本练习是基于《英语语⾔学》课程⽽设置，通过教师讲解、学⽣⾃学与练习，加深学⽣对⼈类语⾔的理性认识，初步具备运⽤理论解释语⾔现象、解决具体语⾔问题的能⼒，从⽽提⾼学⽣的语⾔素养和学习语⾔的能⼒，为以后⼯作和科研奠定基础。

为此，我们特编写本练习的答案，仅供参考。

Language1.State the nature of language briefly with examples.2.Why is it said that the language system is unique to human beings?3.What are the characteristics of human language?4.What are the social functions of language?5.Do animals other than humans have their own languages?6.Exemplify how animals communicate with each other.7.Can language be viewed only as a system of communication? Why not?8.How did language come into being? What is the relationship between the origin of language and theorigin of human beings?9.Rewrite each of the following lists of words into natural order.（1）Five /the /fresh /potatoes（2）Pretty /American /girls /the two（3）Airlines /brand /France-made /new /the two（4）Fashions /Chinese /the /latest /three（5）Beginning /hardworking /two /the /workers10.Fill in the blanks with the proper words.（1）_______ function means language can be used to ―do‖ things.（2）_______ function means the use of language to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker.（3）Most imperative sentences are associated with _______ function.（4）The sentence ―What‘s it like?‖ sho ws ______ function.（5）Greetings shows _______ function.（6）“We are most grateful for this.”shows______ function.（7）Propaganda shows ________ function.（8）________ refers to contexts removed from the immediate of the speaker.（9）For________, reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of communication.（10）Halliday‘s metafunctions include ________, ___________, _____________.（11）Linguistics should include at least five parameters:_________ __________ ___________ _____________________________..11.Say the following are true or false. If it is false correct it（1）Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animals communication system.（2）There is not a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the actual happenings.（3）The theories discussed in the textbook about the origins of language are not at most a speculation.（4）The definition,― Language is a tool for human communication.‖ has no problem.（5）The definition, ―language is a set of rules‖, tells nothing about its functions.（6）Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution.（7）Chomsky‘s definition about language is the same as Sapir‘s.Linguistics1.Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Point out three aspects .3.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?4.Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writing? Why?5.How is Saussure‘s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky‘s distinction between competence and performance?6.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?7.What features of human language have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system?8.What is the main task for a linguist? State the importance of linguistics.9.Why is ―duality‖ regarded as an important feature of human language?10.Fill in the right word according to the explanations.（1）_____________ the scientific study of language.（2）_____________ the study of the interlinguistic relationships among different linguistic elements of language.（3）____________the study of universal features of language（4）____________ the study of a particular language at the particular point of time.（5）____________ the study of the structure and both the syntactic and semantic rules of a language （6）the study of the rules or principles prescribed for people to follow when they use a language.（7）___________the study of language is relation to other sciences（8）the study of the nature of human language and the human mind through the study of the U.G. 11.Say the following are true or false. If it is false correct it.（1）Sociolinguistics relates the study of language to Psychology.（2）In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.（3）In the past, traditional grammarians tended to over-emphasize the importance of the written word. （4）Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.（5）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.（6）Saussure‘s distinction took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.（7）Early grammars were based on ―high‖（religious, literary）written language.（8）The study of language as a whole is often called applied linguistics.（9）Language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets.（10）To explain what language is seems to be a na?ve and simple question.（11）Language bears certain features distinguishing it from means of communication other forms of life may possess, such as bird songs and bee dances.Phonetics1.What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?2.What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the study of speech sounds?3.Draw a picture for the speech organs of human beings.4.Where are the articulatory apparatus of a human being contained?5.What is voicing and how is it caused?6.What criteria are used to classify English vowels?7.What is the function of the nasal cavity ? How does it perform the function?8.Describe the various parts in the oral cavity which are involved in the production of speech sounds?9.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?10.How are the English consonants and vowels classified?11.Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:（1）voiced palatal affricate（2）voiceless labiodental fricative（3）voiced alveolar stop（4）front close short（5）back semi-open long（6）voiceless bilabial stop（7）tense front mid vowel（8）lateral liquid（9）lax high back vowel（10）voiced bilabial oral stop（11）mid central lax vowel（12）low front vowel（13）palatal glide（14）voiced interdental fricative（15）voiced affricate（16）velar nasal consonant（17）low back vowel（18）high back tense vowel（19）mid back lax vowel（20）voiceless interdental fricative12.Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:［d］［l］［t∫］［w］［u］［?］［b］［v］［a:］［m］［r］［i:］13. Draw a tongue chart for the basic English vowels.Phonology1.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study?2.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme ? How are allophones related to the phoneme?3.What is a minimal pair and what is a minimal set ? Why is it important to identify the minimal set in alanguage?4.Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.5.State the functions of stress in a language with examples.6.What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function inconveying meaning?7. A phonetic symbol is actually a ―cover term‖ for a composit e of distinct phonetic properties or features.Define each of the symbols below by marking a ―+‖ or a ―---‖ for each given feature: a ―+‖, if the property is present, a ―---‖ , if it is absent:Sound segments: u э a: i ? u: i: ou eiPhonetic features:HighLowBackTenseRoundSound segments: f n g θ z t lPhonetic features:StopNasalV oicedLabialAlveolarVelarLiquidfricative8.Distinguish and transcribe the following sounds in groups.（1）【p】in pit , tip and spit（2）【l】in lesson and people（3）【n】in ten and tenth（4）【k】in key and scheme（5）【t】in team and steam9.Fill in the proper word according to the explanations.（1）the frequency of vibration in the musical sound of the voice.（）.（2）a special emphasis on a sound or a sound group.（）.（3）the length of silence between parts of utterance.（）.（4）the smallest structured sound unit made up of a rule-governed sequence of phonemes.（）. （5）the phonetic process in which two phonemes ,adjacent to each other, become identical.（） .Morphology1.What does morphology study? How do we define morphology?2.Distinguish between phonologically and morphologically conditioned allomorphs, and betweeninflectional and derivational affixes, and between free and bound morphemes. Give examples.3.Dissect the following words into morphemes:Description/ underdevelopment/ photosynthetic /anatomy /radiation/ geography /philharmonic defrosted/ refreshment/demobilized /conducting/ suppression /circumspect/ dialogue deformed /combination4.Try to find out the meaning of the following roots in English and give two or three words that containeach of them:hydro chron demo dur agr kilo nym ped rupt gress poly syn5.State the morphological rules that govern the use of the given derivational affixesExample: --er This suffix is added to a verb to form a noun indicating the agent that carries out the action, e. g. writer---writer --ant --ment --sub --en --en --ee --ful --some --wise --un6.Explain the formation and meaning of the following compounds:Example: nightcap------ noun formed by combining two nouns, meaning a drink one takes before going to bed.cat‘s paw tablecloth green-eyed green born update jet lag bootleg built-in cockpit good-for-nothing7.Write out the proper word or words according to the explanations:（1）the smallest meaningful unit which can be used independently.