2 a study of multiple intelligences, foreign language success and some selected variables

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外研社学术英语(第二版)综合Unit 2 (教师用书U2

Unit 2 EconomicsI Teaching ObjectivesAfter learning Unit 2, students (Ss) are expected to develop the following academic skills and knowledge:II Teaching Activities and ResourcesReadingText ALead-inTeaching StepsAsk Ss to work in pairs and do the task in Lead-in. Then invite several Ss to share their answers with the whole class.Answer Keys1.The invisible hand.2.Our economic life is made possible by the skill and labor of vast numbers of totalstrangers.The activities of countless far-flung men and women have to be intricately choreographed and precisely timed. However, no one coordinates it, and yet they do cooperate. It’s “the invisible hand” —the mysterious power that leads innumerable people, each working for his own gain, to promote ends that benefit many. Out of the seeming chaos of millions of uncoordinated private transactions emerges the spontaneousText AnalysisTeaching Steps1.OverviewAsk Ss to preview Text A before class. Or, allocate some time for Ss to read the text quickly in class. Then invite several Ss to summarize the main idea of Text A.2.In-Depth Analysis1)Show Ss the following words and ask them to contribute to the class as muchas possible with what they know about these words. Provide additional information in Supplementary Information when necessary.•the invisible hand•free-market economy•economic downturn•An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations2)Explain some important language points in Language Support to Ss.3)Discuss with Ss the invisible hand in the author’s eyes by doing Task 1 inCritical reading and thinking.4)Organize a group discussion about the questions from Task 2 in Criticalreading and thinking. Encourage Ss to think independently, critically and creatively and share their ideas with each other.Supplementary Information1.free-market economyIn a free market economy, the laws and forces of supply and demand, rather than a central government, regulate production and labor. The prices for goods and services are self-regulated by buyers and sellers negotiating in an open market.Most companies and resources are not owned by the state. Instead, they are owned by private individuals or entities who are free to trade contracts with each other. 2.economic downturnAn economic downturn is a general slowdown in economic activity over a sustained period of time. It occurs when the value of stocks, property, and commodities fall, productivity either grows more slowly or declines, and GDP shrinks, stands still or expands more slowly. It can happen in a specific region (e.g.the Asian financial crisis in the late 1990s) or on a global scale (e.g. the global financial crisis in the late 2000s). The main features of an economic downturn include rising unemployment, falling share and house prices, low consumer confidence and declining investment.4．An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations（《国富论》）An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is Adam Smith’s masterpiece. It was first published in 1776, and is widely considered to be the first modern work in economics. Through reflection over the economics at the beginning of theIndustrial Revolution, the book touches upon broad topics such as the division of labor, productivity and free markets.Language Support1.Individual buyers and sellers will act according to what is in their own bestinterests. (Para. 2)The phrase “in one’s interest” means “for one’s benefit or advantage”（为了……的利益；为……着想）. There are some relevant expressions, such as “in the interest of one”, “in one’s own interest”, and “in one’s best interest”.e.g. It’s obviously in their interest to increase profits.I suspect it’s in your own best interest to quit now.2.Customers are likewise typically looking out for their self-interests. (Para. 4)The word “likewise” is used to signal a comparison that explains how things are similar（同样的；此外）.e.g. In this episode, we will likewise deal with another extremely commonquestion.Just water these plants twice a week, and likewise the ones in the bedroom.Other special words and expressions are often used to signal the comparison of two or more people, places, things, ideas, etc. Here are some examples of these signposts for your reference:similarly, both, just as, and also, resemble, parallel, in the same manner, inthe same way, alike, equally3.The market becomes more efficient as buyers and sellers move in the samedirection—as if directed by an invisible hand. (Para. 5)这里的as if用于省略句。

