基于m序列的扩频通信系统的仿真设计外文翻译

基于m序列的扩频通信系统的仿真设计外文翻译
基于m序列的扩频通信系统的仿真设计外文翻译

延陵学院

2010 届毕业设计外文翻译

毕业设计题目基于m序列的扩频通信系统的仿真设计外文翻译题目Spread Spectrum Techniques

专业通信工程班级06通信Y 姓名朱俊学号06121836 指导教师何松职称讲师

扩频技术

维基百科摘要

扩频技术是信号(例如一个电气、电磁,或声信号)生成的特定带宽频率域中特意传播,从而导致更大带宽的信号的方法。这些技术用于各种原因包括增加抗自然干扰和干扰,以防止检测,并限制功率流密度(如在卫星下行链路)的安全通信设立的。频率跳变的历史:

跳频的概念最早是归档在1903年美国专利723188和美国专利725605由尼古拉特斯拉在1900年7月提出的。特斯拉想出了这个想法后,在1898年时展示了世界上第一个无线电遥控潜水船,却从“受到干扰,拦截,或者以任何方式干涉”发现无线信号控制船是安全的需要。他的专利涉及两个实现抗干扰能力根本不同的技术,实现这两个功能通过改变载波频率或其他专用特征的干扰免疫。第一次在为使控制电路发射机的工作,同时在两个或多个独立的频率和一个接收器,其中的每一个人发送频率调整,必须在作出回应。第二个技术使用由预定的方式更改传输的频率的一个编码轮控制的变频发送器。这些专利描述频率跳变和频分多路复用,以及电子与门逻辑电路的基本原则。

跳频在无线电报中也被无线电先驱约翰内斯Zenneck提及(1908,德语,英语翻译麦克劳希尔,1915年),虽然Zenneck自己指出德律风根在早几年已经试过它。Zenneck 的书是当时领先的文本,很可能后来的许多工程师已经注意到这个问题。一名波兰的工程师(Leonard Danilewicz),在1929年提出了这个想法。其他几个专利被带到了20世纪30年代包括威廉贝尔特耶斯(德国1929年,美国专利1869695,1932)。在第二次世界大战中,美国陆军通信兵发明一种称为SIGSALY的通信系统,使得罗斯福和丘吉尔之间能相互通信,这种系统称为扩频,但由于其高的机密性,SIGSALY的存在直到20世纪80年代才知道。

最著名的跳频发明是女演员海蒂拉玛和作曲家乔治安太尔,他们的“秘密通信系统”1942年获美国第2,292,387专利。拉玛与前夫弗里德里希汀曼德这位奥地利武器制造商在国防会议上了解到这一问题。安太尔-拉马尔版本的跳频用钢琴卷88个频率发生变化,其旨在使无线电导向鱼雷,让敌人很难来检测或干扰。该专利来自五零年代ITT公司和其他私人公司开始时发展码分多址(CDMA),一个民间形式扩频,尽管拉马尔专利有没对后续技术有直接影响。它其实是在麻省理工学院林肯实验室、乐华政府和电子工业公司、国际电话电报公司及万年电子系统导致早期扩频技术在20世纪50年代的长期军事研究。雷达系统的并行研究和一个称为“相位编码”的技术类似概念对扩频发展造成影响。

商业用途

罗伯特·狄克逊,在1976年发表了国际标准图书编号为0-471-21629-1的扩频系统项技术,是在商业化进程中一个重要的里程碑。前出版物要么是军事报告要么是不起眼的专题学术论文。狄克逊的书是第一本全面非机密性的技术研讨,并设置提高到商业应用的研究阶段。

初步扩频商业用途开始于美国20世纪80年代,有三个系统:赤道通信系统甚小口径终端(VSAT)卫星报纸新闻专线服务终端系统、德尔诺特的技术用无线电导航系统进行飞机对作物除尘的控制和类似应用导航系统终端系统,以及高通公司的OmniTRACS 系统用于卡车的通信。在高通和赤道的系统中,扩频启用小型天线浏览多个卫星是由于扩频处理增益用于消除干扰。德尔诺特系统用扩频高带宽来提高定位精度。

1981年,美国联邦通信委员会开始探索,在调查通知的议事日程中允许扩频更多一般民事用途。这个审理是联邦通讯委员会提出,然后由迈克尔联邦通讯委员会的工作人员马库斯指示。在审案件的建议得到普遍频谱用户和无线电设备制造商反对,尽管他们得到惠普小组的支持。而该实验室组支持这一建议后成为安捷伦的一部分。

1985年5月决定批准这个案卷3频段无节制扩频使用权高达1瓦。联邦通讯委员会当时表示,欢迎为传播其他频带的额外要求。由此产生的规则,即现在的第47未来研究中心允许的Wi-Fi,蓝牙,无绳电话,包括许多其他产品由15.247编纂。这些规则,然后在其他许多国家效仿。高通成立后2个月内决定可以商用化CDMA技术。