（）（2）each of the phonetic forms or variants.（）（3）the different morphs of one morpheme.（）（4）the smallest linguistic unit that carries meaning.（）（5）words whose membership can be regularly expanded.（）（6）all the words of a given language.（）（7）the way how morphemes are combined to form new words.（）8.Point out the derivational and inflectional morphemes in the following words and give their meanings:teacher shorter breaks books girl‘s careless usefulness irregular Marxist readers wanted loved houses buses studied business9.divide the following words into separate morphemes by placing a ―+‖ between each two morphemes:reconstruction sociolinguistics tourists readings morphophonemic predetermination endearment girls independentreplacement grandparents generalization derivational television retroactive psycholinguistic befriended unpalatable10.Think of five English suffixes, give their meanings and explain what bases or stems they may besuffixed to.Example: --er meaning ―doer of ‖, making an agentive noun, is added to verbs, as shown in the following: reader, ―one who reads‖, speaker ―one who speaks‖Syntax1.Examine each of the following sentences and indicate if it is a simple, coordinate, complex orcompound complex sentences:（1）Jane did it because she was asked to.（2）The soldiers were warned to remain hidden and not to expose themselves.（3）David was never there, but his brother was. （4）She leads a tranquil life in the country. （5）Unless I hear from her, I won‘t leave this town../doc/23376b19ac02de80d4d8d15abe23482fb4da0297.html e the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for eachof the following sentences:（1）A clever magician fooled the audience.（2）The tower on the hill collapsed in the wind.（3）They knew that the senator would win the election.3.For each of the following two sentences , draw a tree diagram of its underlying structure that willreveal the difference in the relationship between John/Mary and the verb ―see ‖:（1）Mary advised John to see the dentist.（2）Mary promised John to see the doctor.4.The formation of many sentences involves the operation of syntactic movement. The followingsentences are believed to have derived from their D—structure representations. Show the D—structure for each of these sentences.（1）The leader of the majority party was severely criticized by the media.（2）The man threw the rake away in the yard..（3）What can robot do for us?（4）Will the new shop owner hire her?5.Draw on your linguistic knowledge of English and paraphrase each of the following sentences in twodifferent ways to show how syntactic rules account for the ambiguity of sentences:（1）Smoking cigarettes can be nauseating.（2）Tony is a dirty street fighter.（3）After a two-day debate, they finally decided on the helicopter.（4）The man is too heavy to move.（5）The little girl saw the big man with the telescope.6.Because languages have recursive properties, there is no limit to the potential length of sentences, andthe set of sentences of any language is infinite. Give two examples to show the recursive properties of sentences.7.Write down the embedded sentences below:（1）The girls pleaded for Mary to leave them alone.（2）I found my wife writing a letter to her friend.（3）Who told the teacher that I wouldn‘t attend his lecture?（4）I know the man who is standing there.（5）For us to master a foreign language is very useful.（6）Give this book to the students whom we were just talking about.8.Explain the deep structure and surface structure, and account for the relations between the two kinds of structures> Semantics1.What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?2.What is sense and what is reference? How are they related?3.How can words opposite in meaning be classified? To which category does each of the following pairsof antonyms belong?Left/right far/near vacant/occupied father/daughter north /south doctor/patient dark/bright ugly/beautiful4.Identify the relations between the following pairs of sentences:（1）Tom‘s wife is pregnant. / Tom has a wife.（2）He likes swimming. / He likes sports.（3）My sister will soon be divorced. / My sister is a married woman.（4）He speaks English. / He speaks a foreign language.5.Try to analyze the following sentences in terms of predication analysis:（1）The man sells ice-cream.（2）Is the baby sleeping?（3）It is snowing（4）The tree grows well.6.Write out the proper word or words according to the explanations:（1）a sense relation between a pair of words, in which the meaning of a word is included in the meaning of the other.（）（2）the symbol refers to the linguistic elements.（）（3）an approach adopted by structural semantists in describing the meaning of words and phrases（4）the kind of analysis which involves the breaking down of predications into their constituents—arguments and predication.（）8.Pick out from the following pairs the homonyms and the homophones:Style/stile hear/here bank/bank know/no hare/hair ear/ear tale/tail bear/bear soul/sole one/won tear/tare dear/deer9.Indicate which among the following are complementary pairs, which are gradable pairs, and which arerelational pairs:Larger/smaller asleep/awake parents/children legal/illegal false/true start/end fail/pass strong/weak beautiful /uglytrainer/trainee pregnant/sterile rude/polite ask/answer for/against.10.Which of the following sentences belong to illustrative language and which to metalanguage?（1）Yellow is the color of my true lover‘s hair.（2）―Yellow‖ is a color word.（3） A horse is an animal.（4）―Horse‖ contains the semantic property of ―animal‖.（5）Everybody likes flowers.（6）―Flowers‖ is spelled f-l-o-w-e-r-s.。

语言学课后习题答案

Chapter 1Introduction 1. Deﬁne the following terms brieﬂy.(1) linguistics: the scientiﬁc or systematic study of language.(2) language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(3) arbitrariness: the absence of similarity between the form of a linguisticsign and what it relates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look likea dog.(4) duality: the way meaningless elements of language at one level (soundsand letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.(5) competence: knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formalabstraction and distinct from the behavior of actual language use, i.e.performance.(6) performance: Chomsky’s term for actual language behavior as distinct fromthe knowledge that underlies it, or competence.(7) stylistics: the study of how literary effects can be related to linguisticfeatures.(8) phatic communion: Language is used to establish an atmosphere ormaintain social contact between the speaker and the hearer.(9) functionalism: the study of the forms of language in reference to theirsocial function in communication.(10) formalism: the study of the abstract forms of language and their internalrelations.(11) synchronic linguistics: the study of language and speech as they are usedat a given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.