英语学习成功者与不成功者在方法上差异02509

英语学习成功者与不成功者在方法上地差异一.理论背景:英语学习者地观念大致分为两类.一类为管理概念,另一类为语言学习观念.管理概念指学生对确定目标.制定计划.选择策略.控制策略等一系列管理活动重要性地认识.语言学习观念是指学生对如何才能掌握好语言知识.语言技能和交际能力地主张.从某种意义上说,学生对外语学习地一系列主张就是一种学习理论.学习者形成地学习理论对他们自身地学习行为有着直接地影响.如果调整学习者地语言学习行为,必须使他们地观念发生变化.策略指对学习过程最理想地调控.调控内容可分为两个方面:一是与过程有关,二是与语言学习材料本身有关.前者称为管理策略,后者称为语言学习策略.管理策略涉及目标地制定.策略地选择.时间地安排.策略有效性地评估和调整.这一系列活动都以自我评价为前提.语言学习策略直接用于英语学习.应该说语言学习策略本身并没有明显地好坏之分,它们效果地好坏要看学习者使用是否恰当.这种恰当性就是执行管理策略有效性地最好标志.二.研究方案:1. 研究对象.参加个案研究地学生有王红和李华.她们于1989年秋进入南京某高校英语专业学习.至调查之日,她们已在同一个班级学习了两年.她们有着类似地家庭背景,高考入学考试地中文和英文成绩几乎一样.两人都抱怨中学地英语教学忽视了听说技能地训练.两人都很想把英语学好,但根据两人每星期课外花在英语上地时间,李华似乎比王红更加发奋.王红每星期大约花21个小时,李华却花了41个钟头.尽管她们几乎在同样地条件下学习,但两年后,她们地英语水平出现了惊人地差异.最为令人不解地是,李华几乎是付出了双倍地代价,但在全国四级考试中,成绩(64,25)却比王红(90.5)低26分之多,达三个多标准差,而王红却成了1991年全国四级考试中地佼佼者.鉴于王红和李华地其他情况基本相仿,造成她们学习成绩明显差异地原因似乎可以归于学习方法上地不同.2．数据收集.在个案研究时,王红和李华参加了面谈,记日记和阅读文章.这三项活动都是个别进行地.面谈地内容紧紧围绕她们地观念和策略.例如"你认为从上下文中猜词义是不是学单词地一种好方法?为什么?""你平时用不用猜词义地方法学习单词？”如果她们地回答是“用了”,下一个问题便是: “你是如何运用这一策略地?”一个星期日记地内容包括:1)课外所做地与学习英语有关地事;2)每项活动所花地时间;3)进行每项活动时地生理和心理状态(即是否精力充沛,是否思想集中);4)进行每项活动时所采取地策略.随后,还就日记内容不清楚地地方进行了询问.阅读文章有850个字.阅读时间不限.要求像平时阅读综合英语教材一样,该查字典时,查字典,该做笔记时,做笔记.此外,还把她们阅读地情况分别摄了像.阅读任务完成后,立即将摄像放给她们看,并在有趣地地方停下来,进行询问,例如,让她们回忆当时为什么要停下来或用笔做记号.三.结果:下面首先考察王红和李华在课外所从事地听.说.读.写活动,目地在于探究她们在语言观念和策略上地差异.然后报告她们在管理观念与管理策略上地不同之处.1．语言观念和策略上地差异1)听力练习如何在课外进行听力训练?在面谈中,王红对这一问题作了如下回答: 我听voa地新闻广播.我喜欢一边听一边做笔记,听完后根据笔记定内容摘要.有时我把英语广播节目录下来,反复听,直到听懂每一个字,像这样地活动要花40分钟到一个钟头.有时我也去听力室听磁带,有地听得细,有地听得粗.听得细地,就像做dictation一样.根据她地描述可以看出,她课外听力地活动有两种:一种是半精听,另一种是精听.这两种活动有着明显地区别.半精听时,只听一遍,精力主要放在内容上,但不忽视语言形式.她一边听+边记笔记,至少有三个好处,一是促使注意力集中,二是提高对语言形式地意识程度,三是可以训练自己地写作能力.精听时,她要求自己听懂每一个字.每一句话.李华意识到她地听力比较差.根据日记地记载,她每天至少花半个小时听英文广播,但感到进步不快.当被问及她是如何听时,她说道:"我经常去听力室听录音,磁带内容各种各样,但我很少记录听地内容.我地目地是要听懂大意.对我来说,听voa或bbc,就是要听懂意思."可以看出,李华无论是听磁带,还是听广播,都不注意语言形式.从她地日记中还可以看出她虽然花了很多时间练听力,但多数时间心不在焉.常常是一边听一边做其它事情,有时甚至听着听着睡着了.因此她富有成效地听力活动并不多.2)口语练习当王红被问及如何提高自己地口语能力时,她作了如下地描述: 我上课非常积极,因为我认为这是练口语地好机会.我也喜欢和同学或老师说英语,我还喜欢自乙对自己说英语.有时我在厨房一边做家务一边说英语,妈妈听到我读英语地声音时,以为我在和她说话,她就从房间里大声问:"你在说什么？“我认为自己对自己说英语是个练习口语地好方法.…在英语会话时,如有生词想不起来,我通常不用手势,因为手势不能清楚地表达思想,我喜欢用简单地英语解释或用其它地语言手段.假如不知道如何用英语来表达自己,我就问别人而不采用回避地方法.以上地描述清楚地体现了王红练口语地两个特点.第一,她充分利用一切机会,不仅积极用英语进行交际,且自己对自己讲英语.第二,她不用回避地策略,也不用非语言手段来解决交际过程中语言知识不够地问题.面谈中,李华却是这样回答同一问题地: 我不愿在课堂上回答问题,有时知道了答案也不想讲.课外我也不练,因为根本没有说英语地环境.偶尔,我会对自己讲.交际时想不起某个英文词时,我用手势或者就干脆不讲,偶尔会查查字典.3)阅读练习在面谈中,王红主动分出了两种阅读: 自选读物和教材.在第一种阅读中,她把重点放在阅读速度和整篇文章地内容上,但遇到有趣地生词,她查词典,不仅弄清词义,还注意它地用法;在第二种阅读中,她努力读懂每一句话和每一个字,同时弄懂整篇文章地内容.下面就是她对阅读练习地描述:假如读地是自己找地材料,我就不一字一句地抠.只要能弄懂大概内容,我就不查生词了,但遇到有趣地词,我还是要查.如果读地是老师布置地内容,我总是非常仔细,因为老师就喜欢挑我们不注意地地方出考题.平时我不喜欢背诵课文,但喜欢朗读课文.我不大精通语法,因为有时我不能说出句子每个部分地语法作用,但如果句子结构非常复杂,我就要找出主语和从句.当王红被问及如何处理阅读材料中地新单词时,她讲: 如果单词不重要,我不查字典,特别是读自己选地东西.但读教材时,我先把课文通读一遍,猜生词地意思,不用字典.第二遍读地时候,我才用字典记生词.除了看词义地解释外,还看短语和例句.我不重复个别地单词,但重复短语.一个单词要是查几次字典,我就能记住了.课文中有些词很生僻,我不花时间记它们,至多考试前看一看.我不喜欢把单词抄在笔记本上,我地习惯是把词义直接写在课本上,通常是英文,但有时英文地解释太长又不清楚,就写中文意思.我喜欢把记单词和读课文结合在一起,我感到这种方法比单独记单词效果要好得多.根据王红地描述,我们可以归纳出她学习单词地几个显著特点.首先,她能区分重要地和不重要地,并对此采取不同地策略.第二,她把猜词义这一策略与查字典有机地结合在一起.第三,她不孤立地记单词,而是记短语,并且把这一任务和读课文连在一起.第四,她能对英语解释地清晰程度作出判断,对不清楚地,就改用中文.简言之,她地单词学习涉及了一系列地自我决策和选择.李华在面谈中没有主动区分两种不同地阅读,她地描述仅限于教材.然而,在一周地日记中,她所记载地活动也有两种.这说明她对这两种不同性质地阅读在意识层面上没有清晰地区分.根据日记记载,她在阅读课外书时,速度慢得惊人,有时一课书竟花了她三个半小时.观察李华地阅读过程,850个字地文章,她共花了65分钟,其中竟用了三分之二地时间查字典,抄词义和例句.她在抄词义和例句时,没有进行必要地选择,而是一古脑儿抄下来.当问及如何记新单词时,她说她没有什么方法,就是反复读,但是今天记住了,明天又忘了,复习对她来说似乎没有什么用处.笔者认为她对生词地重要性不加区别,一律采取同样地方法.什么单词都想记,不分重要不重要,平均使用力气,其结果,花了许多时间,但成效仍不尽人意.另外,李华不记课外阅读中出现地单词,这就限制了她词汇学习地范围.最有趣地是当问及阅读时用不用中文翻译时,王红立即回答,她从不作解释,除非老师要求做翻译练习.她认为在阅读过程中依赖中文翻译是有害地.但李华地看法和做法与王红形成明显地对比.她说:中文翻译对理解应该是有帮助地,当然光用翻译未免有点单调.·…一般我不做一字一句地解释,但碰到复杂困难地句子.我会停下来,分析句子地结构,想它中文地意思.如果课文容易,脑子会自动翻译. 4)写作练习王红对发展自己地英语写作能力也非常重视.平时除了完成老师布置地作业外,她坚持用英语作笔记,用英语写日记,她还将练听力和练写作结合起来.特别值得指出地是,她每写一篇作文,都要经过反复修改,既改内容,也改语法和用词上地错误.在日记中,她叙述了写小故事时所用地策略:尽管这几天我一直在想这个故事,但故事地内容直到写之前才在脑海里出现.因此,我一口气把它写下来,这是第一稿,放一两天后,再写第二稿,然后给同学看.让他们提意见.李华承认她除了完成老师布置地写作任务外,自己不进行额外地练习.写作文时,她打草稿.但修改时,只注意内容,不太关心语言形式上存在地问题.她认为"写作是锻炼我们对整体结构地安排".2．管理观念与策略地差异在学习过程中,王红有出色地宏观调控能力.她经常对学习进展情况和策略地成效进行反思,并及时做出调整.在面谈中,当问及如何评价自身地学习情况时,她说:我喜欢读带有自测题地书,读这种书,容易进行自我评价.如果课堂上不能流利回答老师地问题,或考试成绩不理想,我就晚上睡觉前躺在床上思考其中地原因.当问及如何评价自身地学习策略时她作了如下地描述:我非常喜欢对自己用过地学习方法进行反思.例如大学一年级时,许多同学花很多时间记单词.起初我也这样做.过了一段时间,我就意识到这样孤立记单词没有什么成效,因为即使记住了,也不知道怎么用.因此我就改变了方法.我读课文,记有生词地句子.那时我自学《新概念英语》,就用这种方法学习单词,比起老方法要有效得多.王红不仅有很强地宏观调控能力,而且有突出地微观调控能力.这种微观调控发生在进行某个学习活动之前.之中或之后.例如,阅读前,她要区分不同类型地阅读任务,从而采取不同地策略.在教材中碰到新单词时,她区分常用与不常用地词,只记常用词.阅读任务完成后,她反思自己所选用策略地有效性.李华在管理策略上有明显地弱点.首先她从不有意识地选择或评价自己地学习策略.下面是她地描述:我就不清楚我用什么学习方法.预习.复习.做作业.记单词,好像就这些.其实也没什么方法.她自我报告地情况和平时地行为是一致地.例如,她知道自己能力差,她想通过多听来提高听力水平,但当她地努力没有带来明显进步时,她没想过她练听力地方法会存在问题.下面是调查者和她地一段对话:调查者:你知道你听力为什么差吗?李华:不知道.要是我知道原因,听力就不会那么差了.调查者:你有没有考虑过原因呢?李华:没有.大概是听得不够吧!同样,她知道她记单词有困难,但从来没有花气力考虑过她记单词地策略是否得当.其次,在微观调控上,她也做得比较差.在完成某项学习任务时,她往往不能有意识地区分不同地学习任务,因此使用地学习策略缺少针对性和灵活性,致使学习效果不尽人意.以上个案研究表明,王红和李华在学习方法上地不同导致了她们在学习成绩上地明显差异.这既很典型,也具有普遍性,因为242种大样本地研究结果也得出同样地结论.ResourcesOnline Resources: DigestsOctober 1994Language Learning Strategies: An UpdateRebecca Oxford, University of AlabamaForeign or second language (L2) learning strategies are specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques students use -- often consciously -- to improve their progress in apprehending, internalizing, and using the L2 (Oxford, 1990b). For example, Lazlo seeks out conversation partners. Oke groups words to be learned and then labels each group. Ahmed uses gestures to communicate in the classroom when the words do not come to mind. Mai Qi learns words by breaking them down intotheir components. Young consciously uses guessing when she reads. Strategies are the tools for active, self-directed involvement needed for developing L2 communicative ability (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990). Research has repeatedly shown that the conscious, tailored use of such strategies is related to language achievement and proficiency.Good Language LearnersEarly researchers tended to make lists of strategies and other features presumed to be essential for all "good L2 learners." Rubin (1975) suggested that good L2 learners are willing and accurate guessers; have a strong drive to communicate; are often uninhibited; are willing to make mistakes; focus on form by looking for patterns and analyzing; take advantage of all practice opportunities; monitor their speech as well as that of others; and pay attention to meaning.A number of these characteristics have been validated by subsequent research. However, the "uninhibited" aspect has not been confirmed as part of all or most good language learners. Because of language anxiety, many potentially excellent L2 learners are naturally inhibited; they combat inhibition by using positive self-talk, by extensive use of practicing inprivate, and by putting themselves in situations where they have to participate communicatively.Naiman, Frohlich, and Todesco (1975) made a list of strategies used by successful L2 learners, adding that they learn to think in the language and address the affective aspects of language acquisition. For additional lists of strategies used by good language learners, see Ramirez (1986) and Reiss (1985). Effectiveness and Orchestration of L2 Learning Strategies Research supports the effectiveness of using L2 learning strategies and has shown that successful language learners often use strategies in an orchestrated fashion. Some findings are listed below:∙Use of appropriate language learning strategies often results in improved proficiency or achievement overall or in specific skill areas (Oxford et al., 1993; Thompson & Rubin, 1993).∙Successful language learners tend to select strategies that work well together in a highly orchestrated way,tailored to the requirements of the language task (Chamot & Kupper, 1989). These learners can easily explain the strategies they use and why they employ them (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990).∙Cognitive (e.g., translating, analyzing) and metacognitive (e.g., planning, organizing) strategies are often used together, supporting each other (O'Malley &Chamot, 1990). Well tailored combinations of strategies often have more impact than single strategies.∙Certain strategies or clusters of strategies are linked to particular language skills or tasks. For example, L2 writing, like L1 writing, benefits from the learningstrategies of planning, self-monitoring, deduction, and substitution. L2 speaking demands strategies such asrisk-taking, paraphrasing, circumlocution, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation. L2 listening comprehension gains from strategies of elaboration, inferencing, selective attention, and self-monitoring, while reading comprehension usesstrategies like reading aloud, guessing, deduction, and summarizing (Chamot & Kupper, 1989). See Oxford (1990b) fora detailed chart that maps relevant strategies withlistening, speaking, reading, and writing skills.∙The powerful social and affective strategies are found less often in L2 research. This is, perhaps, because these behaviors are not studied frequently by L2 researchers, and because learners are not familiar with paying attention totheir own feelings and social relationships as part of the L2 learning process (Oxford, 1990b).Factors Influencing the Choice of L2 Learning Strategies Oxford (1990a) synthesized existing research on how the following factors influence the choice of strategies used among students learning a second language.Motivation. More motivated students tended to use more strategies than less motivated students, and the particular reason for studying the language (motivational orientation, especially as related to career field) was important in the choice of strategies.Gender. Females reported greater overall strategy use than males in many studies (although sometimes males surpassed females in the use of a particular strategy).Cultural background. Rote memorization and other forms of memorization were more prevalent among some Asian students than among students from other cultural backgrounds. Certain other cultures also appeared to encourage this strategy among learners.Attitudes and beliefs. These were reported to have a profound effect on the strategies learners choose, with negativeattitudes and beliefs often causing poor strategy use or lack of orchestration of strategies.Type of task. The nature of the task helped determine the strategies naturally employed to carry out the task.Age and l2 stage. Students of different ages and stages of L2 learning used different strategies, with certain strategies often being employed by older or more advanced students. Learning style. Learning style (general approach to language learning) often determined the choice of L2 learning strategies. For example, analytic-style students preferred strategies such as contrastive analysis, rule-learning, and dissecting words and phrases, while global students used strategies to find meaning (guessing, scanning, predicting) and to converse without knowing all the words (paraphrasing, gesturing). Tolerance of ambiguity. Students who were more tolerant of ambiguity used significantly different learning strategies in some instances than did students who were less tolerant of ambiguity.L2 Strategy TrainingConsiderable research has been conducted on how to improve L2 students' learning strategies. In many investigations, attempts to teach students to use learning strategies (calledstrategy training or learner training) have produced good results (Thompson & Rubin, 1993). However, not all L2 strategy training studies have been successful or conclusive. Some training has been effective in various skill areas but not in others, even within the same study. (For details of studies, see Oxford & Crookall, 1989.)Based on L2 strategy training research, the following principles have been tentatively suggested, subject to further investigation:∙L2 strategy training should be based clearly on students' attitudes, beliefs, and stated needs.∙Strategies should be chosen so that they mesh with and support each other and so that they fit the requirements of the language task, the learners' goals, and the learners' style of learning.∙Training should, if possible, be integrated into regular L2 activities over a long period of time rather than taught as a separate, short intervention.∙Students should have plenty of opportunities for strategy training during language classes.∙Strategy training should include explanations, handouts, activities, brainstorming, and materials for reference and home study.∙Affective issues such as anxiety, motivation, beliefs, and interests -- all of which influence strategy choice -- should be directly addressed by L2 strategy training.∙Strategy training should be explicit, overt, and relevant and should provide plenty of practice with varied L2 tasks involving authentic materials.∙Strategy training should not be solely tied to the class at hand; it should provide strategies that are transferable to future language tasks beyond a given class.∙Strategy training should be somewhat individualized, as different students prefer or need certain strategies for particular tasks.∙Strategy training should provide students with a mechanism to evaluate their own progress and to evaluate the success of the training and the value of the strategies in multiple tasks.Problems in Classifying StrategiesAlmost two dozen L2 strategy classification systems have been divided into the following groups: (1) systems related tosuccessful language learners (Rubin, 1975); (2) systems based on psychological functions (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990); (3) linguistically based systems dealing with guessing, language monitoring, formal and functional practice (Bialystok, 1981) or with communication strategies like paraphrasing or borrowing (Tarone, 1983); (4) systems related to separate language skills (Cohen, 1990); and (5) systems based on different styles or types of learners (Sutter, 1989). The existence of these distinct strategy typologies indicates a major problem in the research area of L2 learning strategies: lack of a coherent, well accepted system for describing these strategies.ImplicationsResearchers must reconceptualize L2 learning strategies to include the social and affective sides of learning along with the more intellectual sides. The L2 learner is not just a cognitive and metacognitive machine but, rather, a whole person. In strategy training, teachers should help students develop affective and social strategies, as well as intellectually related strategies, based on their individual learning styles, current strategy use, and specific goals.Research should be replicated so more consistent information becomes available within and across groups of learners. Particularly important is information on how students from different cultural backgrounds use language learning strategies. L2 teachers need to feel confident that the research is applicable to their students.More research on factors affecting strategy choice would be helpful. Learning style is an important factor, along with gender, age, nationality or ethnicity, beliefs, previous educational and cultural experiences, and learning goals. Additionally, it is likely that different kinds of learners (e.g., analytic vs. global or visual vs. auditory) might benefit from different modes of strategy training.Teachers must have training relevant to their own instructional situations in three areas: identifying students' current learning strategies through surveys, interviews, or other means; helping individual students discern which strategies are most relevant to their learning styles, tasks, and goals; and aiding students in developing orchestrated strategy use rather than a scattered approach.ReferencesBialystok, E. (1981). The role of conscious strategies in second language proficiency. Modern Language Journal, 65, 24-35.Chamot, A.U., & Kupper. L. (1989). Learning strategies in foreign language instruction. Foreign Language Annals, 22, 13-24.Cohen, A.D. (1990). Language learning: Insights for learners, teachers, and researchers. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Naiman, N., Frohlich, M., & Todesco, A. (1975). The good second language learner. TESL Talk, 6, 58-75.O'Malley, J.M., & Chamot, A.U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.Oxford, R.L. (1989). Use of language learning strategies: A synthesis of studies with implications for strategytraining. System, 17, 235-247.Oxford, R.L. (1990a). Language learning strategies and beyond:A look at strategies in the context of styles. In S.S. Magnan(Ed.), Shifting the instructional focus to the learner (pp.35-55). Middlebury, VT: Northeast Conference on theTeaching of Foreign Languages.Oxford, R.L. (1990b). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.Oxford, R.L., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: Methods, findings, and instructional issues. Modern Language Journal, 73, 404-419.Oxford, R.L., Park-Oh, Y., Ito, S. & Sumrall, M. (1993).Learning Japanese by satellite: What influences student achievement? System, 21, 31-48.Ramirez, A. (1986). Language learning strategies used by adolescents studying French in New York schools. Foreign Language Annals, 19, 131-141.Reiss, M.A. (1985). The good language learners: Another look.Canadian Modern Language Review, 41, 511-23.Rubin, J. (1975). What the "good language learner" can teach us. TESOL Quarterly, 9, 41-51.Sutter, W. (1989). Strategies and styles. Aalborg, Denmark: Danish Refugee Council.Tarone, E. (1983). Some thoughts on the notion of "communication strategy." In C. Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.), Strategies in interlanguage communication (pp. 61-74).London: Longman.Thompson, I., & Rubin, J. (1993). Improving listening comprehension in Russian. Washington, DC: Department of Education, International Research and Studies Program.January 1999 — Volume 3, Number 4Strategies in Learning and Using a Second LanguageAndrew D Cohen (1998)London and New York: LongmanPp. xi + 294ISBN 0 582 305888 (paper)US $19.57The term strategies, in the second-language-learning sense, has come to be applied to the conscious moves made by second-language speakers intended to be useful in either learning or using the second language. Strategies can be very different in nature, ranging from planning the organisation of one’s learning (a metacognitive learning strategy) through using mnemonic devices to learn vocabulary (cognitive learning strategies) and rehearsing what one expects to say (a performance strategy) to bolstering one’s self-confidence fora language task by means of “self-talk” (an affective strategy).Ever since Naiman et al. (1976) noted that “good” language learners appeared to use a larger number and range of strategies than “poor” language learners, the implications of understanding strategy use have seemed increasingly important. However, there are still many questions to resolve. Does strategy use actually aid language learning, or is it just something that good learners do? Are some strategies better than others, or is it the number and range of strategies used that counts? Are there “bad”strategies that actually making learning or performance worse? Can “poor”language learners benefit from being taught the strategies that “good”learners use, or do you need to be a good learner already to use some of the strategies? Does strategy training affect language learning, and if so is the effect direct, or does such training serve mainly to raise motivation and awareness? If learners are encouraged to use strategies to organise their own learning, for example, what are the implications for the role of the classroom teacher? Such issues have already prompted a considerable volume of research and writing, and directly or indirectly made a significant impact on language learning, atleast in some places. For example, the establishment ofself-access centres and the encouragement of learner independence are essentially based on the assumption that students will be able to use viable metacognitive learning strategies.Ellis (1994) writes: “The study of learning strategies holds considerable promise, both for language pedagogy and for explaining individual differences in second language learning. It is probably true to say, however, that it is still in its infancy. For this reason, perhaps, discussions of learning strategies typically conclude with the problems that have surfaced and that need to be addressed before progress can be made” (p. 558). Any new book which [-1-] continues the exploration of this infant area of study is therefore potentially exciting, especially if it contains accounts of hitherto unpublished empirical research, as is the case with Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. Anyup-to-date, comprehensive account of the current state of knowledge about strategies is also likely to be welcome; and Andrew Cohen’s title certainly sounds as though this might be such a book.Perhaps my expectations were set too high. The book presents information from a new research project, but it is research that takes us only a short step further down the road. And, despite the implied promise of the title, this book does not provide a comprehensive review of the area; nor, in fairness, does it claim to do so.Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language is in fact something of a patchwork. It consists of a series of essentially separate articles, some written by Cohen alone, someco-authored with others, which have been stitched together to form a book. Some of the material has been published previously, though it has been revised for this publication. Some of the chapters are themselves patchworks, consisting of materials drawn from different articles on related themes. There is nothing intrinsically wrong, of course, with a patchwork approach–there are many books that consist of separate articles which together add up to something coherent and significant. In this case, however, the pieces that form the patchwork do not fit altogether easily with each other. Furthermore, there are gaps in the finished piece: elements one would expect to be included, but which are not there. Despitethe author’s efforts to link the disparate chapters, the book lacks a strong sense of coherence and unity.The core of the book is a previously unpublished report of a research study on “The impact of strategies based instruction on speaking a foreign language.” A total of 55 American university students of French and Norwegian were taught courses in their respective target languages for a period of ten weeks. Twenty-three students were in classes which followed the normal syllabuses, while thirty-two were in classes where training in a broad range of strategies was integrated into the teaching. Before and after the course students reported on their strategy use, and their speaking skills were tested in three speaking tasks (the pre- and post-tests of speaking skills were identical). Ratings of students’ performances were compared for the treatment and the control groups, and were also correlated with reported changes in strategy use. The treatment groups generally did better on the post-test than the control groups for the three different tasks and on the various assessment scales used, though the differences in scores were mostly non-significant. The picture which emerged when scores on the various scales were correlated with changes in strategy use was very confused. Where statistically significantrelationships were [-2-] discovered, the reasons for them were far from evident; thus, for example, an increase by the experimental group in reported use of the strategy “translating specific words from English” correlated significantly with improved performance on a rating scale for grammar, but negatively and significantly with a rating scale for self-confidence. Patterns in reported strategy use changed for the control groups (who had received no specific strategy training) as well as the experimental groups. The general impression created was that the effect of strategy training over this short course had been to some extent beneficial, but the specific nature of the benefit and the reasons for it are unclear. Even though the conclusions are not clear-cut, however, this is a thorough and quite important piece of research which has implications for the design of future research projects. The rest of the book consists of other articles of varying degrees of interest, arranged before and after the central study described above. After an introduction and a chapter defining some terminology, there is an essay on research methodology for the field; this discusses advantages and disadvantages of several methods of determining which strategies are being used, and focuses particularly on。