扩频通信

这是一种在其(电信)信号传输一个带宽远远多于原始信息的频率内容的技术。

扩频通信是构建技术,它采用直接序列、调频,或多个访问/多种功能可用这些的混合信号。这种技术减少了对其他接收机的潜在干扰,同时实现隐私。扩频通常会使用噪声的连续的信号传播结构,通常使用窄带上的信息信号分散一个相对宽带(单选)的波段的频率。接收器接收信号的相关性检索原始的信息信号。要么努力抵御敌人的通信干扰(防堵塞,或简称AJ),或隐瞒事实,沟通,甚至发生,有时也称为低截获概率(LPI)的。

跳频扩频(FHSS),直接序列扩频(DSSS)、时间跳频扩频(THSS)、线性扩频(CSS),和这些技术的组合都是扩频的形式。每种方法采用了伪随机数字序列使用的伪随机数字生成器创建——以确定与控制信号通过分配带宽的传播模式。超宽带(UWB)是另一种调制技术,实现了基于传输短时间内脉冲相同的目的。无线以太网标准IEEE 802.11在其无线接口使用跳频扩频或直接序列扩频。

备注

自20世纪40年代以来已知和自20世纪50年代以来在军事通信系统中使用的技术。

?“传播”的无线电信号较宽的频率范围内若干程度高于最低要求。扩频的核心原则就是波载波噪声样,使用和作为名称意味着比相同的数据速率在简单的点对点通信所需更多的带宽。

?两种主要的方法:

1.直接序列(DS)

2.跳频 (FH)

?耐干扰。直接序列在抵御连续时间窄带干扰更好,而跳频抗脉冲干扰是更好。在直接序列系统中,窄带干扰会影响检测性能如干扰功率量蔓延了整个信号的带宽时,通常检测性能不会比更强背景噪声。相比之下,在那些低带宽的窄带信号系统,如果干扰功率恰巧集中在信号带宽那么接收的信号质量将会严重降低。

?抗窃听。扩频代码(在直接序列系统)或跳频模式(在跳频系统)通常任何一方都不知道谁的信号是未定义的,在这种情况下“加密”信号,并降低对方的对其的判断意识。更重要的是,有一个给定的噪声功率谱密度 (PSD),扩频系统需要在每比特相同数量的能源之前传播窄带系统因此同样的功率,如果比特率在扩展前是相同的,但由于每比特能量信号功率扩散超过一个大带宽的扩散,则信号PSD的要低得多,而往往大大低于噪声PSD的,因此对手可能无法确定是否存在于所有的信号。不过,对于关键任务的应用尤其是雇用商用无线电通讯设备,扩频无线电本质上没有提供足够的安全“……只用扩频无线电通信本身是不足够的安全。”?抗衰落。扩频信号所占用的高带宽提供某些频率的多样性,也就是说,即是不可能的信号也会遇到整个带宽的严重多径衰落,而在其他情况下信号可以被检测到使用,例如Rake接收机。

?多种接入能力。多个用户可以同时传输相同的频率(范围),只要他们使用不同的扩频码。请参阅 CDMA。

扩频时钟信号的生成

扩频时钟发生器(SSCG)用于一些同步数字系统,特别是那些含有微处理器,以减少电磁干扰(EMI),这些系统生成密度谱。同步数字系统是指驱动的时钟信号,而且因为其周期性,难免有一个窄的频谱。事实上,一个完善的时钟信号会集中在一个单一的频率及其谐波上,因此将发出无限功率谱密度能量。实用放射同步数字系统在对时钟频率及其谐波在窄波段的电磁能量数量的分布,在特定的频率可以超过电磁干扰(例如那些在美国的通信委员会、日本电子信息技术产业协会及欧洲的国际电工委员会)。

若要避免此项问题即制造商重视扩频时钟的商业使用。这包括使用扩频通信部分所述的方法之一,以降低峰值辐射能量。因此,重塑该技术系统的电磁辐射符合电磁兼容性(EMC)的规定。这是一个受欢迎的技术,因为可用于只有一个简单修改法规批准获取设备。

扩频时钟已经变得越来越流行,因为便携式电子设备中更快的时钟速度和日益一体化的高分辨率液晶显示器体现在小型的设备上。因为这些设备的设计既轻又便宜,如电容器或屏蔽金属减少电磁干扰的被动措施并非一个可行的选择。主动减少电磁干扰技术如扩频时钟技术减少在这些情况下有必要,但也可以为设计者创建挑战。在其中主要的风险是修改系统时钟的时钟运行的风险/数据的偏差。

请务必注意此方法不会减少系统的总能量辐射,因此并不一定能使系统不太容易造成干扰。在一个狭窄的窗口测量的优势是分布在一个大范围的频率波段的能量有效地降低了电和磁场的频率。扩频时钟工作原因是因为测量接收机在电磁兼容性测试实验室使用的频带划分成约120千赫兹电磁波谱宽。如果被测系统在同一频率传播能量,它将会在被监视的频带的大高峰注册。扩频时钟分布能量,以便它属于一个大量的接收器频段且不必投入任何一个带足够的能量去超过法定限度。在扩频时钟作为实际减少干扰方法的有效性往往被争论,但很可能一些电子设备具有灵敏性的频率的窄带会遇到较少的干扰,而其它宽带具有