(12) diachronic linguistics: the study of linguistic change over time in contrastto looking at language as it is used at a given moment.2. No, language is human-speciﬁc. Human language has seven design features, including arbitrariness, duality, productivity, interchangeability, displacement, specialization and cultural transmission. These features are found utterly lacking in dogs’ or pigs’ noises and thus set human language apart from animal cry systems.3. Arbitrariness refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connectionbet ween a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, for the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, in Chinese as “gou”, but “yilu”in Japanese; it barks wow wow in English but wang wang in Chinese. Of course, onomatopoetic words such as “quack-quack” and “bang” are exceptions, but words like these are relatively few compared with the total number of words in a language.4. A human baby does not speak any language at birth. What language the baby is going to speak is determined by the culture he is born into. A Chinese baby born and brought up in London by an English family will speak English, while an English child brought up in Beijing by a Chinese aunt will speak Chinese. That is to say, language cannot be transmitted through heredity. It is culturally transmitted.5. Firstly, linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness while traditional grammar emphasizes correctness. Secondly, linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, while traditional grammar emphasizes the priority of the written language. Thirdly, traditional grammar is based on Latin and it tries to impose the Latin categories and structures on other languages, while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.6. A descriptive approach attempts to tell what is in the language while the prescriptive approach tells people what should be in the language. Most modern linguistics is descriptive, whereas traditional grammars are prescriptive.7. Synchronic linguistics studies language at one particular time while diachronic linguistics studies language developments through time. Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.8. No, human language has the design feature of specialization. It refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. For example, a mother can tell a story to her child while slicing up a cake. However, wolves can only respond to a stimulus and is totally involved physically in the communication process. Thus, a wolf cannot have a language similar to man’s, even though it could express a thousand different emotions. Besides, the aspect of productivity also distinguishes human language from wolf ’s postures.Chapter 2The Sounds of Language 1. Deﬁne each of the following terms brieﬂy.(1) articulator: the tongue, lips, and velum, which change the shape of the vocaltract to produce different speech sounds.(2) assimilation: a phonological process whereby a sound becomes phoneticallysimilar (or identical) to a neighboring sound, e.g. a vowel becomes [+nasal] when followed by a [+nasal] consonant.(3) consonant: a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of partof the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airﬂow and creating audible friction.Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.(4) elision: the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech.(5) intonation: the variation in pitch and stress which gives beat and rhythmto the tune the voice plays in ordinary speech.(6) phoneme: the abstract element of a sound, identiﬁed as being distinctivein a particular language.(7) phonetics: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they areproduced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(8) phonology: the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds oflanguage.(9) stress: the prominence given to certain sounds in speech.(10) voicing: the vibration in the larynx caused by air from thelungs passing through the vocal cords when they are partly closed; speech sounds are said to be either voiced or voiceless.(11) voiceless: When the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstreamfrom the lungs is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely. The sounds produced in this way are described asvoiceless sounds.(12) vowel: a speech sound produced without signiﬁcant constriction of theair ﬂowing through the oral cavity.2. Minimal pair test or substitution test.Minimal pair test or substitution test is to see whether substituting one sound for 4another results in a different word. If it does, the two sounds representdifferent phonemes. For example, as to the English word bear, if we substitute p for b, we get the word pear, the two are different words. Then /b/ and /p/ represent different phonemes. Other examples are chunk/junk, ban/bin, bet/beat, ﬁne/vine, side/site, etc.3. Take the word big for example, in the word big /big/, /b/ is the onset, /i/ is the nucleus and /g/ is the coda. The difference between open syllables and closed syllables is whether the words have codas. If there are codas, they are closed syllables, such as pig, hat and at; if not, they are open syllables, such as do, I, tea and key.4. (1) stop, consonant(2) back, rounded, vowel5. (1) voiceless / voiced(2) bilabial / labiodental(3) close / semi-open(4) stop / nasal(5) alveolar / palatal(6) alveolar / dental(1) kit/git, bucker/bugger, bag/back(2) mark/nark, smack/snack, sum/sun(3) best/vest, ober/over, lib/live(4) bore/more, abate/amate, mob/mom(5) pat/fat, apt/aft (AmE), harp (BrE)/half7. (1) The stresses are placed on the second syllable except for “promise”. We may easily conclude that the verbs usually are stressed on the second syllable. (2) Syllable representations of the words:collide [k2#laid] elect [i#lekt] consider [k2n#sid2]Chapter 3Morphology 1. Deﬁne the following terms brieﬂy.(1) morphology: the study of the structure of words.5(2) morpheme: the smallest unit of language that carries meaning orserves a grammatical function.(3) free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.(4) bound morpheme: a morpheme that can not stand alone as a word,e.g. ment (as in establishment), and -er (as in painter).(5) morph: the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance onthe level of parole.(6) allomorph: a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized, e.g. -s, -es,and en are all allomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.(7) derivation: the formation of new words by adding afﬁxes to other words ormorphemes in morphology and word formation.(8) clipping: the process by which parts of a word of more than one syllablehave been cut off, and reduced to a shorter form.(9) acronym: words which are composed of the ﬁrst letter of a series ofwords and are pronounced as single words. Examples: NATO, radar and yuppy.(10) initialism: Some new words are composed of the ﬁrst letters of aseries of words and pronounced by saying each letter in them. Such words are called initialism.(11) blending: A single new word can be formed by combining two separateforms. Typically, blending is ﬁnished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. For example,brunch is formed by the shortened forms of breakfast and lunch.(12) root: the morpheme that remains when all afﬁxes are stripped from a complexword, e.g. system from un- + system + atic + ally.(13) stem: the base to which one or more afﬁxes are attached to create amore complex form that may be another stem or a word. For example, book is the stem of bookish.(14) preﬁx: Afﬁxes can be joined to the beginning of the root or stem, inwhich case they are called preﬁxes.(15) sufﬁx: Afﬁxes can be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which casethey are called sufﬁxes.2. (3), (5), (7)3. (1) simple: ﬂy tree suite(2) bound morpheme rootﬂy / ﬂyreuse re- usespiteful -ful spitepreplan pre- plandesks -s desktriumphed -ed triumphsuite / suiteoptionality -ality optionuntie un- tiedelight de- lightfastest -est fastprettier -ier prettytree / treejustly -ly justdeform de- formmistreat mis- treatdislike dis- likepayment -ment paydisobey dis- obeypremature pre- mature4. (1) Column I: ablaut (vowel modiﬁcation)Column II: suppletionColumn III: stress modiﬁcation(2) The process in the Column I is ﬁnished by changing the vowel of each word,while in Column II, the process is ﬁnished by changing vowel and consonant of each word.(3) Column I: awake/awoke bear/bore arise/aroseblow/blew bite/bit hide/hidlie/lay know/knew foot/feetgoose/geese tooth/teeth louse/liceColumn II: bad/worse are/were many/moreColumn III: ‘combine/com’bine ‘compress/com’press7‘conduct/con’duct ‘insert/in’sert‘insult/in’sult ‘intern/in’tern5. (1) Omitted.(2) Other examples:‘rerun (n.) – re’run (v.) ‘contrast (n.) – con’trast (v.)‘convert (n.) – con’vert (v.) ‘desert (n.) – de’sert (v.)‘export (n.) – ex’port (v.) ‘increase (n.) – in’crease (v.)‘conduct (n.) – con’duct (v.) ‘object (n.) – ob’ject (v.)‘content (n.) – con’tent (v.) ‘protest (n.) – pro’test (v.)