新一代大学英语发展篇综合教程2答案

新一代大学英语发展篇综合教程2答案Unit 1 Philosophy and thoughtsiExplore 11-5 iExplore 1:Building your languageTASK 11. charisma2. brilliant3. uglyTASK 21. awkward /razor-sharp2. straightforward3. toughTASK 31. Using a counter-example2. debate their ideas3. begin a conversationTASK 41. question the assumption2. reveal the limits3. understand the natureTASK 5B B B A B BiExplore 21-7 iExplore 2:Building your languageTASK 11. been painted as2. is counted among3. known asTASK 21. reforms2. brought about3. laid down the rules4. formulate the creedTASK 31. under the impulsion of2. played a role of some importance3. grown in size and influenceTASK 4Reference:1. Many descendants of Confucius were identified and honored by successive imperial governments with titles of nobility and official posts.2. Sima Niu. one of Confucius' disciples, came of noble ancestry from the Song state.3. As a member of the craft or artisan class. Mozi lived in humble circumstances and his philosophy was distinctively anti-aristocratic.4. Jiang Taigong was more than 70 years old, but the ruler did not give him an office and people all referred to him as a mad fellow.5. After Confucius resigned his post in the state of Lu, he began a series of journeys around the small kingdoms of northeast and central China, including the states of Wei.Song, Chen, and Cai.6. By Confucius age, the Zhou kings had been reduced to mere figureheads, and real power was put into the hands of various local rulers.iProduce1-8 Unit project1-8 Unit project 1-3Reference:Great minds think alike?Good morning, ladies and gentlemen. Today I'm going to talk about two great thinkers. Socrates and Confucius. two men with great minds. Both English and Chinese have a saying about great minds,"Great minds think alike" and "英雄所见略同."Then do Socrates and Confucius think alike?I will try to compare the two great minds interms of their lives.thoughts and influence. Now let's get started.Both Socrates and Confucius seemed to lead a meaningful and colorful life. As a young man, Socrates had been a brave soldier fighting in a war. Confucius'early life seemed to be equally difficult, since he had to earn his living at menial tasks. After that, it seems that Socrates and Confucius followed different ways in their lives. In middle age.Socrates did nothing but ask people questions in the marketplace. By contrast, Confucius tried all possible ways to achieve his dream. For example, he had been a teacher.gathering young men to study his doctrines. He was also given an office in the government, although he did not have real power. When he saw that he could accomplish nothing.he resigned his post and set off on travels to advocate his Way in other states. After that, he resumed his teaching. Socrates and Confucius spent their lives in different ways.because they had different pursuits. Socrates spent his whole life pursuing wisdom by asking questions. For Socrates,wisdom meant understanding the true nature of our existence,including the limits of what we can know. He declared that if we do not think about what we are doing, then life is not worth living. Therefore. he kept asking questions to himself and to others. By doing this, he helped people understand such concepts as moral and courage and realize what they knew and what they didn't. Socrates would die rather than give up his pursuit of wisdom and truth.Confucius, however, pursued common welfare, that is, the well-being of all the common people. During his times, the common people lived a miserable and tragic life. Confucius could not tolerate these conditions and resolved to devote his life to trying to right them. According to Confucius, in a natural and normal stateof society men should Confucius and the rulers should aim to bring about the welfare and happiness of all the common people. As I have mentioned,he tried all possible methods to achieve this goal. He taught young men to promote his doctrines; he worked in the government to put his teachings into practice;he also travelled around many states to find a ruler who would use his Way.Socrates and Confucius pursued different things, but both had great influence. Socrates laid the foundation of Western philosophy. With him the subject really took off. However.the two thinkers have influenced the Western tradition and the Chinese tradition in different ways. Following Socrates'pursuit of truth and wisdom. Western thinkers seemed to be more interested in studying the physical world. After Confucius, Chinese thinkers paid more attention to interpersonal relationships. Then, do great minds think alike? Well, they may have different pursuits, but they have the same devotion to their pursuits. That is what I have learned about Socrates and Confucius. Thank you.iAssess1-10 Unit testPart I1. eccentric2. irritating3. enforce4. restore5. allegiance6. betrayed/betray7. strives8. intriguedPart ⅡB C A B B APart ⅢPart III 1-1Reference:和很多人一样，亚里士多德也因最好的论点并不总能赢得辩论而困扰。

2023-2024学年浙江省杭州市八校联盟英语高三第一学期期末联考试题含解析

2023-2024学年浙江省杭州市八校联盟英语高三第一学期期末联考试题请考生注意：1．请用2B铅笔将选择题答案涂填在答题纸相应位置上，请用0．5毫米及以上黑色字迹的钢笔或签字笔将主观题的答案写在答题纸相应的答题区内。

写在试题卷、草稿纸上均无效。

2．答题前，认真阅读答题纸上的《注意事项》，按规定答题。

第一部分（共20小题，每小题1.5分，满分30分）1．______ flag-raising ceremony was held at the Golden Bauhinia Square on July 1 to celebrate ______ 17th anniversary of Hong Kong’s return to China.A．A; / B．A; theC．The; the D．/; the2．It was in that small house ________ was built with stones by his father ________ he spent his childhood.A．that; where B．which; thatC．which; which D．that; which3．When we have a chance to travel, we tend to ______ as many sights into the trip as we can--- seven countries in ten days, for example.A．squeeze B．sneeze C．subscribe D．substitute4．The government has been under growing pressure to ______ the causes of air pollution as smog frequently smothers the country’s large cities.A．release B．scheduleC．maintain D．address5．（2018·海淀二模）This view is common _________ all sections of the community. A．across B．aboveC．around D．along6．At that time, my mind was a complete _______ ; I couldn't think of a single answer. A．blank B．bonusC．blow D．bottom7．Was it from the lake ______ he often went fishing ______ he saved the drowning girl? A．that; that B．where; whereC．where; that D．that; where8．Newly-built wooden cottages line the street，___________ the old town into a dreamland.A．turned B．turningC．to turn D．having turned9．This is the first time that your parents have been abroad, ______?A．haven’t they B．hasn’t it C．aren’t they D．isn’t it10．The meal itself was not so good—______ was boringly brown including vegetables. A．nothing B．everythingC．anything D．something11．I am a better reader this year than I was last year because I ________ to hundreds of new concepts and ideas.A．have exposed B．had been exposed C．have been exposed D．was exposed 12．The village evolved into a major e-commerce center, and _____ the past, the villagers owed their success to the reform and opening-up policy.A．reviewed B．reviewingC．to review D．being reviewed13．Don’t refer to the dictionary every time you come across a new word as sometimes its meaning may be _______ clearly in a given context.A．picked out B．ruled out C．brought out D．taken out14．—What do you think of the newly-released film Capernaum?—It touched my heart deeply. But for your recommendation I _________ it.A．had missed B．would miss C．would have missed D．must have missed 15．Oh! The flower can’t be saved. If the flower had been watered，it now. A．wouldn’t be dying B．is deadC．had been dead D．will not die16．Don’t take it seriously，Alice．I wasn’t making _____ fun of you —it’s nothing but _____ joke．A．/; the B．the; theC．the; a D．/; a17．Three days after the aircraft went missing, an international effort ________ ships and planes hasn't found any wreckage, ________ growing frustration for the families of the 239 people on board.A．involved; causing B．to involve; causedC．involving; causing D．involving; having caused18．Nicholas was very kind, merciful and generous. This is ________ Father Christmas is based on.A．where B．how C．what D．why19．—She got her first science fiction published. It turned out to be________.—When was that?—It was in 2009 ________ she was still in college.A．success; that B．a success; whenC．success; when D．a success; that20．When he was running after his brother, the boy lost his ___ and had a bad fall. A．balance B．chanceC．memory D．place第二部分阅读理解（满分40分）阅读下列短文，从每题所给的A、B、C、D四个选项中，选出最佳选项。