敏感性的设备会遇到较多的干扰。

扩频时钟生成现代开关电源供应(升

温期),含瀑布图的谱传遍了几分钟。

记录与阴极 5030 电磁兼容性分析

通信委员会认证测试经常是

为了减少测量到可接受的规定范围内的排放量所启用的扩频功能完成的。然而,某些基本输入输出系统的作者包括用户能设置够禁用扩频时钟发生器,从而推翻了抗电磁干扰规范。这可被视为一个漏洞,但通常被忽略,只要默认的基本输入输出系统制造商提供的设置具有启用扩频的功能。一个禁用扩频计算机系统时钟的能力被认为是可以使用的最高时钟速度所影响的组件实现的,由于涉及时钟偏移的扩频技术有用,影响到超频的功效。

主要技术:

一、直接序列扩频

在电信中,直接序列扩频(DSSS)是一种调制技术。与其他扩频技术一样传输的信号比被调制的信息信号的占用更多带宽。‘扩频’名称来自一个事实,即载波信号在整个带宽(谱设备的发射频率)发生。

功能

1.与它相调制正弦波伪随机地与伪连续的字符串(PN)的代码符号称为“芯片”,各自有一个比信息比特更短的时间。也就是说每个信息位是由一个更快的芯片序列调制,因此芯片速率远高于信息信号的比特率。

2.它使用的信号接收器的众所周知的先验结构,其中是由发射机生产的芯片序列。接收器就可以使用相同的伪随机码序列,以抵消对接收信号的伪随机码序列的影响,以重建信息信号。

传输方法

直接序列扩频传输数据乘以由一个“噪音”信号传送。这种噪声信号是1和-1伪随机序列值,其频率比原始信号为高,从而带能量延伸到更广泛的原信号。

产生的信号类似于白噪声,像“静态”的音频录音。不过,这个类似噪声的信号可用于乘以相同的伪随机序列完全重建接收端的原始数据(因为 1 × 1 = 1,?1 ×?1 = 1)。这个过程称为“解扩”的过程在数学上构成传播的 PN 序列,接收方认为使用发射器PN序列的相关性。

对于解扩的正常运行,发送和接收序列必须同步。这需要通过某种形式的时间搜索过程使发射器的序列与接收器序列同步。但是,这种明显的缺点可以是一个重要好处:如果多个发射器的序列是相互同步的,那么相对的同步接收器必须使它们之间可以用来确定相对时间,而反过来,如果已知发射器的位置,可用于计算接收器的位置。这是许多卫星导航系统的基础。

调用过程中加强对通道信噪比造成的影响被称为处理增益。这种影响可通过采用较大较长PN序列和每比特更多的芯片,但用来生成PN序列的物理设备的多个芯片上可达到的处理增益实际限制。

如果在同一信道发送器发送同一频道,但使用不同的PN序列(或根本没有序列)解扩过程导致该信号没有获得处理。这种效果是码分多址(CDMA)属性的直接序列扩频,它允许多个发射机内共享他们的伪码序列的互相关特性来限制相同的频道。

由于这说明表明,一个传输的波形图有一个大致的钟形信封的载波频率为中心,就像AM传播, 除了增加的传输噪音导致的分配要大大高于一个AM信号的更广泛的传播。

相比之下,跳频扩频伪随机重新调整载波信号,而不是添加伪随机噪声数据,结果导致在一个统一的频率分布,其宽度是由伪随机数发生器的输出范围决定。

优点

对预期的或非预期抗干扰

?共享多个用户间的单信道

?减少信号/背景噪声级别包装截取(隐身)

?发射器与接收器之间的相对时间的测定

使用

?美国全球定位系统和欧洲伽利略卫星导航系统

?基于直接序列扩频系统(直接序列码分多址)是一种在扩频多址接入方案的基础上,从信号的传播,到不同的用户有不同的代码。这是CDMA的最广泛使用的类型。

?无绳电话在900兆赫,2.4吉赫和5.8吉赫频带操作

?电气和电子工程师协会802.11b 2.4 GHz无线网络和其前身802.11-1999。(正交频分复用技术继任802.11g技术)

?自动抄表

?电气和电子工程师协会802.15.4标准(例如用作物理层和链路层的紫蜂) 二、跳频扩频

跳频扩频(FHSS)通过很多渠道快速切换频率,其中一个运载体发射无线电信号的一种方法是,使用一个发射机和接收机已知的伪随机序列。它被利用作为多个访问方法中跳频码分多址(FH-CDMA)计划。

扩频传输通过三个主要优点提供了固定频率传输:

1.扩频信号高度抗窄带干扰。再收集传播信号传播出了干扰信号的过程,导致其退到背景的干扰信号。

2.扩频信号难以进行拦截。一个跳频扩频信号显示为一个简单的背景噪声增加至窄带接收机。如果窃听者知道了伪随机序列,他们只能够拦截传输。

3.扩频传输可以与许多类型的最小干扰的常规传输共享一个频带。扩频信号添加最小噪声窄频的通信,反之亦然。这样一来可以更有效地利用带宽。

基本的算法

通常,一个调频通信的启动是如下所示

1.发起方发送请求通过预定义的频率或控制通道。

2.接收方发送一个数字,像已知的种子。

3.发起方作为变量的计算顺序,必须使用的频率的一个预定义算法中使用该号码。最经常的频率变化的时期是预定义的,以允许一个基站,服务多个连接。

4.发起方通过第一次发送同步信号的频率计算,从而为接受确认它有正确的计算顺序。

5.在通信开始,发送方和接收沿该计算的顺序在同一点开始的时间更改其频率。

军事用途

扩频信号是很好抵抗到故意干扰,除非对方有传播特性的知识。军用无线电通讯设备使用加密技术来生成所控制的传输安全密钥(TRANSEC),发送方和接收方共享一个秘密通道序列。