‘insult (n.) – in’sult (v.) ‘produce (n.) – pro’duce (v.)When a word belongs to different word classes, the stress of the word will be sometimes placed on different syllables. When all the words above are stressed on the ﬁrst syllables, they are nouns, but if they have the second syllables stressed, the words become verbs.6. (1) It means “the inhabitant of ”.(2) It means “the person who does”.(3) The morphological rule working here is “n. + -er –– n.”, and thelast phoneme of the noun, which the sufﬁx -er is added to, should be aconsonant.(4) The rule in (3) doesn’t work in the word discoverer because the last phoneme of discoverer is a vowel /2/.7. (1) inﬂection (2) derivation (3) inﬂection (4) inﬂection (5) derivationChapter 4Syntax 1. Deﬁne the following terms brieﬂy.(1) syntax: the term used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the studyof sentence structure.(2) word class: a group of words which are similar in function; words which aregrouped into word classes according to how they combine with other words, how they change their forms, etc.(3) prescriptive approach: This view regards grammar as a set ofrules for the 8“proper”use of a language, that’s to say, it tries to lay down rules to tell people how to use a language.(4) descriptive approach: the approach of linguistic studies, with whichlinguists collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as they are used, not according to some view of how they should be used.(5) IC analysis: the approach to divide the sentence up into its immediateconstituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimateconstituents. For example, the immediate constituents of “The man bought a car”are the man and bought a car. The immediate constituents of the man are the and man, and so on until no further cuts can be made. The ultimate constituents of “The man bought a car”at the word level are the, man, bought, a, and car.(6) structural analysis: a type of descriptive approach to study thedistribution of linguistic forms in a language through such methods as the use of “test frames”.(7) immediate constituent: Linguistic units can be divided into smallconstituents, which can be further analyzed into smallerconstituents. This process continues until no further divisions arepossible. The ﬁrst division or units are known as immediate constituents.(8) ultimate constituent: Linguistic units can be divided into smallconstituents, which can be further analyzed into smallerconstituents. This process continues until no further divisions arepossible. The ﬁnal division or units are known as ultimate constituents.(9) constituent structural grammar: It refers to a grammar which analyzessentences using only the idea of constituency, which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels.(10) transformational grammar: a type of grammar which attempts to deﬁne anddescribe by a set of rules or principles all the grammatical sentences(without ungrammatical ones) of a language.(11) ideational function: the use of language as a means of giving structure toour experience of the real or imaginary world.(12) interpersonal function: the use of language for maintaining social rolesand interacting with others.(13) textual function: to create written or spoken texts which cohere withinthemselves and which ﬁt the particular situation in which they are used. 2. Yes. As we know, morphology is the study of the internal structure, forms and 9classes of words, while syntax focuses on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence. The major distinction between morphology and syntax is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, while the latter is concerned with the combination of words.3. (2) Instead of using the form “suggest somebody to do something”, weusually use “suggest + that-clause” or “suggest doing”, here we’d better substitute “advise” for “suggest”(4) The word “request”is a transitive verb which should take an object directly,so the word “for” should be omitted.(6) The word “donate” cannot be followed by double objects as “donatesomebody something”. Instead we always use “donate something to somebody”.(10) The subject of the verb “write”is usually a human; an “article”cannot writeitself. In this case the passive construction is normally used: The article was very well writen.(11) Usually we don’t use “be bored of something/somebody”, but “be bored withsomething/somebody” which means losing interest in somebody/something.(13) Here “myself ” is a reﬂexive pronoun, which can’t be used as subject, andit should be replaced by “I”.(14) The word “surprise” is usually used as a transitive verb, so theexpression “…surprise for you” is ungrammatical, and it can bereplaced by “surprise somebody (with something)”or “I was surprised by your getting married.”(15) The word “sleep” is usually used as an intransitive verb, which can’t takean object. The cases of “sleep” being used as a transitive verb aresemantically limited, as in “to sleep a good sleep” or “the room can sleep3 people”.4. It’s ungrammatical, because “us” is the objective case which can’t serve asthe subject, while “she”is the subjective case which can’t serve as the object.The sentence should be “We visit her on Sundays”. The personal pronouns “you”and “it” have the same form whether used as the subject or object.5. (1) NP: A Guns “N”Roses concert, an arena, some 2500 fans, a full-ﬂedged riot,A Guns “N” Roses concert at an arena , A Guns “N” Roses concert at an arena near ST. Louis ,The trouble, venue security, a camera, the front, the stage, the front of the stage. PP: at an arena, at an arena near ST. Louis, near ST. Louis, in disaster, near the front, of the stage, near the front of the stage. VP: staged a full-ﬂedged riot, asked venue security, conﬁscate a camera.(2) N: Guns, Roses, concert, arena, ST. Louis, disaster, fans, riot, trouble, Axl 10Rose, venue, security, camera, front, stage. Prep: at, near, in, of. V: end, stage, start, ask, conﬁscate, see.6. (1) You mustn’t end a sentence with a preposition.You mustn’t split inﬁnitives7. (i)(ii)8. (1) a. Terry loves his wife and I love his wife,too. b. I love my wife as well as Terry loveshis wife.(2) a. It’s yesterday that they said she would go. b. She would go yesterdayas they said.(3) a. The governor is a street ﬁghter who is dirty.b. The governor is a ﬁghterin a dirty street.(4) a. The design has squares and circles, both of which are big. b. The designhas big squares, and it also has some circles. (The sizes of the circlesare not mentioned.)Chapter 5Semantics 1. Deﬁne the following terms brieﬂy.(1) semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.(2) truth-conditional semantics: an approach that knowing the meaning ofthe sentence is the same as knowing the conditions under which the sentenceis true or false, and knowing the meaning of a word or expression is knowingthe part that it plays in the truth or falsehood of the sentence containingit.(3) naming theory: the view that the meaning of an expression is what it refersto, or names.(4) behaviorist theory: the view that the meaning of a linguistic form is deﬁnedas observable behaviors which is an approach drawing on psychology.(5) use theory: the semantic theory according to which the meaning ofan expression is determined by its use in communication and moregenerally, in social interaction.(6) sense: the inherent part of an expression’s meaning, together with thecontext, determines its referent. For example, knowing the sense ofa noun phrase such as the president of the United States in 2004 allows oneto determine that George W. Bush is the referent.(7) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and thethings, actions, events and qualities they stand for. An example in Englishis the relationship between the word tree and the object “tree”(referent) in the real world.(8) conceptual meaning: It means the meaning of words may be discussed interms of what they denote or refer to, also called denotative or cognitivemeaning. It is the essential and inextricable part of what language is and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication.For instance, the conceptual meaning of “he”in English is any male personor male animal.