2024-2025学年重庆育才成功校初三下学期期末考试(二模)英语试题含答案

2024-2025学年重庆育才成功校初三下学期期末考试（二模）英语试题注意事项：1．答卷前，考生务必将自己的姓名、准考证号填写在答题卡上。

2．回答选择题时，选出每小题答案后，用铅笔把答题卡上对应题目的答案标号涂黑，如需改动，用橡皮擦干净后，再选涂其它答案标号。

回答非选择题时，将答案写在答题卡上，写在本试卷上无效。

3．考试结束后，将本试卷和答题卡一并交回。

Ⅰ. 单项选择1、— Look, Tom is still in the classroom.— It be him. He left the school five minutes ago.A．must B．may C．can’t2、Please ____ the TV. The baby is asleep.A．turn up B．turn off C．turn on3、--- It is not good to work too hard like him.--- No, as the saying goes, ________A．year’s plan starts with spring.B．all work and no play make Jack a dull boy.C．the grass is greener on the other side.D．Rome wasn’t built in a day.4、-What does your father think of your school report this term?-The smile on his face shows he is _________ what I did in my study.A．worried about B．sorry for C．angry with D．pleased with5、―Excuse me, could you tell me ?―There is a bank on the second floor. You can make it there.A．where the bank is B．how I can get to the bankC．if there's a bank near here D．where I can exchange money6、- Mr. Smith, please teach me how to draw on the computer today.- Oh, no. _____. You have to get familiar with the keyboard first.A．It’s never too old to learn B．Think twice before you doC．Don’t be a wet blanket D．Learn to walk before you run7、-- The shoes are very nice. I'll take them.-- But you must first. I think the size is a bit small for you.A．pay for them B．try them on C．put them off D．take them on8、How amazing! Scientists took a photo of________black hole in _________space last month.A．the ; a B．a; / C．the; an D．a; a9、---______ fine weather it is! Shall we go hiking in the hills?---Why not?A．What B．What a C．How D．How a10、- Would you like some ________________?- No, thanks. I'm not hungry at all.A．water B．soup C．orange D．breadⅡ. 完形填空11、Do you often drink bottled drinks? Of course 1 is so cool to get a cold one right out of the fridge, right? But all those plastic bottles use a lot of oil and 2 the environment. Americans buy 3 bottled water than any other nation in the world. In order to make all these bottles, 17 million barrels (桶) of oil 4 up. That’s enough oil to keep a million cars going for twelve months.Many people choose 5 the bottles away after having the bottled drinks. In fact, instead of going out with the trash, plastic bottles can be turned into carpeting for clothing. Remember this: Recycling one plastic bottle 6 save enough energy to power a 60-watt light bulb for six hours. 7 , for every six water bottles we use, only one is recycled. The rest are sent as garbage ( 垃圾). Or, even worse, they end up 8 trash on the land or in rivers and oceans.So why don’t more people drink water from the kitchen? Some people drink bottled water 9 they think it is better for them, but that’s not true. The chemicals in the bottles themselves may get into the water which can do harm to people.So next time when you have drinks or water, please 10 to use a glass at home or carry water in a steel bottle. And if you want to do something more, try to collect plastic bottles and send them for recycling.1．A．this B．it C．that D．there2．A．have polluted B．will pollute C．pollute D．polluted3．A．many B．much C．more D．most4．A．will use B．will be used C．used D．was used5．A．collect B．to collect C．throw D．to throw6．A．can B．may C．must D．need7．A．Lucky B．Luckily C．Unlucky D．Unluckily8．A．with B．as C．like D．for9．A．because B．Unless C．if D．although10．A．to try B．try C．trying D．triedⅢ. 语法填空12、阅读下面材料，在空白处填入适当的内容（1个单词）或括号内单词的正确形式（不超过2个单词）Many people catch a cold in the spring or fall. It makes us wonder: since scientists can send a man to the moon, why can’t they find a treatment for the common cold? The question is easy 1．(answer)----there are hundreds of kinds of cold viruses(病毒)out there. You never know 2．one you’ll get, so there isn’t a treatment for each one.When a cold virus 3．(try) to hurt your body, your body will work hard to fight against it. Blood rushes to your nose and brings congestion(堵塞) with it. This makes you feel terrible because you can’t breathe comfortably, but actually, your body 4．(eat) the virus. Your body temperature rises and you get a fever, but the heat of your body is killing the virus. You also have a runny (流鼻涕的) nose to stop the virus 5．(get) close to the cells(细胞). And as a 6．, your body may be very painful. But it is actually doing everything it can to get a victory over the cold.Different people have different ways to 7．with colds. Some have chicken soup to feel better, some take hot baths, and many other people take medicine. However, some scientists say that taking medicine when you have a cold is actually 8．to health. The virus stays in your body even longer because your body can’t do it’s 9．to fight with it and kill it. Bodies can do an amazing job on their own. There’s a joke about taking medicine when you have a cold. It 10．(go) like this.It takes about 1 week to get over a cold if you don’t take medicine, but only 7 days to get over a cold if you take medicine.Ⅳ. 阅读理解A13、Spring is coming . The flowers will start blossoming (开花)and the trees will be filled with co lors. It’s time of the year for people to plant trees. Planting trees is a good way to protect our environment. But most of us don’t have a place to plant tr ees. So what can we do for protecting the environment? We can make a difference from the others. For example, we can think about a way to make people cut down fewer trees. As we know, paper is made from trees. If we use less paper, we can save a lot of trees. Then we may have a problem that how to use less paper. Let me tell you my ideas.Reducing Our Paper WasteEvery day we just use the paper and we don’t think about where the paper comes from.Let us think about wasting a piece of paper is like wasting a tree. We can start with reducing the amount of paper products that we use. This could be done by such a simple way as using e-mail instead of writing notes. ReusingWe could reuse paper that is cleanon one side for drafts, notes andeven photocopies. As students, wecould reuse paper by doing ourresearch online or at libraries ratherthan buying lots of written paper.Sharing books or buying a usedtextbook for school is another wayof reusing.RecycleWe should consider recycling notebook paper,newspapers, magazines and colored paper. Wecan buy paper towels, tissues, and toilet paperthat have been made from recycled paper.Don’t throw away the wasted newspapers orbooks which are not useful to you.1．People can protect the environment by doing the following things except ______.A．planting trees B．reusing paperC．drinking less water D．cutting down less trees2．We can reduce our paper waste by______.A．sending e-mail B．writing letters C．sending cards D．using paper bag3．______isn’t a way for you to reuse paper.A．Doing research online B．Buying lots of written paperC．Sharing books D．Buying a used textbook4．______can be recycled to make paper towels, tissues and toilet paper.A．Colored paper B．NewspapersC．Magazines D．All of the above5．From the passage we know that .A．we can reuse paper for drafts, notes and even photocopiesB．the paper is made from clothes and treesC．four ideas are mentioned here to save paper.D．we should cut down more trees to make more paperB14、Do you know of anyone who uses the truth to deceive(欺骗)? When someone tells you something that is true, but leaves outimportant information that should be included, he can give you a false picture．For example, someone might say, “I just won a hundred dollars on the lottery(彩票). It was great. I took that dollar ticket back to the store and turned it in for one hundred doll ars!”This guy is a winner, right? Maybe, maybe not. We then discover that he bought $ 200 worth of tickets, and only one was a winner. He’s really a big loser!He didn’t say anything that was false, but he left out important information on purpose. That’s called a half-truth. Half truths are not technically lies, but they are just as dishonest.Some officers often use this trick. Let’s say that during Governor Smith’s last term, her state lost one million jobs and gai ned three million jobs. Then she tries another term. One of the persons who don’t support her says, “During Governor Smith’s term, the state lost one million jobs!” That’s true. However, an honest statement would have been, “During Governor Smith’s term, the state had a net gain of two million jobs.’’Advertisers will sometimes use half—truths. It’s against the law to make false statements so they try to mislead you with the truth. An advertisement might say, “Nine out of ten doctors advised their patients to take Y ucky Pills to cure toothache. ”It fails to mention that they only asked ten doctors and nine of them work for the Yucky Company.This kind of thing happens too often. It’s a sad fact of life: Lies are lies, and sometimes the truth can lie as well.1．We may infer that the author believes people should ________.A．buy lottery tickets if possibleB．make use of half—truthsC．be careful about what they are toldD．not trust the Yucky Company2．How many examples does the writer give to show how the truth is used to deceive?A．One B．Two C．Three D．Four3．Which of the following is true according to the passage?A．Using half truths is against the law.B．Technically, half truths are in fact lies.C．Yucky Pills is a very good medicine for toothache.D．Governor Smith did a good job during her last term.4．Which of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage?A．He’s really a big loser!B．Sometimes the truth can lie．C．Advertisers will sometimes use half truths．D．It’s against the law to make f alse statements．C15、Sometimes people come into your life and you know at once that they were sure to be there. They serve some certain purpose, teach you a lesson or help find out who you are or who you want to become. You never know who these people may be: your classmate, neighbor, teacher, long-lost friend or even a real stranger. But you know that every moment they will influence your life in some serious ways.Sometimes things happen to you. At the time they may seem terrible, painful and unfair. But later you realize that without overcoming (克服) those difficulties, you would have never realized your further ability and advantages. Everything happens for a reason and nothing happens by chance or with good or bad luck.The people you meet influence your life, and the success and failure you experience create who you are. Even the bad experience can be learned from. In fact, they are probably the most poignant and important ones.Enjoy every day even every moment and take from it everything that you possibly can, for you may never be able to experience it again. Talk to people whom you have never talked to before, and really listen. You should set your goals (目标) high, hold your head up, tell yourself you are a great one and believe in yourself.No matter who you meet and whatever happens to you, most importantly, you can make your life anything you wish. Create your own life and then go out and live it.1．The people we meet ______.A．all know where to find us B．serve us on no purposeC．won’t become our neighbor D．will change us in some ways2．From the passage, we know that bad things can make us ______.A．realize our further ability B．terribly meet bad luckC．find no serious success D．possibly enjoy every moment3．The underlined word “poignant” in the passage means “______” in Chinese.A．平淡的B．明显的C．深刻的D．艰苦的4．The writer’s advice is that we should ______.A．never talk to strange peopleB．learn as much as we can each dayC．overcome difficulties painfullyD．not believe in ourselves but others5．Which is the best title for the passage?A．Create Your Own Life B．Hold Your Head UpC．People You Meet in Life D．Things Happen to YouD16、TOKYO, Japan (AP) – Japan is very serious about robotics (机器人技术). If the droids are going to fit in, they probably need to learn the Japanese custom of serving tea. Fortunately, researchers at the University of Tokyo are exploring just that. In a show this week, a humanoid(有人特点的)with camera eyes made by Kawada Industries Inc. poured tea from a bottle into a cup. Then another robot on wheels delivered the cup of tea in an experimental room that has sensors embedded in the floor and sofa as well as cameras on the ceiling, to simulate(模仿)life with robot technology.“A human being may be faster, but you’d have to say ‘Thank you,’” said University of Tokyo professor Tomomasa Sato. “That’s the best part about a robot. You don’t have to feel bad about asking it to do things.”Sato believes Japan, a rapidly aging society where more than a fifth of the population is 65 or older, will lead the world in designing robots to care for the elderly, sick and bedridden(卧床不起的).Already, monitoring technologies, such as sensors that automatically turn on lights when people enter a room, are becoming widespread in Japan.The walking, child–size Asimo from Honda Motor Co. greets people at showrooms. NEC Corp. has developed a smaller companion robot–on –wheels called Papero. A seal robot available since 2004 can entertain the elderly and others in need of fuzzy companionship.Sato says his experimental room is raising awareness about privacy questions that may arise when electronic devices(设备)monitor a person’s movements down to the smallest detail.On the bright side, the tea – pouring humanoid has been programmed to do the dishes.1．What is the best title of this passage?A．“Thank You” Will Never Be Needed in JapanB．Monitoring Technologies Are Widespread in JapanC．Robot Is Designed to Care for the Elderly.D．Robot technologies are widespread in Japanese daily life.2．The underlined word “embedded” in the first paragraph p robably means .A．fixed B．established C．settled D．rooted3．According to Professor Sato, .A．the robot serves tea much faster than a human beingB．the robot does anything like human beingsC．tea – serving robot helps to form laziness of the aging societyD．tea –serving robot doesn’t need any reward for the service4．Which of the following statements is NOT true?A．A robot can imitate people to complete complicated tasks.B．A robot has been programmed to clean the dishes.C．All the problems in the aging society can be solved by robots.D．The number of aging people is increasing rapidly in Japan.5．We can infer from the passage that .A．people are afraid of being monitored by robots.B．the technology of robots has been highlighted in Japan.C．robots can completely take the place of human beings.D．people’s privacy should be strictly protectedE17、When people talk about air pollution, they usually think of smog, acid rain(酸性雨),and other forms(形式) of outdoor air pollution. But did you know that air pollution also is inside homes, offices, hotels and other buildings？Indoor air pollution is more serious. The air in your home can be 2 to 100 times(倍数) more polluted than the air outdoors！In fact, some American doctors say that 50% of illnesses have something to do with polluted indoor air. Indoor air pollution is bad for our health in many ways. Young children and the old often suffer(遭受) more from air pollution. People with health problems may also suffer more when the air is polluted. Indoor air pollution can be bad for people’s eyes, nose and throat. Air pollution, both indoor and outdoor, can also lead to cancer, heart disease, and even bad for the brain！In the great London fog in 1952, 4,000 people died in a few days because of air pollution！It is said that half a million young kids and women die each year in India because of indoor air pollution！There’re many ways to reduce(减少) indoor air pollution. Here are some of them and see if they can help you：★Increase outdoor air coming indoors and open your windows for 15 to 30 minutes each day.★Turn off all the lights and fans when you don’t need them.★Share your room with others when the air conditioner is running.★Don’t smoke and try to stop your family members from smoking. People who smoke are going to have trouble breathing and even die someday. If you’re smart, don’t ever start.★Environment-friendly products, such as water-based paints pollute less and work well.1．_______is more serious in the writer’s opinion.A, outdoor air pollution B．indoor air pollutionC．noise pollution D．water pollution2．Lots of people died each year in_______ because of indoor air pollution.A．India B．England C．America D．China3．How many ways does the writer talk about to reduce indoor air pollution?A．Four. B．Five. C．Six. D．Seven.4．Which is NOT the right way to reduce indoor air pollution？A．Open the windows for 15 to 30 minutes each day to let the fresh air in.B．Turn off the light when you don’t ne ed them.C．Don’t smoke and stop others from smoking.D．Don’t use water-based paints because they can pollute air.5．The best title of the passage is_______.A．The forms of outdoor air pollutionB．The ways of reduce indoor air pollutionC．The indoor air pollutionD．The environment-friendly productsF18、Thomas Edison lost his first job. For the next five years he went around the country from job to job. At last Edison went to New York. He had little money. He could not buy enough food to eat. He had no place to sleep.For many days Edison looked for work. He was hungry. At last he found work fixing machines. He could repair the old machines. He could also make new ones. The head man liked Edison’s new machines. He was going to give Edison $40,000 for them. Edison would now have money to do what he wanted.Thomas Edison was then 23. He used the money to build a shop in New Jersey. He had many people working for him. But he worked harder than any of them. He rested very little. Soon he was making more than 40 new things at one time.In 1876 Alexander Graham Bell made a telephone. But it could carry voices only a short way. Edison wanted to make a better telephone. He soon made one. It could carry voices a long way.根据短文内容，选择正确答案。