本身,跳频只提供有限的防止窃听和干扰保护。若要绕过此弱点最现代军事频率跳跃收音机经常采用单独的加密设备如KY57。美国军事收音机使用频率跳变的包括有快速和单信道地面与机载通信系统。

技术的几点思考

所需频率跳变的整体带宽是比需要来传输仅一个相同信息使用载波频率更大。不过,由于在任何给定时间只能在此带宽的一小部分上发生传播,实在是一样有效的干扰带宽是。虽然没有提供额外的热噪声对宽带的保护,跳频方法确实降低窄带干扰造成的退化。

对跳频系统的挑战之一是如何同步发射器和接收器。一种方法是有将保证的发射机使用在固定时间内的所有渠道。接收器随机选择一个频道就可以找到发送器,该频道提供有效的数据倾听变送器。发送器的数据都是通过一个特殊的数据序列不像发生在这个渠道为数据段和段可以有一个完整的校验和进一步鉴定。发射器和接收器可以使用固定的渠道序列表,以便他们按照表中的能保持同步。每个通道段上发射器表中,可以将其当前位置的进行发送。

在美国的通信委员会第15部分无牌系统900兆赫兹和2.4兆赫兹频带上允许更多非扩频系统功率。调频和直接序列系统可以在1瓦传输。该限制从1毫瓦增加到1瓦或增加一千倍。美国联邦通讯委员会(FCC)规定了渠道的最低数目和每个通道的最大驻留时间。

在实际的多点式无线电系统,空间允许的多个相同频率的传输,在一个地理区域内可能使用多个无线电设备。这将创建系统数据速率高于香农极限的单通道的可能性。扩频系统没有违反香农极限。扩频系统过多的依赖信号信噪比的频谱共享。多输入多输出和直接序列扩频系统中也看到此属性。电波传导和定向天线也通过提供远程无线电通讯设备之间的隔离提高系统的性能。

跳频扩频的变化

自适应跳频扩频(AFH)(如使用蓝牙)通过避免使用拥挤的频率跳变序列提高了抗射频干扰。这种自适应传输是调频扩频比直接序列扩频更容易实现。

自适应跳频扩频主要用意是避免“不好”的频道使用仅在“良好”的频率——或许那些“不良”的频道遇到频率选择性衰落,或者一些第三方试图对这些波段沟通,或者那些波段正在被积极地干扰。因此,自适应跳频扩频应从检测好/坏信道的机制中得到补充。

但是,如果无线电频率干扰本身就是动态的,那么“坏信道清除”的策略在自适应跳频应用可能无法工作。例如,如果有几个同位跳频网络(如蓝牙技术的微微网),

那么他们是相互干扰且自适应跳频的策略未能避免这种干扰。

在这种情况下,有需要使用动态适应的频率跳变模式的策略。这种情况往往发生

在无节制的情况下使用频谱。

此外,动态无线电频率的干扰,预计发生涉及感知无线电的方案中,该方案中会

出现网络和设备应展示变频操作。

线性调频扩频可以被视为一种跳频,只需通过可用频率以连续顺序扫描。

三、线性调频扩频

一个线性调频时间域

中的上线性调频信号

线性调频扩频(CSS)是一种扩频技术使用宽带线性调频脉冲对信息进行编码。一个线性调是在一定时间正弦信号频率的增加或减少。上面是一个线性调频信号的一个示

例-可以看到随着时间的推移频率线性增加。

概述

如同其他扩频方法,线性调频频谱使用其全部分配到的带宽广播信号,使信道噪

声强劲。此外,由于线性调频利用了频谱的宽带,线性调频扩频也能够抵抗多径衰落,即使在非常低的功率下运行。然而,与直接序列扩频(DSSS)或频率跳频(FHSS),

由于它不添加任何伪随机的信号分量,以帮助区分的信道噪声它扩频,而不是依靠线

性调频脉冲的线性性质。此外,调频扩频的抗多普勒效应,这是在移动无线应用的典型。

使用

线性调频扩频最初设计是为与测距精度及低速率无线网络在2.45 GHz频带中的超宽带竞争。但是,自美国电气和电子工程师协会802.15.4a(也称为IEEE 802.15.4a-2007) 的版本,它不再是正积极考虑为在标准化领域测距的精度规程。目前,Nanotron科技,生产实时定位装置,并获得线性调频扩频主要力量后加入到电机及电子学工程师联合

会802.15.4a标准,是唯一使用线性调频扩频的无线设备卖方。特别是,他们的主要

产品,NanoLOC的TRX收发器,使用在线性调频扩频和作为一个实时的网络设备销售位置和电子标签能力。有些地方这种技术可能是有作用的是医疗应用,物流(即容器需要被跟踪),以及政府/安全应用。Nanotron 甚至测试TRX收发器用于在钢厂工业监测和控制,它能存在于导致的计算机和显示器与它连接失败的热量中。