(9) connotative meaning: It is the communicative meaning that a word ora combination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over its purelyconceptual meaning. For example, the connotative meaning of “woman” isemotional, frail, inconstant, irrational, etc.(10) semantic field: the organization of related words and expressionsinto a system which shows their relationship to one another. For example,kinship terms such as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt belongto a semantic ﬁeld whose relevant features include generation, sex,membership of the father’s or mother’s side of family.(11) lexical gap: the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic ﬁeldof a language. For instance, in English we have brother versus sister,son versus daughter, but no separate lexemes for “male”and “female”cousin.(12) componential analysis: (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaningwhich analyzes a word into a set of meaning components or semanticfeatures. For example, the meaning of the English word boy may be shownas [+human][+male][-adult].(13) semantic feature: the smallest units of meaning in a word. The meaningof word may be described as a combination of semantic components orfeatures. For example, the feature [+male] is part of the meaning of father, and so is the feature [+adult], but other features are needed tomake up the whole meaning of father. Often, semantic features areestablished by contrast and can be stated in terms of [+] and [-], e.g. womanhas the semantic features [+human], [-male] and [+adult].(14) synonym: the sense relations of equivalence of meaning betweenlexical items, e.g. small/little and dead/deceased.(15) antonym: the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning betweenlexical items, e.g. big/small, alive/dead and good/bad.(16) hyponymy: the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy, where amore particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (thesuperordinate): X is a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant.(17) meronym: the sense relation between body and its parts which are not onlysections of the body but deﬁned in terms of speciﬁc functions. For example,the head is the part of the body which carries the most important sense organs,i.e. eyes, ears, nose and tongue.(18) semantic role: the way in which the referent of a noun phrase is involvedin the situation described or represented by the clause, forexample as agent, patient, or cause.(19) entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truthof one (the second) is inferred from the truth of the other, e.g. Cordayassassinated Marat and Marat is dead; if the ﬁrst is true, the second mustbe true.(20) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to make anutterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken”is a presupposition of “Take some more tea!”2. (1) He waited by the bank.a. He waited by the ﬁnancial institution which people can keep their money inor borrow from.b. He waited by the bank of the river.(2) Is he really that kind?a. Is he really that type of person?b. Is he really that kind-hearted?(3) We bought her dog biscuits.a. We bought dog biscuits for her.b. We bought biscuits for her dog.(4) He saw that gasoline can explode.a. He saw that gasoline container explode.b. He saw that gasoline may explode.(5) Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes.a. Fifty soldiers shot three wild foxes in total.b. Each of the ﬁfty soldiers shot three wild foxes.(6) He saw her drawing pencils.a. He saw her pencils for drawing.b. He saw her drawing the picture of pencils.3. (2) (4) (5) (8) are antonyms; (1) (3) (6) (7) are synonyms.4. charity: kindness, sympathy, church, helpfuliron: strong, brave, hard, determinedmole: traitor, betrayal, spysnow: pure, virgin, cleanstreet: homeless, living hard, pitiable5. (1) a. hoard b. scribble c. barn, method d. olfactory(2) a. acquire b. tell c. way d. smell(3) a. buy, win, steal. b. talk, tell c. road, way, path d. smell These words are less marked in their sets because they are more usual and tend to be used more frequently. They consist of only one morphemeand are easier to learn and remember than others. They are also often broaderin meaning and cannot be described by using the name of another member ofthesame ﬁeld.6. homophones: sea-see, break-brake; polysemies: sea, break, prayer, mature, trace,house homonyms: ear.7. In a semantic ﬁeld, not all lexical items necessarily have the same status.The less marked members of the same semantic ﬁeld (1) are usuallyeasier to learn and remember than more marked members; (2) consistof only one morpheme in contrast to more marked members; (3) cannot bedescribed by using the name of another member of the same ﬁeld; (4) tendto be used more frequently than more marked terms; (5) broader in meaningthan more marked members; (6) are not the result of the metaphorical usageof the name of another object or concept, but more marked are.8. (1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram.The (a) and (b) words are male.The (a) words are human.The (b) words are animals.(2) a. ask, tell, say, talk, converseb. shout, whisper, mutter, drawl, hollerThe (a) and (b) words are realized by sounds.The (a) words are normal voice quality.The (b) words are produced by modifying one’s normal voice quality.(3) a. walk, run, skip, jump, hop, swimb. ﬂy, skate, ski, ride, cycle, canoe, hang-glideThe (a) and (b) words are sports (movement).The (a) words are sports without instruments.The (b) words are sports with instruments.Chapter 6Pragmatics 1.Deﬁne the following terms brieﬂy.(1) pragmatics: a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(2) deixis: the marking of the orientation or position of entities andsituations with respect to certain points of reference such as the place(here/there) and time (now/then) of utterance.(3) reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and the things,actions, events, and qualities they stand for.(4) anaphora: a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to anotherword or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.(5) presupposition: implicit assumptions about the world required to makean utterance meaningful or appropriate, e.g. “some tea has already been taken”is a presupposition of “Take some more tea!”(6) Speech Act Theory: The theory was proposed by J. L. Austin and has beendeveloped by J. R. Searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “dothings”, to perform acts. In saying “Sorry”, you are performing an act of apology.(7) indirect speech act: an utterance whose literal meaning (location)and intended meaning (illocution) are different. For example, Can you pass the salt? is literally a yes/no question but is usually uttered as a request or polite directive for action.(8) the Cooperative Principle: a principle proposed by the philosopher PaulGrice whereby those involved in communication assume that bothparties will normally seek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning. It is composed of 4 maxims: quality, quantity, relation and manner.(9) the Politeness Principle: politeness is regarded by most interlocutorsas a means or strategy which is used by a speaker to achievevarious purposes, such as saving face, establishing and maintainingharmonious social relations in conversation. This principle requiresspeakers to “minimize the expression of impolite beliefs”. It is composed of 6 maxims: Maxims of Tact, Generosity, Approbation, Modesty, Agreement and Sympathy.。

语言学课后答案第2章