双语能力与智力的关系

双语能力与智力的关系人只有一个大脑。

掌握和使用两种语言，人的大脑是否能够胜任？两种语言是否会混淆起来？会不会结果一事无成？学习两种或多种语言对于人的大脑是有利还是有弊？在双语和外语教育中，这些问题常常被人们提起，也往往不容易三言两语就说清楚。

事实上，这些问题是语言学家、心理语言学家、神经语言学家以及神经学家共同关心和长期探索的课题。

在过去的二十世纪中，世界上很多学者和教师为此进行了大量的理论探索和科学实验。

不少人从观察双语儿童的语言习得出发，认为从小学习另一种语言对认知能力会具有较好的作用。

也有人得出相反的结论，认为幼儿从小学习第二语言和成年人学习第二语言各有其优势，而且幼儿开始学习第二语言同少年开始学习第二语言相比，前者并不能显示出优胜之处。

有些研究还发现，幼儿学习两种语言并不全是顺利的，有些幼儿容易出现语言习得的问题。

他们以此为依据，论证两种语言同时存在有一些不利之处。

总而言之，双语能力对认知能力到底是有利还是有弊，人们没有确凿有力的证据，因而也就谈不上有一致的观点和看法。

大体而言，人们对这个问题的认识经历了如下三个阶段。

一、第一阶段的研究：双语有害论这个阶段的特点是“双语有害论”盛行。

从19世纪初叶直到20世纪60年代，西方学术界（主要集中在英国和美国）的主流意见认为，儿童学习两种语言会产生负面的影响。

丹麦的英语研究权威Jesperson（1922: 148）提出，“熟悉两种语言固然是儿童的长处。

但是这个长处的代价可能或者一般说来实在太大。

首先，和他专注学习一种语言相比，他那两种语言学得都不好。

表面上来看，他的说话似乎和本族人一样，可实际上他并没有掌握该语言的精细部分。

此外，多学一种语言所用的脑力肯定会影响儿童学习其它必要的知识。

”持有这种看法的人认为，掌握两种语言从数量上来讲是翻了一倍，但是认知能力并没有因此而成倍地提高。

60年代之前的大多数研究都持这种观点。

当时人们倾向于儿童不要学双语，因为智商测试表明，双语儿童无论在语言还是智力的其它方面都和同龄的单语儿童有三年的差距（Saer，1922，1923；Smith，1923；Barke and Parry-Williams，1938；Jones，1959）。

学习第二语言的优势与劣势

学习第二语言的优势与劣势苏教版高一上学期英语期末模拟测验总结本次期末模拟测验主要涵盖了词汇与语法、阅读理解、完形填空、写作、听力及口语表达等方面，旨在全面检测学生的英语综合能力。

以下是针对这几大板块的总结。

1.词汇与语法本次测验中的词汇和语法项目主要包括：名词、动词、形容词、副词等实词用法，形容词和副词的比较级和最高级，情态动词，动词时态和语态，非谓语动词，定语从句和名词性从句等。

以形容词和副词的比较级和最高级为例，题目要求学生辨析词语之间的差异并正确使用比较级和最高级。

以下是一题为例：The ()movie was more()than the other one.A. best;interestingB. more best;interestingC. best;more interestingD. better;interesting正确答案是A. best;interesting。

在此题中，最高级best修饰movie，而比较级more修饰interesting表示“更有趣的”。

2.阅读理解本次测验中的阅读理解题目主要包括：细节理解题、主旨大意题、推理判断题及词义猜测题等。

以主旨大意题为例，题目要求学生快速阅读全文并准确概括文章的中心思想。

以下是一题为例：The main idea of this passage is that ____.A. technology is improvingB. the future of technology is brightC. technology is affecting our livesD. we need to be careful with technology正确答案是C. technology is affecting our lives。

在此题中，通过快速阅读全文并抓住关键词句，可以发现文章主要讨论的是技术对我们生活的影响，因此正确答案为C。

Unit2Lesson1MoneyvsSuccess学历案高中英语北师大版选择性

Unit 2 Lesson 1 MONEY VS SUCCESSTheme: ReadingTime Arrangement: 3 periodsLearning Objectives:1. I can read new words2. I can read for specific and detailed information3.I can retell the text4.I can give my explanation to the relationship between money and successLearning process:§ 课前预习，发现问题【预习评价】Do you know the following words and phrases after the preview?1. a symbol of ____________ 7. ____________ 成就感2.ultimate goal ___________ 8 ______________ 捐赠，赠送3.dream up ______________ 9. _____________ 厌烦做某事4. turn one’s back on _____________ 10. ____________ 感到内疚5. drop out of _____________ 11. _____________ 一份高薪工作6. get on _____________ 12. ____________ 被…测量，衡量1.……的象征2.终极目标3.凭空想出4.抛弃，不理5.放弃，退出文迹，6.出人头地…7a sense of success/8.give away9.be tired of doing10.feel guilty11.a wellpaid job12.be measured by第一课时§ 课中学习，生成问题I.Activate and share.1.What do you think is success? Do you think being a millionaire means success? Why or why not?2.Would you like to be a millionaire? If you had one million, what would you do?3.Can you think of some sayings about money?II.Read and exploreFast reading: What’s the type of writing is the text? _______________Careful reading:Task 1: Read Para 1 and fill in the blanks.For a lot of people ,______________ is a symbol of success and their ultimate goal.Before getting richThey spend time ____________ ways to get rich and thinking about all the things they will do after being rich.After getting richWhen they _______their goals, some continue to ____________ money and they continue making money so they don’t lose__________.However, there are some people who have ____________ （不理睬）their millions and found other forms of success in their lives. Charles Grey is one example.Task 2 Read para24 and find the descriptions of Jason’s life in the past and now. Draw a graphic organizer to illustrate your understanding.Task 3: Pair Work: Describe Jason’s change of life based on your graphic organizer.Task 4 Read the text and answer the questions.1.How did Jason feel when he was rich? Why?2.Why did he give away all his money to charities?3.How did he feel after he gave away all his money to charities? Why?Task 5 read the quotes from Jason Harley. What can we infer from his words? What kind of person is he? Task 6 Group work1.Do you think Jason made a good decision? Will you make a similar choice?2.Do you think Jason is successful? In which aspects is he successful/ unsuccessful?Task 7 Roles PlaySelect one student to e an interviewer who asks the other four students questions regarding their opinions of Jason and other people’s views on Jason’s choices of life.HomeworkFinish exercise 8 on page 32.Try to retell the passage.第二课时§ 课中学习，核心词汇1. They spend half of their time dreaming up ways of getting rich and achieving the success they expect. dream up虚构出，凭空想出（尤指荒诞不经的事）。