调频扩频非常适合需要低功耗的应用程序和需要的带宽数量相对较少(1兆比特/秒或更少)的情况下。特别是在IEEE802.15.4a指定线性调频扩频作为一种低速率无线技术在个人局域网(LR—WPAN)中使用。但是,尽管IEEE802.15.4-2006标准指定个人区域网络包含10米的或较少的区域,IEEE 802.15.4a-2007指定线性调频扩频在物理层使用时延长范围和设备在高速移动作为是您的网络运行的一部分。Nanotron的线性调频扩频的执行工作,实际上是看到在570米范围内的设备之间。此外,Nanotron 为该项目的执行能够工作在数据传输速率可高达2 Mbit/s比802.15.4a任务指定的速率要高。最后,IEEE 802.15.4a标准的物理层实际上混合线性调频扩频编码技术与差分相移键控调制(DPSK)以达到更好的数据传输速率。

线性调频扩频也可用于军事应用前景,因为它是非常困难的探测和拦截时,在低功耗工作。

四、时间跳频

时间跳频通信中,传播中的承运人打开和关闭的伪代码序列的频谱技术。这里就不再赘述。

Spread Spectrum Techniques

By Wikipedia Abstract:

Spread-spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal (e.g. an electrical, electromagnetic, or acoustic signal ) generated in a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth. These techniques are used for a variety of reasons, including the establishment of secure communications, increasing resistance to natural interference and jamming, to prevent detection, and to limit power flux density (e.g. in satellite downlinks).

History Frequency hopping:

The concept of frequency hopping was first alluded to in the 1903 U.S. Patent 723,188 and U.S. Patent 725,605 filed by Nikola Tesla in July 1900. Tesla came up with the idea after demonstrating the world's first radio-controlled submersible boat in 1898, when it became apparent the wireless signals controlling the boat needed to be secure from "being disturbed, intercepted, or interfered with in any way." His patents covered two fundamentally different techniques for achieving immunity to interference, both of which functioned by altering the carrier frequency or other exclusive characteristic. The first had a transmitter that worked simultaneously at two or more separate frequencies and a receiver in which each of the individual transmitted frequencies had to be tuned in, in order for the control circuitry to respond. The second technique used a variable-frequency transmitter controlled by an encoding wheel that altered the transmitted frequency in a predetermined manner. These patents describe the basic principles of frequency hopping and frequency-division multiplexing, and also the electronic AND-gate logic circuit.

Frequency hopping is also mentioned in radio pioneer Johannes Zenneck's book Wireless Telegraphy (German, 1908, English translation McGraw Hill, 1915), although Zenneck himself states that Telefunken had already tried it several years earlier. Zenneck's book was a leading text of the time, and it is likely that many later engineers were aware of it. A Polish engineer, Leonard Danilewicz, came up with the idea in 1929.Several other patents were taken out in the 1930s, including one by Willem Broertjes (Germany 1929, U.S. Patent 1,869,695, 1932). During World War II, the US Army Signal Corps was inventing a communication system called SIGSALY for communication between Roosevelt and Churchill, which incorporated spread spectrum, but due to its top secret nature, SIGSALY's existence did not become known until the 1980s.

The most celebrated invention of frequency hopping was that of actress Hedy Lamarr and composer George Antheil, who in 1942 received U.S. Patent 2,292,387 for their "Secret

Communications System". Lamarr had learned about the problem at defense meetings she had attended with her former husband Friedrich Mandl, who was an Austrian arms manufacturer. The Antheil-Lamarr version of frequency hopping used a piano-roll to change among 88 frequencies, and was intended to make radio-guided torpedoes harder for enemies to detect or to jam. The patent came to light during patent searches in the 1950s when ITT Corporation and other private firms began to develop Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), a civilian form of spread spectrum, though the Lamarr patent had no direct impact on subsequent technology. It was in fact ongoing military research at MIT Lincoln Laboratory, Magnavox Government & Industrial Electronics Corporation, ITT and Sylvania Electronic Systems that led to early spread-spectrum technology in the 1950s. Parallel research on radar systems and a technologically similar concept called "phase coding" also had an impact on spread-spectrum development.

Commercial use

The 1976 publication of Spread Spectrum Systems by Robert Dixon, ISBN 0-471-21629-1, was a significant milestone in the commercialization of this technology. Previous publications were either classified military reports or academic papers on narrow subtopics. Dixon's book was the first comprehensive unclassified review of the technology and set the stage for increasing research into commercial applications.

Initial commercial use of spread spectrum began in the 1980s in the US with three systems: Equatorial Communications System's very small aperture (VSAT) satellite terminal system for newspaper newswire services, Del Norte Technology's radio navigation system for navigation of aircraft for crop dusting and similar applications, and Qualcomm's OmniTRACS system for communications to trucks. In the Qualcomm and Equatorial systems, spread spectrum enabled small antennas that viewed more than one satellite to be used since the processing gain of spread spectrum eliminated interference. The Del Norte system used the high bandwidth of spread spectrum to improve location accuracy.

In 1981, the Federal Communications Commission started exploring ways to permit more general civil uses of spread spectrum in a Notice of Inquiry docket. This docket was proposed to FCC and then directed by Michael Marcus of the FCC staff. The proposals in the docket were generally opposed by spectrum users and radio equipment manufacturers, although they were supported by the then Hewlett-Packard Corp. The laboratory group supporting the proposal would later become part of Agilent.