1.phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics andperceptual/auditory phonetics.articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.phonology: the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. speech organs: those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as ‗vocal organs‘.voicing: the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be ‗voiced‘. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be ‗voiceless‘.International Phonetic Alphabet: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the InternationalPhonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996. consonant: a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.vowel: a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.manner of articulation: ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished—(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.place of articulation: the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.Cardinal Vowels: a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.semi-vowel: segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, e.g. [j] and [w].vowel glide: vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived. coarticulation: simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘; if the sou nd shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticution‘.phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity. assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymouslywith ‗coarticulation‘. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called ‗regressive assimilation‘; t he converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Elsewhere Condition: The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.distinctive features: a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.syllable: an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.Maximal Onset Principle: a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.stress: the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more ‗prominent‘, it is a ‗stressed‘ syllable in contrast to a less prominent, ‗unstressed‘ syllable. intonation: the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.8.In Old English, there are no voiced fricative phonemes. All voiced variants, which appear only between voiced sounds, are allophones of their voiceless counterparts.The rule can be stated as follows:fricatives → [+voice] / [+voice]_____[+voi ce][–voice] in other places2.1) voiced dental fricative2) voiceless postalveolar fricative3) velar nasal4) voiced alveolar stop/plosive5) voiceless bilabial stop/plosive6) voiceless velar stop/plosive7) (alveolar) lateral8) high front unrounded lax vowel9) high back rounded tense vowel10) low back rounded lax vowel3.1) [f]2) [ʒ]3) [j]4) [h]5) [t]6) [e]7) [ʉ]8) [ɶ]9) [ɔ]10) [u]4.1) On a clear day you can see for miles.2) Some people think that first impressions count for a lot.5. 1)Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth. The pharynx, mouth, and nose form the three cavities of the vocal tract. Speech sounds are produced with an airstream as their sources of energy. In most circumstances, the airstream comes from the lungs. It is forced out of the lungs and then passes through the bronchioles and bronchi, a series of branching tubes, into the trachea. Then the air is modified at various points in various ways in the larynx, and in the oral and nasal cavities: the mouth and the nose are often referred to, respectively, as the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.Inside the oral cavity, we need to distinguish the tongue and various parts of the palate, while inside the throat, we have to distinguish the upper part, called pharynx, from the lower part, known as larynx. The larynx opens into a muscular tube, the pharynx, part of which can be seen in a mirror. The upper part of the pharynx connects to the oral and nasal cavities.The contents of the mouth are very important for speech production. Starting from the front, the upper part of the mouth includes the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate (or the velum), and the uvula. The soft palate can be lowered to allow air to pass through the nasal cavity. When the oral cavity is at the same time blocked, a nasal sound is produced.The bottom part of the mouth contains the lower lip, the lower teeth, the tongue, and the mandible.At the top of the trachea is the larynx, the front of which is protruding in males and known as the ―Adam‘s Apple‖. The larynx contains the vocal folds, als o known as ―vocal cords‖ or ―vocal bands‖. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally below the latter and their front ends are joined together at the back of the Adam‘s Apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move into various positions: inwards, outwards, forwards, backwards, upwards and downwards.5. 2)This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in enough, o as [ɪ] in women, and ti as [ʃ] in nation.5. 3)In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are: (a) the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract, and (b) where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction ofair. The former is known as the Manner of Articulation and the latter as the Place of Articulation.The Manner of Articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.The Place of Articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds. Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart.As the vowels cannot be described in the same way as the consonants, a system of cardinal vowels has been suggested to get out of this problem. The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts. If we imagine that for the production of [@] the tongue is in a neutral position (neither high nor low, neither front nor back), the cardinal vowels are as remote as possible from this neutral position. They represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space: extending the articulators beyond this spacewould involve friction or contact. The cardinal vowel diagram (or quadrilateral) in the IPA is therefore a set of hypothetical positions for vowels used as reference points.The front, center, and back of the tongue are distinguished, as are four levels of tongue height: the highest position the tongue can achieve without producing audible friction (high or close); the lowest position the tongue can achieve (low or open); and two intermediate levels, dividing the intervening space into auditorily equivalent areas (mid-high or open-mid, and mid-low or close-mid).5. 4)Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Imagine that the speech sound is articulated by a Speaker A. It is then transmitted to and perceived by a Listener B. Consequently, a speech sound goes through a three-step process: speech production, sound transmission, and speech perception.Naturally, the study of sounds is divided into three main areas, each dealing with one part of the process: Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds, Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, and Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.5. 5)Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, if a nasal consonant (such as [m]) precedes an oral vowel (such as [æ] in map), some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel [æ] will begin with a somewhat nasal quality. This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the following vowel [æ], the soft palate must move back to its normal position. Of course it takes time for the soft palate to move from its lowered position to the raised position. This process is still in progress when the articulation of [æ] has begun. Similarly, when [æ] isfollowed by [m], as in lamb, the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulation of [æ] so that it is ready for the following nasal.When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process ‗coarticulation‘. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticulation‘, as is the case of map.Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation, which is more of a phonetic term. Similarly, there are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it ‗regressive assimilation‘; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Anticipatory coarticulation is by far the most common cause of assimilation in English. For example,ex. 1a. cap [kæp] can [kæn]b. tap [tæp] tan [tæn]ex. 2a. tent [tɛnt] tenth [tɛn̪θ]b. ninety [naɪnti] ninth [naɪn̪θ]ex. 2a. since [sɪns] sink [sɪŋk]b. mince [sɪns] mink [mɪŋk]In both exx. 1a and 1b, the words differ in two sounds. The vowel in the second word of each pair is ―nasalized‖ because of the influence of the following nasal consonant. In ex. 2, the nasal /n/ is ―dentalized‖ before a dental fricative. In ex. 3, the alveolar nasal /n/ becomes the velar nasal [ŋ] before the velar stop [k]. In this situation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown by the following:ex. 4a. pan[ŋ]cakeb. he can[ŋ] go nowStudies of English fricatives and affricates have shown that their voicing is severely influenced by the voicing of the following sound: ex. 5a. five past [faɪvpɑːst] >[faɪfpɑːst]b. has to [hæztə] >[hæstə]c. as can be shown [əzkənbɪʃəʊn]> [əskənbɪʃəʊn]d. edge to edge [ɛʤtəɛʤ] >[ɛʧtəɛʤ]The first column of symbols shows the way these phrases are pronounced in slow or careful speech while the second column shows how they are pronounced in normal, connected speech. It indicates that in English fricatives and affricates are devoiced when they are followed by voiceless sounds. This however does not occur with stops and vowels.5. 