SLA二语习得重要问题总结归纳修订稿

S L A二语习得重要问题总结归纳集团文件发布号：（9816-UATWW-MWUB-WUNN-INNUL-DQQTY-S L A期末考试提纲Week9Chapter1IntroducingSecondLanguageAcquisitionChapter2FoundationsofSecondLanguageAcquisitionPARTONE:Definition:1.SecondLanguageAcquisition(SLA):atermthatrefersbothtothestudyofindividualsandgroupswhoarelearningalanguagesubsequenttolearningtheirfirstoneasyoungchild ren,andtotheprocessoflearningthatlanguage.2.FormalL2learning:instructedlearningthattakesplaceinclassrooms.rmalL2learning:SLAthattakesplaceinnaturalisticcontexts.4.Firstlanguage/nativelanguage/mothertongue(L1):Alanguagethatisacquirednaturallyinearlychildhood,usuallybecauseitistheprimarylanguageofachild’sfamily.A childwhogrowsupinamultilingualsettingmayhavemor ethanone“first”language.5.Secondlanguage(L2):Initsgeneralsense,thistermreferstoanylanguagethatisacquiredafterthefirstlanguagehasbeenestablished.Initsspecificsense,thistermtypic allyreferstoanadditionallanguagewhichislearnedwithinacontextwhereitissociet allydominantandneededforeducation,employment,andotherbasicpurposes.Themores pecificsensecontrastswithforeignlanguage,librarylanguage,auxiliary(帮助的，辅助的)language,andlanguageforspecificpurposes.6.Targetlanguage:Thelanguagethatistheaimorgoaloflearning.7.Foreignlanguage:Asecondlanguagethatisnotwidelyusedinthelearners’immediatesocialcontext,butratheronethatmightbeusedforfuturetravelorothercross-culturalcommunicationsituations,oronethatmightbestudiedasacurricularrequire mentorelectiveinschoolwithnoimmediateornecessarypracticalapplication.8.Librarylanguage:Asecondlanguagethatfunctionsasatoolforfurtherlearning,especiallywhenbooksandjournalsinadesiredfieldofstudyarenotcommonlypublishedinthe learner’sL1.9.Auxiliarylanguage:Asecondlanguagethatlearners needtoknowforsomeofficialfunctionsintheirimmediatesociopoliticalsetting.Orthattheywillneedforpurposesofwi dercommunication,althoughtheirfirstlanguageservesmostotherneedsintheirlives.10.Linguisticcompetence:Theunderlyingknowledgethatspeakers/hearershaveofalanguage.Chomskydistinguishesthisfromlinguisticperformance.11.Linguisticperformance:Theuseoflanguageknowledgeinactualproduction.municativecompetence:Abasictenet(原则、信条、教条)ofsociolinguis ticsdefinedas“whataspeakerneedstoknowtocommunicateappropr iatelywithinaparticularlanguagecommunity”(Saville-Troike2003)13.Pragmaticcompetence:Knowledgethatpeoplemusthaveinordertointerpretandconveymeaningwithincommunicativesituations.14.Multilingualism:Theabilitytousemorethanonelanguage.15.Monolingualism:Theabilitytouseonlyonelanguage.16.Simultaneousmultilingualism:Abilitytousemorethanonelanguagethatwereacquiredduringearlychildhood.17.Sequentialmultilingualism:AbilitytouseoneormorelanguagesthatwerelearnedafterL1hadalreadybeenestablished.18.Innatecapacity:Anaturalability,usuallyreferringtochildren’snaturalabilitytolearnoracquirelanguage.19.Childgrammar:Grammarofchildrenatdifferentmaturationallevelsthatissystematicintermsofproductionandcomprehension.20.Initialstate:Thestartingpointforlanguageacquisition;itisthoughttoincludetheunderlyingknowledgeaboutlanguagestructuresandprinciplesthatareinlearners ’headsattheverystartofL1orL2acquisition.21.Intermediatestate:Itincludesthematurationalchangeswhichtakeplacein“childgrammar”,andtheL2deve lopmentalsequencewhichisknownaslearnerlanguage.22.Finalstate:TheoutcomeofL1andL2leaning,alsoknownasthestablestateofadultgrammar.23.Positivetransfer:AppropriateincorporationofanL1structureorruleinL2structure.24.Negativetransfer:InappropriateinfluenceofanL1structureorruleonL2use.Alsocalledinterference.25.Poverty-of-the-stimulus:Theargumentthatbecauselanguageinputtochildrenisimpoverishedandthey stillacquireL1,theremustbeaninnatecapacityforL1acquisition.26.Structuralism:Thedominantlinguisticmodelofthe1950s,whichemphasizedthedescriptionofdifferentlevelsofproductioninspeech.27.Phonology:Thesoundsystemsofdifferentlanguagesandthestudyofsuchsystemsgenerally.28.Syntax:Thelinguisticsystemofgrammaticalrelationshipsofwordswithinsentences,suchasorderingandagreement.29.Semantics:Thelinguisticstudyofmeaning.30.Lexicon:Thecomponentoflanguagethatisconcernedwithwordsandtheirmeanings.31.Behaviorism:Themostinfluentialcognitiveframeworkappliedtolanguagelearninginthe1950s.Itclaimsthatlearningistheresultofhabitformation.32.Audiolingualmethod:Anapproachtolanguageteachingthatemphasizesrepetitionandhabitformation.Thisapproachwaswidelypracticedinmuchoftheworlduntilatleast the1980s.33.Transformational-GenerativeGrammar:Thefirstlinguisticframeworkwithaninternalfocus,whichrevol utionizedlinguistictheoryandhadprofoundeffectonboththestudyoffirstandsecond languages.Chomskyarguedeffectivelythatthebehavioristtheoryoflanguageacquisi tioniswrongbecauseitcannotexplainthecreativeaspectsoflinguisticability.Inst ead,humansmusthavesomeinnatecapacityforlanguage.34.PrinciplesandParameters(model):TheinternallyfocusedlinguisticframeworkthatfollowedChomsky’s Transformational-GenerativeGrammar.Itrevisedspecificationsofwhatconstitutesinnatecapacitytoi ncludemoreabstractnotionsofgeneralprinciplesandconstraintscommontohumanlang uageaspartofaUniversalGrammar.35.Minimalistprogram:TheinternallyfocusedlinguisticframeworkthatfollowedChomsky’s PrinciplesandParametersmodel.Thisframeworkaddsdistinctionsbetweenlex icalandfunctionalcategorydevelopment,aswellasmoreemphasisontheacquisitionof featurespecificationasapartoflexicalknowledge.36.Functionalism:AlinguisticframeworkwithanexternalfocusthatdatesbacktotheearlytwentiethcenturyandhasitsrootsinthePragueSchool(布拉格学派)ofEasternEurope.Itemphasizestheinformationcontentofutterancesandconsider slanguageprimarilyasasystemofcommunication.Functionalistapproacheshavelarge lydominatedEuropeanstudyofSLAandarewidelyfollowedelsewhereintheworld.37.Neurolinguistics:Thestudyofthelocationandrepresentationoflanguageinthebrain,ofinteresttobiologistsandpsychologistssincethenineteenthcenturyandoneofthefirstfieldstoinfluencecognitiveperspectivesonSLAwhensystematicstudybegan in1960s.38.Criticalperiod:ThelimitednumberofyearsduringwhichnormalL1acquisitionispossible.39.CriticalPeriodHypothesis:TheclaimthatchildrenhaveonlyalimitednumberofyearsduringwhichtheycanacquiretheirL1flawlessly;iftheysufferedbraindamagetothe languageareas,brainplasticityinchildhoodwouldallowotherareasofthebraintotak eoverthelanguagefunctionsofthedamagedareas,butbeyondacertainage,normallangu agedevelopmentwouldnotbepossible.ThisconceptiscommonlyextendedtoSLAaswell,i ntheclaimthatonlychildrenarelikelytoachievenativeornear-nativeproficiencyinL2.rmationprocessing(IP):AcognitiveframeworkwhichassumesthatSLA(likelearningofothercomplexdomains)proceedsfromcontrolledtoautomaticprocessingandin volvesprogressivereorganizationofknowledge.41.Connectionism:Acognitiveframeworkforexplaininglearningprocesses,beginninginthe1980sandbecomingincreasinglyinfluential.ItassumesthatSLAresultsfromin creasingstrengthofassociationsbetweenstimuliandresponses.42.Variationtheory:AmicrosocialframeworkappliedtoSLAthatexploressystematicdifferencesinlearnerproductionwhichdependoncontextsofuse.43.Accommodationtheory:AframeworkforstudyofSLAthatisbasedonthenotionthatspeakersusuallyunconsciouslychangetheirpronunciationandeventhegrammaticalcompl exityofsentencestheyusetosoundmorelikewhomevertheyaretalkingto.44.Socioculturaltheory(SCT):AnapproachestablishedbyVygotskywhichclaimsthatinteractionnotonlyfacilitateslanguagelearningbutisacausativeforceinacquisiti on.Further,alloflearningisseenasessentiallyasocialprocesswhichisgroundedins ocioculturalsettings.45.Ethnography(人种论、民族志)ofcommunication:Aframeworkforanalysisoflanguageanditsfunctionsthatwasest ablishedbyHymes(1966).Itrelateslanguageusetobroadersocialandculturalcontext s,andappliesethnographicmethodsofdatacollectionandinterpretationtostudyofla nguageacquisitionanduse.46.Acculturation(文化适应):LearningthecultureoftheL2communityandadaptingtothosevaluesandbehaviorpa tterns.47.AcculturationModel/Theory:Schumann’s(1978)theorythatidentifiesgroupfactorssuchasidentityandstatuswhichdeterminesocialandpsychologicaldistancebetwe enlearnerandtargetlanguagepopulations.HeclaimstheseinfluenceoutcomesofSLA.48.Socialpsychology:Asocietalapproachinresearchandtheorythatallowsexplorationofissuessuchashowidentity,status,andvaluesinfluenceL2outcomesandwhy.Ithas disciplinarytiestobothpsychologicalandsocialperspectives.PARTTWO:Short&Longanswers:Chapter11.Whatarethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenlinguists,psycholinguist,sociolinguistsandsocialpsycholinguists?P3（1）Linguistsemphasizethecharacteristicsofthedifferencesandsimilaritiesinthelan guagesthatarebeinglearned,andthelinguisticcompetence(underlyingknowledge)an dlinguisticperformance(actualproduction)oflearnersatvariousstagesofacquisit ion.（2）Psychologistsemphasizethementalorcognitiveprocessesinvolvedinacquisition,an dtherepresentationoflanguagesinthebrain.（3）Sociolinguists emphasizevariabilityinlearnerlinguisticperformance,and extendt hescopeofstudytocommunicativecompetence(underlyingknowledgethatadditionally accountsforlanguageuse,orpragmaticcompetence).（4）Socialpsychologistsemphasizegroup-relatedphenomena,suchasidentityandsocialmotivation,andtheinteractionalandla rgersocialcontextsoflearning.2.Whatarethedifferencesbetweensecondlanguage,foreignlanguage,librarylanguageandauxiliarylanguage?P4（1）Asecondlanguageistypicallyanofficialorsocietallydominantlanguageneededfored ucation,employment,andotherbasicpurposes.Itisoftenacquiredbyminoritygroupme mbersorimmigrantswhospeakanotherlanguagenatively.Inthismorerestrictedsense, thetermiscontrastedwithothertermsinthislist.（2）Aforeignlanguageisonenotwidelyusedinthelearners'immediatesocialcontextwhichmightbeusedforfuturetravelorothercross-culturalcommunicationsituations,orstudiedasacurricularrequirementorelective inschool,butwithnoimmediateornecessarypracticalapplication.（3）Alibrarylanguageisonewhichfunctionsprimarilyasatoolforfuturelearningthrough reading,especiallywhenbooksorjournalsinadesiredfieldofstudyarenotcommonlypu blishedinthelearners'nativetongue.（4）Anauxiliarylanguageisonewhichlearnersneedtoknowforsomeofficialfunctionsinth eirimmediatepoliticalsetting,orwillneedforpurposesofwidercommunication,alth oughtheirfirstlanguageservesmostotherneedsintheirlives.3.Whyaresomelearnersmore(orless)successfulthanother?P5Theintriguingquestionof why someL2learnersaremoresuccessfulthanothersrequires ustounpac kthebroadlabel“learners”forsomedimensionsofdiscussion.Linguistic smaydistinguishcategoriesoflearnersdefinedbytheidentityandrelationshipofthe irL1andL2;psycholinguistsmaymakedistinctionsbasedonindividualaptitudeforL2l earning,personalityfactors,typesandstrengthofmotivation,anddifferentlearnin gstrategies;sociolinguistsmaydistinguishamonglearnerswithregardtosocial,eco nomic,andpoliticaldifferencesandlearnerexperiencesinnegotiatedinteraction;a ndsocialpsychologistsmaycategorizelearnersaccordingtoaspectsoftheirgroupide ntityandattitudestowardtargetlanguagespeakersortowardL2learningitself.Chapter21.Listatleastfivepossiblemotivationsforlearningasecondlanguageatanolderage.P1Themotivationmayarisefromavarietyofconditions,includingthefollowing: Invasionorconquestofone’scou ntrybyspeakersofanotherlanguage;Aneedordesiretocontactspeakersofotherlanguagesineconomicorotherspecificd omains;Immigrationtoacountrywhereuseofalanguageotherthanone'sL1isrequired;Adoptionofreligiousbeliefsandpracticeswhichinvolveuseofanotherlanguage;Aneedordesiretopursueeducationalexperienceswhereaccessrequiresproficienc yinanotherlanguage;Adesireforoccupationalorsocialadvancementwhichisfurtheredbyknowledgeofan otherlanguage;Aninterestinknowingmoreaboutpeoplesofotherculturesandhavingaccesstotheir technologiesorliteratures.2.Whatarethetwomainfactorsthatinfluencethelanguagelearning?P13（1）Theroleofnaturalability:Humansarebornwithanaturalabilityorinnatecapacitytol earnlanguage.（2）Theroleofsocialexperience:NotallofL1acquisitioncanbeattributedtoinnateabili ty,forlanguage-specificlearningalsoplaysacrucialrole.Eveniftheuniversalpropertiesoflanguag earepreprogrammedinchildren,theymustlearnallofthosefeatureswhichdistinguish theirL1fromallotherpossiblehumanlanguages.Childrenwillneveracquiresuchlangu age-specificknowledgeunlessthatlanguageisusedwiththemandaroundthem,andtheywilll earntouseonlythelanguage(s)usedaroundthem,nomatterwhattheirlinguisticherita ge.American-bornchildrenofKoreanorGreekancestrywillneverlearnthelanguageoftheirgrandpar entsifonlyEnglishsurroundsthem,forinstance,andtheywillfindtheirancestrallan guagejustashardtolearnasanyotherEnglishspeakersdoiftheyattempttolearnitasan adult.Appropriatesocialexperience,includingL1inputandinteraction,isthusanec essaryconditionforacquisition.3.WhatistheinitialstateoflanguagedevelopmentforL1andL2respectively?P17-18TheinitialstateofL1learningiscomposedsolelyofaninnatecapacityforlanguageacq uisitionwhichmayormaynotcontinuetobeavailableforL2,ormaybeavailableonlyinso melimitedways.TheinitialstateforL2learning,ontheotherhand,hasresourcesofL1c ompetence,worldknowledge,andestablishedskillsforinteraction,whichcanbebotha nassetandanimpediment.4.Howdoesintermediatestatesprocess?P18-19Thecross-linguisticinfluence,ortransferofpriorknowledgefromL1toL2,isoneoftheprocesse sthatisinvolvedininterlanguagedevelopment.Twomajortypesoftransferwhichoccur are:(1)positivetransfer,whenanL1structureorruleisusedinanL2utteranceandthat useisappropriateor“correct”intheL2;and(2)negativetransfer(orinterference) ,whenanL1structureorruleisusedinanL2utteranceandthatuseisinappropriateandco nsideredan“error”.5.Whatisanecessaryconditionforlanguagelearning(L1orL2)P20LanguageinputtothelearnerisabsolutelynecessaryforeitherL1orL2learningtotake place.ChildrenadditionallyrequireinteractionwithotherpeopleforL1learningtoo ccur.ItispossibleforsomeindividualstoreachafairlyhighlevelofproficiencyinL2 eveniftheyhaveinputonlyfromsuchgenerallynon-reciprocalsourcesasradio,television,orwrittentext.6.Whatisafacilitatingconditionforlanguagelearning?P20WhileL1learningbychildrenoccurswithoutinstruction,andwhiletherateofL1develo pmentisnotsignificantlyinfluencedbycorrectionofimmatureformsorbydegreeofmot ivationtospeak,bothrateandultimatelevelofdevelopmentinL2canbefacilitatedori nhabitedbymanysocialandindividualfactors,suchas(1)feedback,includingcorrect ionofL2learners'errors;(2)aptitude,includingmemorycapacityandanalyticabilit y;(3)motivation,orneedanddesiretolearn;(4)instruction,orexplicitteachingins choolsettings.7.Giveatleast2reasonsthatmanyscientistsbelieveinsomeinnatecapacityforlanguage.P21-24Thenotionthatinnatelinguisticknowledgemustunderlie（指原则、理由构成某学说...