The May 1985 decision in this docket permitted unlicensed use of spread spectrum in 3 bands at powers up to 1 Watt. FCC said at the time that it would welcome additional requests for spread spectrum in other bands.The resulting rules, now codified as 47 CFR

15.247 permitted Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and many other products including cordless telephones. These rules were then copied in many other countries. Qualcomm was incorporated within 2 months after the decision to commercialize CDMA.

Spread-spectrum telecommunications

This is a technique in which a (telecommunication) signal is transmitted on a bandwidth considerably larger than the frequency content of the original information.

Spread-spectrum telecommunications is a signal structuring technique that employs direct sequence, frequency hopping, or a hybrid of these, which can be used for multiple access and/or multiple functions. This technique decreases the potential interference to other receivers while achieving privacy. Spread spectrum generally ma kes use of a sequential noise-like signal structure to spread the normally narrowband information signal over a relatively wideband (radio) band of frequencies. The receiver correlates the received signals to retrieve the original information signal. Originally there were two motivations: either to resist enemy efforts to jam the communications (anti-jam, or AJ), or to hide the fact that communication was even taking place, sometimes called low probability of intercept (LPI).

Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), time-hopping spread spectrum (THSS), chirp spread spectrum (CSS), and combinations of these techniques are forms of spread spectrum. Each of these techniques employs pseudorandom number sequences —created using pseudorandom number generators —to determine and control the spreading pattern of the signal across the alloted bandwidth. Ultra-wideband (UWB) is another modulation technique that accomplishes the same purpose, based on transmitting short duration pulses. Wireless Ethernet standard IEEE 802.11 uses either FHSS or DSSS in its radio interface.

Notes

?Techniques known since 1940s and used in military communication system since 1950s ?"Spread" radio signal over a wide frequency range several magnitudes higher than minimum requirement. The core principle of spread spectrum is the use of noise-like carrier waves, and, as the name implies, bandwidths much wider than that required for simple point-to-point communication at the same data rate.

?Two main techniques:

1.Direct sequence (DS)

2.Frequency hopping (FH)

?Resistance to jamming (interference). DS is better at resisting continuous-time narrowband jamming, while FH is better at resisting pulse jamming. In DS systems, narrowband jamming affects detection performance about as much as if the amount of

jamming power is spread over the whole signal bandwidth, when it will often not be much stronger than background noise. By contrast, in narrowband systems where the signal bandwidth is low, the received signal quality will be severely lowered if the jamming power happens to be concentrated on the signal bandwidth.

?Resistance to eavesdropping. The spreading code (in DS systems) or the frequency-hopping pattern (in FH systems) is often unknown by anyone for whom the signal is unintended, in which case it "encrypts" the signal and reduces the chance of an adversary's making sense of it. What's more, for a given noise power spectral density (PSD), spread-spectrum systems require the same amount of energy per bit before spreading as narrowband systems and therefore the same amount o f power if the bitrate before spreading is the same, but since the signal power is spread over a large bandwidth, the signal PSD is much lower, often significantly lower than the noise PSD, therefore the adversary may be unable to determine if the signal exists at all. However, for mission-critical applications, particularly those employing commercially available radios, spread-spectrum radios do not intrinsically provide adequate security; "...just using spread-spectrum radio itself is not sufficient for communications security"

?Resistance to fading. The high bandwidth occupied by spread-spectrum signals offer some frequency diversity, i.e. it is unlikely that the signal would encounter severe multipath fading over its whole bandwidth, and in other cases the signal can be detected using e.g. a Rake receiver.

?Multiple access capability. Multiple users can transmit simultaneously on the same frequency (range) as long as they use different spreading codes. See CDMA.

Spread-spectrum clock signal generation

Spread-spectrum clock generation (SSCG) is used in some synchronous digital systems, especially those containing microprocessors, to reduce the spectral density of the electromagnetic interference (EMI) that these systems generate. A synchronous digital system is one that is driven by a clock signal and because of its periodic nature, has an unavoidably narrow frequency spectrum. In fact, a perfect clock signal would have all its energy concentrated at a single frequency and its harmonics, and would therefore radiate energy with an infinite spectral density. Practical synchronous digital systems radiate electromagnetic energy on a number of narrow bands spread on the clock frequency and its harmonics, resulting in a frequency spectrum that, at certain frequencies, can exceed the regulatory limits for electromagnetic interference (e.g. those of the FCC in the United States, JEITA in Japan and the IEC in Europe).

To avoid this problem, which is of great commercial importance to manufacturers,

spread-spectrum clocking is used. This consists of using one of the methods described in the Spread-spectrum telecommunications section in order to reduce the peak radiated energy. The technique therefore reshapes the system's electromagnetic emissions to comply with the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) regulations. It is a popular technique because it can be used to gain regulatory approval with only a simple modification to the equipment.

Spread-spectrum clocking has become more popular in portable electronics devices because of faster clock speeds and the increasing integration of high-resolution LCD displays in smaller and smaller devices. Because these devices are designed to be lightweight and inexpensive, passive EMI reduction measures such as capacitors or metal shielding are not a viable option. Active EMI reduction techniques such as spread-spectrum clocking are necessary in these cases, but can also create challenges for designers. Principal among these is the risk that modifying the system clock runs the risk of the clock/data misalignment.