6)The word teller is formed by adding a suffix -er to the base word tell to form a new word. We are all familiar with the rule that governs the allophones of the phoneme /l/: when preceding a vowel, it is [l] and when following a vowel it is [ɫ]. However, in teller it has a vowel both before and after it, so how do we decide that it should be pronounced as [l], not [ɫ]?We notice that tell is a monosyllabic word while teller is disyllabic. In a polysyllabic word, we follow the Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) for the division of syllable. By MOP, the /l/ must be placed in the onset position of the second syllable instead of the coda position of the first syllable. Thus, the phoneme /l/ is realized as it should be before the vowel in the second syllable. The same is true with telling, falling, and many others. We can see from this that the phonological structure of a complex word is often different from its morphological structure, i.e. how the word isformed. In word-formation it is tell + -er while in syllable structure it is [te+lə].6.In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.1) All the sounds that end the words in column A are voiceless ([-voice]) consonants and all the sounds that end the words in column B are voiced ([+voice]) consonants.2) All the words in column C are open syllables, i.e. they end in vowels.3) The two sounds are in complementary distribution because [ʌɪ] appears only before voiceless consonants and [aɪ] occurs before voiced consonants and in open syllables.4) (a) [lʌɪf] (b) lives [laɪvz]5) (a) [traɪl] (b) [bʌɪk] (c) [lʌɪs] (d) [flaɪ] (e) [maɪn]6) /aɪ/ [ʌɪ] / _____[–voice][aɪ] in other places7.As far as orthography is concerned, there are four variants: in-, im-, ir-, and il-, but closer scrutiny shows that in- may be pronounced as [ɪŋ] before velar consonants, so there are five groups of words according to their variation on pronunciation:(1) [ɪn]: inharmonic, ingenious, inoffensive, indifferent, inevitable, innumerable[ɪn] or [ɪŋ]: incomprehensible, incompetent, inconsistent[ɪm]: impenetrable, impossible, immobile[ɪl]: illiterate, illegal, illogical[ɪr]: irresponsible, irresistible, irregularIt is clear that the first sound of the base word governs the distribution of the variants, because the final consonant of the prefix in- must assimilate to the first segment of the base word. As a result of this, we find [ɪm] before labial consonants like [m] or [p], [ɪl] before the lateral [l], [ɪr] before [r]. When the first consonant of the base word is the velar consonant [k], it is [ɪŋ] in rapid speech and [ɪn] in careful speech. In all other cases [ɪn] is always the case. Assuming an underlying form /ɪn/, the rule for the prefix in- looks roughly like this (in the simplest notation):(2) /ɪn/ → {[ɪn], [ɪŋ]} / _____[velar][ɪm] / _____[labial][ɪl] / _____ [l][ɪr] / _____[r][ɪn] in other placesThis rule system could be further simplified if we eliminate the first rule, as the realization [ɪŋ] is actually optional. Unlike the other rules, this variation is due to a more general mechanism of assimilation in fast speech, which happens naturally. For example, in conference is also often pronounced as [ɪŋkɒnfərəns] in fast speech, and the nasal in thank and think is also realized as a velar.We can test these rules by looking at other base words which can take the prefix in-, such as correct, moveable, legible, rational, and adequate. When prefixed, they are respectively pronounced [ɪn]correct (or[ɪŋ]correct), [ɪm]moveable, [ɪl]legible, [ɪr]rational, and [ɪn]adequate, which further support the rules above.(Based on Plag, 2003: 200-1)。

语言学补充练习

II. 判断正误（T for True and F for False）1. When language is used to get information, it serves an informative function.Answer: F (It serves an interrogative function).2． Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation.Answer: F (The primary units in these systems cannot be further divided into elements. So what they lack is the secondary level of articulation.)3． Descriptive linguistics are concerned with how languages work, not with how they can be improved.Answer: TIII. 填空题1．By saying that "language is arbitrary", we mean that there is no logical connection between meaning and _______. Answer: sounds2． The distinction between langue and parole is made by the Swiss linguist E de Saussure. The distinction between competence and performance is made by the American linguist__________.Answer: Noam Chomsky3． An approach to linguistic study which attempts to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used is _______.Answer: prescriptiveIV. 选择题1．Unlike animal communication system, human language is ______.A. stimulus freeB. stimulus boundC. under immediate stimulus controlD. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest Answer：A2. ____ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modem linguistics.a. Chomskyb. Saussurec. Bloomfieldd. John LyonAnswer: bV. 问答题l. Is language productive or not WhyAnswer: Firstly, Language is productive or creative. This means that language users can understand and produce sentences theyhave never heard before. Secondly, Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems have a limited repertoire, which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. Thirdly, The productivity or creativity of human language originates from its duality. Because of duality, the speaker can combine the basiclinguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences. The productivity of language also means its potential to create endless sentences. This is made possible by the recursive nature of language.2. Comment on the following statement: “In linguistics, ‘language’ only means what a person says or said in a given situation”.Answer: This statement is incorrect. In linguistics, "language" has several layers of meaning: firstly, the whole of a person’s language, . Shakespeare’s language; secondly, a particular variety or level of speech or writing, . scientific language, literary language, colloquial language; thirdly, an abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community, . the English language, the Chinese language; lastly, there is an even more abstract sense of "language", referring to the common features of all humanlanguages that distinguish them from animal communication systems or any artificial language.3. Point out three ways in which linguistics differs from traditional grammar.Answer: Firstly, most linguistic analyses today focus on speech rather than writing. Secondly, modem linguistics is mostly descriptive while traditional grammar is largely prescriptive. Thirdly, a third difference is the priority of synchronic description over the traditional diachronic studies.4. What is the major difference between Saussure' s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky's distinction between competence and performanceAnswer: Saussure’s langue is social product, a set of conventions for a speech community. Chomsky regards competence as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure studies language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky studies it more from a psychological point of view.第二章语音学和音位学I. 名词解释1．