的基础，潜在于...之下)languageacquisitionwasprominentlyespoused(采纳或支持事业理念)byNoamChomsky.Thisviewhasbeensupportedbyargumentssuchasthefollowing:(1)Children’sknowledgeoflanguagegoesbeyondwhatcouldbelearnedfromtheinputtheyreceive:Childrenoftenhearincompleteorungrammaticalutterancesalong withgrammaticalinput,andyettheyaresomehowabletofilterthelanguagetheyhearsothattheungrammaticalinputisnotincorporatedintotheirL1system.Further,ch ildrenarecommonlyrecipientsofsimplifiedinputfromadults,whichdoesnotinclu dedataforallofthecomplexitieswhicharewithintheirlinguisticcompetence.Ina ddition,childrenhearonlyafinitesubsetofpossiblegrammaticalsentences,andy ettheyareabletoabstractgeneralprinciplesandconstraintswhichallowthemtoin terpretandproduceaninfinitenumberofsentenceswhichtheyhaveneverheardbefor e.(2)Constraintsandprinciplescannotbelearned:Children’saccesstogeneralconstraintsandprincipleswhichgovernlanguagecouldaccountfortherelativelysh orttimeittakesfortheL1grammartoemerge,andforthefactthatitdoessosystemati callyandwithoutany“wild”divergences.Thiscouldbesobecauseinnateprincipl esleadchildrentoorganizetheinputtheyreceiveonlyincertainwaysandnotothers .Inadditiontothelackofnegativeevidence,constraintsandprinciplescannotbel earntinpartbecausechildrenacquireafirstlanguageatanagewhensuchabstractio nsarebeyondtheircomprehension;constraintsandprinciplesarethusoutsidether ealmoflearningprocesswhicharerelatedtogeneralintelligence.(3)Universalpatternsofdevelopmentcannotbeexplainedbylanguage-specificinput:Inspiteofthesurfacedifferencesininput,therearesimilarpatte rnsinchildacquisitionofanylanguageintheworld.Theextentofthissimilaritysu ggeststhatlanguageuniversalsarenotonlyconstructsderivedfromsophisticated theoriesandanalysesbylinguists,butalsoinnaterepresentationsineveryyoungc hild’smind.8.Linguistshavetakenaninternaland/orexternalfocustothestudyoflanguageacquisition.Whatisthedifferencebetweenthetwo?P25-26Internalfocusemphasizesthatchildrenbeginwithaninnatecapacitywhichisbiologic allyendowed,aswellastheacquisitionoffeaturespecificationasapartoflexicalkno wledge;whileexternalfocusemphasizestheinformationcontentofutterances,andcon siderslanguageprimarilyasasystemofcommunication.9.WhatarethetwomainfactorsforlearningprocessinthestudyofSLAfromapsychologicalperspective?P26-27(1)InformationProcessing,whichassumesthatL2isahighlycomplexskill,andthatlearningL2isnotessentiallyunlikelearningotherhighlycomplexskills.Processingits elfisbelievedtocauselearning;(2)Connectionism,whichdoesnotconsiderlanguagelearningtoinvolveeitherinnateknowledgeorabstractionofrulesandprinciples,butrathertoresultfromincreasingst rengthofassociations(connections)betweenstimuliandresponses.10.WhatarethetwofociforthestudyofSLAfromthesocialperspective?P27(1)Microsocialfocus:theconcernswithinthemicrosocialfocusrelatetolanguageacquisitionanduseinimmediatesocialcontextsofproduction,interpretation,andinter action.(2)Macrosocialfocus:theconcernsofthemacrosocialfocusrelatelanguageac quisitionandusetobroaderecologicalcontexts,includingcultural,political,ande ducationalsettings.Week10Chapter5SocialcontextsofSecondLanguageAcquisitionPARTONE:Definitionmunicativecompetence:Abasictenetofsociolinguisticsdefinedas“whataspeakerneedstoknowtocommunicateappropriatelywithinaparticularlanguagecommunity”(Saville-Troike2003)nguagecommunity:Agroupofpeoplewhoshareknowledgeofacommonlanguagetoatleastsomeextent.3.Foreignertalk:SpeechfromL1speakersaddressedtoL2learnersthatdiffersinsystematicwaysfromlanguageaddressedtonativeorveryfluentspeakers.4.DirectCorrection:Explicitstatementsaboutincorrectlanguageuse.5.Indirectcorrection:Implicitfeedbackaboutinappropriatelanguageuse,suchasclarificationrequestswhenthelistenerhasactuallyunderstoodanutterance.6.InteractionHypothesis:TheclaimthatmodificationsandcollaborativeeffortswhichtakeplaceinsocialinterationfacilitateSLAbecausetheycontributetotheaccessibi lityofinputformentalprocessing.7.Symbolicmediation:Alinkbetweenaperson’scurrentmentalstateandhigherorderfunctionsthatisprovidedprimarilybylanguage;consideredtheusualroutetolearning(o flanguage,andoflearningingeneral).PartofVygosky’sSocioculturalTheory.8.Variablefeatures:Multiplelinguisticforms(vocabulary,phonology,morphology,syntax,discourse)thataresystematicallyorpredictablyusedbydifferentspeakersofa language,orbythesamespeakersatdifferenttimes,withthesamemeaningorfunction.9.Linguisticcontext:Elementsoflanguageformandfunctionassociatedwiththevariableelement.10.Psychologicalcontext:factorsassociatedwiththeamountofattentionwhichisbeinggiventolanguageformduringproduction,thelevelofautomaticityversuscontrolin processing,ortheintellectualdemandsofaparticulartask.11.Microsocialcontext:featuresofsetting/situationandinteractionwhichrelatetocommunicativeeventswithinwhichlanguageisbeingproduced,interpreted,andnegot iated.12.Accommodationtheory:AframeworkforstudyofSLAthatisbasedonthenotionthatspeakersusuallyunconsciouslychangetheirpronunciationandeventhegrammaticalcomplexityofsentencestheyusetosoundmorelikewhomevertheyaretalkingto.13.ZPD:ZoneofProximalDevelopment,anareaofpotentialdevelopmentwherethelearnercanonlyachievethatpotentialwithassistance.PartofVygosky’sSocioculturalThe ory.14.Scaffolding:Verbalguidancewhichanexpertprovidestohelpalearnerperformanyspecifictask,ortheverbalcollaborationofpeerstoperformataskwhichwouldbetoodif ficultforanyoneoftheminindividualperformance.15.Intrapersonalinteraction:communicationthatoccurswithinanindividual'sownmind,viewedbyVygoskyasasocioculturalphenomen.16.Interpersonalinteraction:Communicativeeventsandsituationsthatoccurbetweenpeople.17.Socialinstitutions:Thesystemswhichareestablishedbylaw,custom,orpracticetoregulateandorganizethelifeofpeopleinpublicdomains:e.g.politics,religion,an deducation.18.Acculturation:learningthecultureoftheL2communityandadaptingtothosevaluesandbehavioralpatterns.19.Additivebilingualism:TheresultofSLAinsocialcontextswheremembersofadominantgrouplearnthelanguageofaminoritywithoutthreattotheirL1competenceortotheir ethnicidentity.20.Subtractivebilingualism:TheresultofSLAinsocialcontextswheremembersofaminoritygrouplearnthedominantlanguageasL2andaremorelikelytoexperiencesomelosso fethnicidentityandattritionofL1skills—especiallyiftheyarechildren.21.FormalL2learning:formal/instructedlearninggenerallytakesplaceinschools,whicharesocialinstitutionsthatareestablishedinaccordwiththeneeds,beliefs,val ues,andcustomsoftheirculturalsettings.rmalL2learning:informal/naturalisticlearninggenerallytakesplaceinsettingswherepeoplecontact—andneedtointeractwith—speakersofanotherlanguage. PARTTWO:Short&Longanswers1.whatisthedifferencebetweenmonolingualandmultilingualcommunicativecompetence? Differencesebetweenmonolingualandmultilingualcommunicativecompetencearedueinpa rttothedifferentsocialfunctionsoffirstandsecondlanguagelearning,andtothediffer encesbetweenlearninglanguageandlearningculture. Thedifferencesofthecompetencebetweennativespeakersandnonativespeakersincludest ructuraldifferencesinthelinguisitcsystem,differentrulesforusageinwritingorconv ersation,andevensomewhatdivergentmeaningsforthe“same”lexicalforms.Further,am ultilingualspeaker’stotalcommunicativecompetencediffersfromthatofamonolingua l inincludingknowledgeofrulesfortheappropriatechoiceoflanguageandforswitchingbet weenlanguages,givenaparticularsocialcontextandcommunicativepurpose.2.whatarethemicrosocialfactorsthataffectSLA?P101-102a)L2variationb)inputandinteractionc)interactionasthegenesisoflanguage3.Whatisthedifferencebetweenlinguistic&communicativecompetence(CC) Linguisticcompetence-Itwasdefinedin1965byChomskyasaspeaker'sunderlyingabilitytoproducegrammatically correctexpressions.Linguisticcompetencereferstoknowledgeoflanguage.Theoretical linguisticsprimarilystudieslinguisticcompetence:knowledgeofalanguagepossessedb y“anidealspeak-listener”.Communicativecompetence-Itisaterminwhichrefersto“whataspeakerneedstoknowtocommunicateappropriatelywit hinaparticularlanguagecommunity”,suchasalanguageuser'sgrammaticalknowledgeof, ,andthelike,aswellassocialknowledgeabouthowandwhentouseutterancesappropriately.4.WhyisCCinL1differentfromL2?L1learningforchildrenisanintegralpartoftheirsociolizationintotheirnativelangua gecommunity.L2learningmaybepartofsecondculturelearningandadaptation,buttherela tionshipofSLAtosocialandculturallearningdiffersgreatlywithcircumstances.5.WhatisAccommodationTheoryHowdoesthisexplainL2variation6.Accommodationtheory:Speakers(usuallyunconsciously)changetheirpronunciationande venthegrammaticalcomplexityofsentencestheyusetosoundmorelikewhomevertheyaretal kingto.Thisaccountsinpartforwhynativespeakerstendtosimplytheirlanguagewhenthey aretalkingtoaL2learnerwhoisnotfluent,andwhyL2learnersmayacquiresomewhatdiffere ntvarietiesofthetargetlanguagewhentheyhavedifferentfriends.7.Discusstheimportanceofinput&interactionforL2learning.Howcouldthisaffectthefeedbackprovidedtostudents?ⅰ.a)Fromtheperspectiveoflinguisticappr oaches:(1)behaviorist:theyconsiderinput toformthenecessarystimuliandfeedbackwhichlearnersrespondtoandimitate;(2)Univer salGrammar:theyconsiderexposuretoinputanecessarytriggerforactivatinginternalme chanisms;(3)MonitorModel:considercomprehensibleinputnotonlynecessarybutsuffici entinitselftoaccountforSLA;b)Fromtheperspectiveofpsychologicalapproaches:(1)IPframework:considerinputw hichisattendedtoasessentialdataforallstagesoflanguageprocessing;(2)connectionistframework:considerthequantityorfrequencyofinputstructurestolargelydeterminea cquisitionalsequencing;c)Fromtheperspectiveofsocialapproaches:interactionisgenerallyseenasessentia linprovidinglearnerswiththequantityandqualityofexternallinguisticinputwhichisr equiredforinternalprocessing.ⅱ.Othertypesofinteractionwhic hcanenhanceSLAincludefeedbackfromNSswhichmakesNN sawarethattheirusageisnotacceptableinsomeway,andwhichprovidesamodelfor“correc tness”.WhilechildrenrarelyreceivesuchnegativeevidenceinL1,anddon’trequireitt oachievefullnativecompetence,correctivefeedbackiscommoninL2andmayindeedbeneces saryformostlearnerstoultimatelyreachnative-likelevelsofproficiencywhenthatisthedesiredgoal.8.ExplainZPD.HowwouldscaffoldingputastudentinZPD? ZoneofProximalDevelopment,thisisanareaofpotentialdevelopment,wherethelearnerca nachievethatpotentialonlywithassistance.Mentalfunctionsthatarebeyondanindividu al'scurrentlevelmustbeperformedincollaborationwithotherpeoplebeforetheyareachi evedindependently.Onewayinwhichothershelpthelearnerinlanguagedevelopmentwithin theZPDisthroughscaffolding.Scaffoldingreferstoverbalguidancewhichanexpertprovi destohelpalearnerperformanyspecifictask,ortheverbalcollaborationofpeerstoperfo rmataskwhichwouldbetoodifficultforanyoneofthemindividually.Itisnotsomethingtha thappenstolearnersasapassiverecipient,buthappenswithalearnerasanactiveparticip ant.9.ThinkofamacrosocialfactorthataffectsEnglishlearninginChina.WhichofdoesitfallunderWhataretheeffectsWhataretheresultsThe5topicsare:GlobalabdnationalstatusofL1andL2BoundariesandidentitiesInstitutionalforcesandconstraintsSocialcategoriesCircumstancesoflearningAtaglobalandnationallevel,influencesonSLAinvolvesthepowerandstatusoflearners’nativeandtargetlanguages,whetherovertlystatedinofficialpoliciesorcovertlyreali zedinculturalvaluesandpractices. SocialboundariesthatarerelevanttoSLAmaycoincidewithnationalborders,buttheyalso existwithinandacrossthemastheyfunctiontounifyspeakersasmembersofalanguagecommu nityandtoexcludeoutsidersfrommembership;influencesonSLAatthislevelofteninvolve therelationshipbetweennativeandtargetlanguagegroups,aswellastheopennessandperm eabilityofcommunityboundaries.Withinnations,institutionalforcesandconstraintsoftenaffecttheuseandknowledgeof L2inrelationtosuchthingsassocialcontrol,politicalandreligiouspractices,andecon omicandeducationalopportunities.Age,gender,andethnicityarefactorsofsocialgroupmembershipwhichmaypotentiallyber elevanttoSLA.Finally,circumstancesoflearningcaninfluenceSLA,suchaslearners’prioreducationa lexperiences,whethertheL2learningprocessisinformalorformal,and(ifinformal)thet ypeofeducationalmodellearnershaveaccesstoandthepedagogicalorientationoftheirte achersandadministrators.10.Howdolinguisticmodificationsaidcomprehensionatearlystagesoflearning? Highfrequencyphrasesmaybememorizedaschunksofspeechwhichcanbeprocessedautomatic ally;pausesatappropriategrammaticaljuncturescanhelplistenersreorganizeconstitu entstructures;aslowerrateofspeechallowsmoretimeforinformationretrievalandcontr olledprocessing;andtopicalizationhelpsinidentifyingwhatasentenceisaboutandwhat partofitcontainsnewinformation.11.Whataretheusefultypesofinteractionalmodifications?P108-11012.Repetition;paraphrase;expansionandelaboration;sentencecompletion;frameforsubst itution;verticalconstruction;comprehensioncheckandrequestforclarification.13.WhatdoesS-Ctheorydifferfromlinguisticapproach,psychologicalapproach,andsocialapproach? Akeyconceptinthisapproachisthatinteractionnotonlyfacilitateslanguagelearningbu tisacausativeforceinacquisition;further,alloflearningisseenasessentiallyasocia lprocesswhichisgroundedinsocialculturalsetting.s.S-CTheorydiffersfrommostlinguisticapproachesingivingrelativelylimitedattentionto thestructuralpatternsofL2whicharelearned,aswellasinemphasizinglearneractivitya ndinvolvementoverinnateanduniversalmechanisms;anditdiffersfrommostpsychologica lapproachesinitsdegreeoffocusonfactorsoutsidethelearner,ratherthanonfactorswhi charecompletelyinthelearner'shead,andinitsdenialthatthelearnerisalargelyautono mousprocessor;italsodiffersfrommostothersocialapproachesinconsideringinteracti onasanessentialforceratherthanasmerelyahelpfulconditionforlearning.14.ExplainwhysomelearnersaremoresuccessfulthanothersfromtheperspectiveofS-Ctheory?。