It is important to note that this method does not reduce the total energy radiated by the system, and therefore does not necessarily make the system less likely to cause interference. Spreading the energy over a large frequency band effectively reduces the electrical and magnetic field strengths that are measured within a narrow window of frequencies. Spread-spectrum clocking works because the measuring receivers used by EMC testing laboratories divide the electromagnetic spectrum into frequency bands approximately 120 kHz wide.If the system under test were to radiate all of its energy at one frequency, it would register a large peak at the monitored frequency band. Spread-spectrum clocking distributes the energy so that it falls into a large number of the receiver's frequency bands, without putting enough energy into any one band to exceed the statutory limits. The usefulness of spread-spectrum clocking as a method of actually reducing interference is often debated, but it is probable that some electronic equipment with sensitivity to a narrow band of frequencies will experience less interference, while other equipment with broadband sensitivity will experience more

interference.

Spread spectrum of a modern

switching power supply (heating up

period) incl. waterfall diagram over a

few minutes. Recorded with a

NF-5030 EMC-Analyzer

FCC certification testing is often completed with the spread-spectrum function enabled in order to reduce the measured emissions to within acceptable legal limits. However, some BIOS writers include the ability to disable spread-spectrum clock generation as a user setting, thereby defeating the object of the EMI regulations. This may be considered a loophole, but is generally overlooked as long as the default BIOS setting provided by the manufacturer has the spread-spectrum feature enabled. An ability to disable spread-spectrum clocking for computer systems is considered useful as the spread-spectrum techniques used can affect the maximum clockspeed achievable by the components involved due to clock skew, affecting overclocking efforts.

Main techniques:

1、Direct-sequence spread spectrum

In telecommunications, direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is a modulation technique. As with other spread spectrum technologies, the transmitted signal takes up more bandwidth than the information signal that is being modulated. The name 'spread spectrum' comes from the fact that the carrier signals occur over the full bandwidth (spectrum) of a device's transmitting frequency.

Features

1.It phase-modulates a sine wave pseudorandomly with a continuous string of

pseudonoise (PN) code symbols called "chips", each of which has a much shorter duration than an information bit. That is, each information bit is modulated by a sequence of much faster chips. Therefore, the chip rate is much higher than the information signal bit rate.

2. It uses a signal structure in which the sequence of chips produced by the transmitter is

known a priori by the receiver. The receiver can then use the same PN sequence to counteract the effect of the PN sequence on the received signal in order to reconstruct the information signal.

Transmission method

Direct-sequence spread-spectrum transmissions multiply the data being transmitted by a "noise" signal. This noise signal is a pseudorandom sequence of 1 and ?1 values, at a frequency much higher than that of the original signal, thereby spreading the energy of the original signal into a much wider band.

The resulting signal resembles white noise, like an audio recording of "static". However, this noise-like signal can be used to exactly reconstruct the original data at the receiving end, by multiplying it by the same pseudorandom sequence (because 1 ×1 = 1, and ?1 × ?1 = 1). This process, known as "de-spreading", mathematically constitutes a

correlation of the transmitted PN sequence with the PN sequence that the receiver believes the transmitter is using.

For de-spreading to work correctly, the transmit and receive sequences must be synchronized. This requires the receiver to synchronize its sequence with the transmitter's sequence via some sort of timing search process. However, this apparent drawback c an be a significant benefit: if the sequences of multiple transmitters are synchronized with each other, the relative synchronizations the receiver must make between them can be used to determine relative timing, which, in turn, can be used to calculate the receiver's position if the transmitters' positions are known. This is the basis for many satellite navigation systems.

The resulting effect of enhancing signal to noise ratio on the channel is called process gain. This effect can be made larger by employing a longer PN sequence and more chips per bit, but physical devices used to generate the PN sequence impose practical limits on attainable processing gain.

If an undesired transmitter transmits on the same channel but with a differe nt PN sequence (or no sequence at all), the de-spreading process results in no processing gain for that signal. This effect is the basis for the code division multiple access (CDMA) property of DSSS, which allows multiple transmitters to share the same channel within the limits of the cross-correlation properties of their PN sequences.

As this description suggests, a plot of the transmitted waveform has a roughly bell-shaped envelope centered on the carrier frequency, just like a normal AM transmission, except that the added noise causes the distribution to be much wider than that of an AM transmission.

In contrast, frequency-hopping spread spectrum pseudo-randomly re-tunes the carrier, instead of adding pseudo-random noise to the data, which results in a uniform frequency distribution whose width is determined by the output range of the pseudo-random number generator.

Benefits

?Resistance to intended or unintended jamming

?Sharing of a single channel among multiple users

?Reduced signal/background-noise level hampers interception (stealth)

?Determination of relative timing between transmitter and receiver

Uses

?The United States GPS and European Galileo satellite navigation systems

?DS-CDMA (Direct-Sequence Code Division Multiple Access) is a multiple access scheme based on DSSS, by spreading the signals from/to different users with

different codes. It is the most widely used type of CDMA.