narrow transcriptionAnswer: There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the “broad transcription”----the transcription with letter-symbols only, and the other is “narrow transc ription”---the transcription with letter-symbols accompanied by the diacritics which can help bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.2. Illustrate the term “allophone” with at least one appropriate example.Answer: Allophones are the different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word different from another in meaning. For example, in English, the phoneme /l/ is pronounced differently in "let", "play" and "tell". The first /l/ is made by raising the front of the tongue to the hard palate, while the vocal cords are vibrating; the second /l/ is made with the same tongue position as the first, but the vocal cords are not vibrating; and the third /l/ is made by raising not only the front by also the back of the tongue while the vocal cords are vibrating.II 判断正误（T for True and F for False）1. /o/ is a mid-high front rounded vowel.Answer: F. (/o/ is a mid-high BACK rounded vowel.)2. A phoneme in one language or one dialect may be an allophone in another language or dialect.Answer: T.III. 填空题：1. The three cavities in the articulatory apparatus are _____, _______, and _____.Answer: pharynx, the nasal cavity, the oral cavity2. By the position of the ____ part of the tongue, vowels and classified as front vowels, central vowels and back vowels. Answer: highest.3. ____refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound.Answer: Assimilation.4. You are required to fill in the blanks below abiding by the instance given beforehand.Example: /p/: voiced bilabial stop/s/: ________________/g/:_______________/tʃ/:______________/t/: _______________/f /: _______________Answer:/s/: voiceless alveolar fricative/g/: voiced velar stop/tʃ/: voiceless alveo-palatal/post-alveolar affricate/ t /: voiced dental fricative/f /: voiceless labiodental fricative5. Which of the following words would be treated as minimal pairs and minimal setspat, pen more, heat, tape, bun, fat, ban, chain, tale, bell, far, meal, vote, bet, heel, ten, men, pit, main, hit, eat, man Answer:pat, fat; pat, pit; pit, hit;pen, ten; ten, men;heat, eat; heat, heel;tape, tale;bun, ban;chain, main;bell, bet;meal, heel;man, men, main.IV. 选择题1. All syllables contain a(n) _______.a. nucleusb. codac. onsetAnswer: a2. _____is one of the supersegmental features.a. Stopb. Voicingc. Deletiond. ToneAnswer: d3. Which of the following consonants does not exist in Englisha. dental stopb. bilabial stopc. alveolar stopd. velar stopAnswer: a4. _____is not an English consonant.a. Labiodental plosiveb. Alveolar nasalc. Velar stopd. Dental fricativeAnswer: aV. 辨音选择1. What are the distinctive features that group the following sounds in these sets1) /f, v ,s/2) /p, f, b/3) /g, z, b/4) /k, g, w/5) /m, n, ŋ/Answer: 1) fricative 2) obstruent 3) voiced 4) velar5) nasal2. There is one segment that does not belong to the natural class in each of the following groups of speech sounds. You are required to identify that segment and label the natural class, using a descriptive term as specific as possible.a) /m/, /n/, /w/, / ŋ /b) /v/, /w/, /z/, /t/c) /n/, /f/, /l/, /s/, /t/, /d/, /z/Answer:1) /w/ is a semi-vowel, and the others are all nasals.2) /t/ is voiceless, and the others are voiced.3) /f/ is labiodental, and the rest are alveolarVI. 问答题1．Circle the words that contain a sound as required:1) a low vowel: pipe, gather, article, leave, cook2) a bilabial consonant: cool, lad, leap, bomb, push3) an approximant: luck, boots, word, once, table4) a front vowel: god, neat, pit, lush, cook5) a velar: god, fast, chat, lake, quick2．Exemplify the relationship between phone, phoneme and allophone.Answer: Firstly, a “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones may or may not distinguish meaning. Secondly, a "phoneme" is a phonological unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound. It is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Thirdly, the phones representing a phoneme are called its "allophones". How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs.But the choice of an allophone is not random but rule-governed in most cases.3．When we are pronouncing the following phrases, how do we actually articulate the "n" sound in the word "ten" Do we still pronounce it as /n/1) ten houses 2) ten teachers 3) ten colleges 4) ten pupils 5) ten buildings 6) ten classesAnswer: 1) /n/2) /n/3) / ŋ /4) /m/5) /m/6) / ŋ /4．How many functions do the vocal cords have in the production of speech soundsAnswer: They have three functions: to make a glottal stop, to produce a voiced sound and to produce a voiceless sound.第三章形态学I. 名词解释1．morphemeAnswer: The morpheme is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering its meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. For instance, the word "barks" in "The dog barks" consists of two morphemes ― "bark" and "-s", neither of which can be further divided into other smaller meaningful units.2．lexemeAnswer: The term "lexeme" is postulated to reduce the ambiguity of the term "word". It is the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts. For example, "write" is the lexeme of the following set of words: "writes", "wrote", "writing", "written".3．inflectional morphemesAnswer: Inflectional morphemes are also called inflectional affixes. They manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case. In English, all inflectional morphemes are suffixes, . -(e)s, -ing, -(e)d, -est.II. 判断正误1． A root is not always a free form.Answer: T (There are such bound roots as “-ceive”.)III. 填空题1．Polymorphemic words other than compounds have two parts: the roots and the ____.Answer: affixes2．On, before and together are_____words ― they are words which do not take inflectional endings.Answer: grammatical (functional/form)IV．选择题1．"Radar" is a/an____.a. acronymb. blendingc. coinaged. clippingAnswer: a2．Compound words consist of______ morphemes.a. boundb. freec. both bound and freeAnswer: bV. 匹配题Match each expression under A with the one statement under B that characterizes it.A B1. a noisy crow a. compound noun2. eat crow b. root morpheme plus derivational prefix3. scarecrow c. phrase consisting of an adjective plus noun4. the crow d. root morpheme plus inflection affix5. crowlike e. root morpheme plus derivational suffix6. crows f. grammatical morpheme followed by lexical morphemeg. idiomAnswer: 1. c 2. g 3. a 4. f 5. e 6. dVI. 问答题1. Divide the following words into Roots, IA (inflectional affix) and/or DA (derivational affix).1) transformations 2) looseleaves3) destructive 4) geese 5) misled Answer:1) trans- (DA) form (Root) -ation (DA) s (IA)2) loose (Root) leave (Root) s (IA)3) de- (DA) struct (Root) -ive (DA)4) geese (IA)5) mis- (DA) led (IA)2. Label the morphological category of the morphemes underlined in each of the English expressions.a) I' ve been here.b) transformc) oxend) recurAnswer: a) bound morpheme b) derivational prefix c) inflectional suffix d) bound root3. Each of the following Persian words is poly-morphemic. You are required to match each of the notions given below with amorpheme in Persian. (Note that xar means "buy" and -id designates the past tense).xaridiYou (singular) bought.naxaridamI did not buy.namixaridandThey were not buying.xaridHe bought.naxaridimWe did not buy.mixaridHe was buying.mixarididYou (plural) were buying.xaridamI bought.Match each of the notions given below with a morpheme in Persian:a) Ib) you (singular)c) notd) was/were V-ing (continuous)Answer: a) amb) ic) nad) miVid4．It is a fact that morphological processes may be sensitiveto certain phonological context. The English data given belowillustrate this fact. You are required to state thephonological contexts where the addition of -en is possible.a bwhiten *bluenmadden *stupidenredden *greenenFatten *fartheren quicken *slowen deafen *difficultenLiven *abstractenharden *shallowensoften *angryendeepen *vividenAnswer: The suffix -en, which attaches to adjectives to form verbs, can only attach to monosyllabic bases ending in oral stops or fricatives.VerbAdjective-en if Adjective ends in an obstruent (oral stop or fricative). - <Φ> if Adjective ends in a sonorant (nasal, approximant, vowel)Meaning: to make (more) Adjectives5．The word uneasiness may be analyzed in either of the two ways below. You are required to find an argument to support one of the two analyses.a)NPrefixNoununAdjectiveSuffixeasinessb)NAdjectiveSuffixPrefixAdjectivenessuneasiAnswer: b) is the correct analysis, because un- only attaches to adjectives to form other adjectives. Un- cannot be attached to a noun.。