人教版高中英语必修第一册课后习题 Unit 5 第五单元过关检测(B卷)

第五单元过关检测(B卷)(时间:120分钟满分:150分)第一部分听力(共两节,满分30分)第一节(共58小题;每小题1.5分,满分7.5分)听下面5段对话。

每段对话后有一个小题,从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项。

听完每段对话后,你都有10秒钟的时间来回答有关小题和阅读下一小题。

每段对话仅读一遍。

1.What dress does the man suggest the woman wear?A.The green one.B.The pink one.C.The blue one.答案:A2.Where does the conversation take place?A.In a bookshop.B.On a street.C.In a bank.答案:C3.What does the woman say about Professor Johnson?A.He is quiet.B.His lectures are humorous.C.He is not strict.答案:B4.When does the regular train usually leave for London?A.At 2:30 p.m.B.At 4:50 p.m.C.At 5:15 p.m.答案:A5.What happened to the woman?A.She failed a test.B.She was ill.C.She lost her job.答案:A第二节(共15小题;每小题1.5分,满分22.5分)听下面5段对话或独白。

每段对话或独白后有几个小题,从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项。

听每段对话或独白前,你将有时间阅读各个小题,每小题5秒钟;听完后,各小题将给出5秒钟的作答时间。

每段对话或独白读两遍。

听第6段材料,回答第6、7题。

6.What does the woman ask the man to do?A.Find a place of interest to travel.B.Introduce a book by Eric Hansen.C.Think of a subject for her writing.答案:C7.Why is the man unwilling to help the woman at first?A.He has his own work to do.B.He’s not interested in the book.C.He knows little about her interest.答案:A听第7段材料,回答第8、9题。

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Eğitimde Kuram ve Uygulama 2009, 5 (2):110-122 Journal of Theory and Practice in Education Articles /Makaleler ISSN: 1304-9496 http://eku.comu.edu.tr/index/5/2/asaricaoglu_aarikan.pdf

A STUDY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES, FOREIGN LANGUAGE SUCCESS AND SOME SELECTED VARIABLES

(ZEKA TÜRLERİ, ÖĞRENCİLERİN YABANCI DİL BAŞARILARI VE SEÇİLMİŞ DEĞİŞKENLER ÜZERİNE BİR ÇALIŞMA)

Aysel SARICAOĞLU1 Arda ARIKAN2

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between students’ gender and intelligence types, the relationship between particular intelligence types and students’ success in grammar, listening and writing in English as a foreign language and the relationship between parental education and students’ types of intelligences. Preparatory class students (n=144) attending Erciyes University’s School of Foreign Languages participated in the study and the data was collected through the Multiple Intelligences Inventory for Adults. Descriptive statistics, independent samples t-test analysis, correlation analysis and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to analyze the data. Analysis of the data revealed no significant gender differences in the intelligence types held by the participants except for that between gender and linguistic intelligence which was positive. Negative but significant relationships were found between success in students’ test scores in grammar and bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, and intrapersonal intelligences whereas the relationship between musical intelligence and writing was found to be significant and positive. Finally, no significant relationship was found between parental education and students’ intelligence types.

Keywords: Multiple intelligences, intelligence, success, gender, parental education ÖZ Bu çalışmanın amacı cinsiyet ile öğrencilerin zekâ türleri arasında, belirli zekâ türleri ile öğrencilerin İngilizce dilbilgisi, dinleme ve yazma başarıları arasında ve öğrencilerin zekâ türleri ile anne ve babalarının eğitim seviyeleri arasında bir ilişki olup olmadığını araştırmaktır. Erciyes Üniversitesi Yabancı Diller Yüksekokulu’nda öğrenim gören 144 hazırlık sınıfı öğrencisi çalışmada yer almış ve veri toplama aracı olarak Yetişkinler için Çoklu Zekâ Envanter’i kullanılmış ve veriler tanımlayıcı istatistikler, bağımsız örneklem t-testi, korelasyon katsayısı ve tek yönlü varyans analizi (ANOVA) teknikleri ile analiz edilmiştir. Çalışmanın sonuçlarına göre, kız ve erkek öğrenciler arasında zekâ türleri açısından anlamlı bir ilişki bulunmamaktadır. Cinsiyet ile dilsel zekâ arasında pozitif bir ilişki olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır. Bedensel-duyusal, uzaysal ve bireysel-içedönük zekâ ile dilbilgisi arasında olumsuz ama anlamlı bir ilişki çıkarken, müziksel zekâ ile yazma becerisi arasındaki ilişki olumlu ve anlamlıdır. Son olarak, anne ve babanın eğitim seviyelerinin öğrencilerin zekâ türleri üzerinde etkisinin olmadığı saptanmıştır.

Anahtar kelimeler; Çoklu zeka, zeka, başarı, cinsiyet, aile, eğitim

1 Ins., Erciyes University, School of Foreign Languages. E-mail: ayselsaricaoglu111@gmail.com

2 Asst. Prof. Dr., Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education, Dept. of Foreign Language Teaching. E-

mail: ardaari@gmail.com Sarıcaoğlu & Arıkan Eğitimde Kuram ve Uygulama

Journal of Theory and Practice in Education 2009, 5 (2): 110-122

111

INTRODUCTION MI Theory: the Construct and its Components Multiple Intelligences (MI) Theory (MIT) grew out of the work of Howard Gardner who challenged the too narrowly defined intelligence with his proposal of basic human intelligence types (linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal). Although originally started as 7 intelligences, an eighth intelligence “naturalistic intelligence” has been added to the list and now there is the possibility of a ninth intelligence “emotional intelligence” (Armstrong, 2001; Fogarty and Stoehr, 2008) or “spiritual intelligence” (Albert and Reed, 2008). MI, as a theoretical construct, suggests that intelligence should be determined by measuring one’s capacity for solving problems and fashioning products in a context-rich and naturalistic setting. Chen and Gardner (2005: 79) describe the types of intelligences as the following;