?Cordless phones operating in the 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz bands

?IEEE 802.11b 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi, and its predecessor 802.11-1999. (Their successor 802.11g uses OFDM instead)

?Automatic meter reading

?IEEE 802.15.4 (used e.g. as PHY and MAC layer for ZigBee)

2、Frequency-hopping spread spectrum

Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly switching a carrier among many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom sequence known to both transmitter and receiver. It is utilized as a multiple access method in the frequency-hopping code division multiple access (FH-CDMA) scheme.

A spread-spectrum transmission offers three main advantages over a fixed-frequency transmission:

1.Spread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to narrowband interference. The

process of re-collecting a spread signal spreads out the interfering signal, causing it to recede into the background.

2.Spread-spectrum signals are difficult to intercept. An FHSS signal simply appears as

an increase in the background noise to a narrowband receiver. An eavesdropper would only be able to intercept the transmission if they knew the pseudorandom sequence.

3.Spread-spectrum transmissions can share a frequency band with many types of

conventional transmissions with minimal interference. The spread-spectrum signals add minimal noise to the narrow-frequency communications, and vice versa. As a result, bandwidth can be utilized more efficiently.

Basic algorithm

Typically, the initiation of an FHSS communication is as follows

1.The initiating party sends a request via a predefined frequency or control channel.

2.The receiving party sends a number, known as a seed.

3.The initiating party uses the number as a variable in a predefined algorithm, which

calculates the sequence of frequencies that must be used. Most often the period of the frequency change is predefined, as to allow a single base station to serve multiple connections.

4.The initiating party sends a synchronization signal via the first frequency in the

calculated sequence, thus acknowledging to the receiving party it has correctly calculated the sequence.

5.The communication begins, and both the receiving and the sending party change

their frequencies along the calculated order, starting at the same point in time. Military use

Spread-spectrum signals are highly resistant to deliberate jamming, unless the adversary has knowledge of the spreading characteristics. Military radios use cryptographic techniques to generate the channel sequence under the control of a secret Transmission Security Key (TRANSEC) that the sender and receiver share.

By itself, frequency hopping provides only limited protection against eavesdropping and jamming. To get around this weakness most modern military frequency hopping radios often employ separate encryption devices such as the KY-57. U.S. military radios that use frequency hopping include HAVE QUICK and SINCGARS.

Technical considerations

The overall bandwidth required for frequency hopping is much wider than that required to transmit the same information using only one carrier frequency. However, because transmission occurs only on a small portion of this bandwidth at any given time, the effective interference bandwidth is really the same. Whilst providing no extra protection against wideband thermal noise, the frequency-hopping approach does reduce the degradation caused by narrowband interferers.

One of the challenges of frequency-hopping systems is to synchronize the transmitter and receiver. One approach is to have a guarantee that the transmitter will use all the channels in a fixed period of time. The receiver can then find the transmitter by picking a random channel and listening for valid data on that channel. The transmitter's data is identified by a special sequence of data that is unlikely to occur over the segment of data for this channel and the segment can have a checksum for integrity and further identification. The transmitter and receiver can use fixed tables of channel sequences so that once synchronized they can maintain communication by following the table. On each channel segment, the transmitter can send its current location in the table.

In the US, FCC part 15 on unlicensed system in the 900MHz and 2.4GHz bands permits more power than non-spread spectrum systems. Both frequency hopping and direct sequence systems can transmit at 1 Watt. The limit is increased from 1 milliwatt to 1 watt or a thousand times increase. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) prescribes a minimum number of channels and a maximum dwell time for each channel.

In a real multipoint radio system, space allows multiple transmissions on the same frequency to be possible using multiple radios in a geographic area.This creates the possibility of system data rates that are higher than the Shannon limit for a single channel.

Spread spectrum systems do not violate the Shannon limit. Spread spectrum systems rely on excess signal to noise ratios for sharing of spectrum. This property is also seen in MIMO and DSSS systems. Beam steering and directional antennas also facilitate increased system performance by providing isolation between remote radios.

Variations of FHSS

Adaptive Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH) (as used in Bluetooth) improves resistance to radio frequency interference by avoiding using crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence. This sort of adaptive transmission is easier to implement with FHSS than with DSSS.

The key idea behin d AFH is to use only the “good” frequencies, by avoiding the "bad" frequency channels -- perhaps those "bad" frequency channels are experiencing frequency selective fading, or perhaps some third party is trying to communicate on those bands, or perhaps those bands are being actively jammed. Therefore, AFH should be complemented by a mechanism for detecting good/bad channels.

However, if the radio frequenc y interference is itself dynamic, then the strategy of “bad channel removal”, applied in AFH might not work well. For example, if there are several colocated frequency-hopping networks (as Bluetooth Piconet), then they are mutually interfering and the strategy of AFH fails to avoid this interference.

In this case, there is a need to use strategies for dynamic adaptation of the frequency hopping pattern.Such a situation can often happen in the scenarios that use unlicensed spectrum.

In addition, dynamic radio frequency interference is expected to occur in the scenarios related to cognitive radio, where the networks and the devices should exhibit frequency-agile operation.

Chirp modulation can be seen as a form of frequency-hopping that simply scans through the available frequencies in consecutive order.

3、Chirp spread spectrum

A linear frequency modulated

upchirp in the time domain

毕业设计外文翻译资料

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