语用学与修辞学讲义
修辞学讲义5
• 具体化 • 增值 • 审美 • 语境是个综合性系统
• 修辞现象的确要比语法现象复杂得多， 这给修辞研究带来很大困难，因而增 加了修辞学的科学化和精密化的难度。 这是本学科长期陷入困境，难以同语 法学以及其他人文学科并驾齐驱的根 本原因。 • 刘焕辉《修辞学纲要》
• 孔子的言行与应对 • “见几而作，不俟终日” • “知几其神乎？” • “几者，动之微，吉之先见者也。” • “知微知彰，知柔知刚”
1. 社会文化背景 2. 特定物理背景
1. 社会文化背景
语言反映了一个民族传统 哲学思维方式和认知事物 的思想方法。
语言在相当程度上决定了人们的 思想和认识方式。
——萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说
例1. 词语的排列顺序
湖的中央有座亭子。
There is a pavilion at the centre of the lake.
疏剌剌林梢落叶风， 绿依依高柳半遮。
例2. 语言与社会发展
小姐、同志
例3. 言语与场合
经济搞上去，人口降下来！
二. 本体语境
1. 过滤功能 2. 解释功能
★ 过滤功能
是否合语法规律
例1：句子的类型对词语使用的限制
• 把嘴张得大大的 • 把东西抢得精光 • 把马路照得又光又亮 • 把那件东西抱得紧紧的
汉语具有“临摹性” 英语“焦点原则”
例2. 招呼语
hello
吃了吗
汉语：隐性、灵动、亲切 英语：显性、率直、单一
例3. 语言的时代性
——明代赵南星《笑赞》
2. 特定物理背景
特定时地环境决定言语主体 在言语交际时的真角色
例1. 古人对语境的重视
例1. 古人对语境的重视
春兰秋菊不同时
汉语语法与修辞知识
八字要求：看熟理清记牢写对第六章汉语语法与修辞知识语法研究语言的结构规律与规则。
其基本研究对象是语言的结构要素。
汉语四级语法单位：语素、词、短语、句子。
（重点掌握后三者）修辞研究语言的表达效果。
其基本研究对象是语言的表达方式。
积极修辞与消极修辞炼词、炼句辞格第一节词汇一、词的构成（一）语素构词的类型单纯词联绵词、叠音词、象声词、音译词合成词（词根、词缀）复合式、附加式、重叠式复合式（两个词根，重点）联合、偏正、补充、动宾、主谓附加式、重叠式（一个词根）（二）现代汉语词汇组成基本词汇一般词汇二、词形、词音和词义（调整）（一）词形1．异形词2．同形词（二）词音1．多音（节）词2．同音词同形同音词（重点、难点）异形同音词3．异读词（三）词义1．词义的构成（1）词的理性义（2）词的色彩义（色彩义是重点）感情色彩语体色彩形象色彩2．多义词3．同义词（同义词中的近义词是重点，七大区别）近义词的差别可以从理性义、色彩义、用法三大方面来把握。
理性意义不同（1）词义轻重不同（2）词义范围不同（3）词义性质不同（4）词义侧重点不同色彩意义不同（1）感情色彩不同（2）语体色彩不同用法不同（1）搭配对象不同4．反义词第二节词的分类词的语法分类（以语法功能为主要分类标准）实词和虚词一、实词实词（七类）：名、动、形容、数词、量词、代词、副词。
各类实词及其特点（一）名词画鸟书刊物电脑先生和平公民法律积极性名词的语法特点：1.能用数量短语修饰。
如“五本书”“三台电脑”“一种法律”“一点积极性”。
2.不能用“不”修饰。
《最小说》《很漫画》3.能用在介词后边，组成介词结构。
如“在上海”“关于和平”。
4.经常用作主语和宾语。
如：“黄河水入龙门。
”比较特殊的表示时间、处所、方位的名词。
时间名词：“今天”“去年”“从前”。
处所名词：“北京”“郊区”“两侧”。
方位名词：“上、下、前、后、东、南、西、北、中、左、右、里、外、间、旁”。
（二）动词写说想考虑播放完成制造有是动词的语法特点：1.能用副词“不”或“没有（没）”修饰，如“不说话”“没有想”。
修辞学讲义——精选推荐
修辞学讲义ENGLISH RHETORICWhat Is Rhetoric?Rhetoric is the art of effective communication in words. Generally, the study of how to express oneself effectively is the concern of rhetoric. In the category of humane tradition, English rhetoric is subdivided into communicative rhetoric and aesthetic rhetoric. The communicative rhetoric mainly stresses on lexical accuracy, structural meticulousness and contextual appropriateness so as to bring its linguistic communicative role into full play. The aesthetic rhetoric gives special emphasis on the employment of rhetorical features, such as alliteration, assonance, repetition, parallelism, simile, metaphor, euphemism and irony, etc. It will leave more vivid and impressive images on the audience‘s mind.I. Levels of English Rhetoric:1.Phonological/Prosodic Level: 美⾳cf. Phonology/phonetics2.Lexical Level: 遣词Morphology3.Syntactic Level：炼句Syntax4.Paragraph Level: 修段Semantics5.Textual Level: 谋篇Pragmatics6.Stylistic Level: 饰⽂1.Phonological/Prosodic Level:Stress:Is she badly hurt?Is she badly hurt?Is she badly hurt?Pause:When – when – I – am – gone – please – di – divide – my – property – equally – among –among – the – children.Tempo (语速)：Other factors such as regional, dialectal, social.Paralinguistic features:A)Breathy voice: ―Oh, No!‖ (Surprise, astonishment)B)Creaky voice: ―Terrible!‖ (Emphasis)C)Falsetto: ―Wonderful!‖ (Expressive)D)Whisper: ―Fantastic!‖ (Contrastive)Figures of speech/rhetorical devices:Alliteration, assonance, consonance, rhyme, onomatopoeia, etc. (to be discussed later)2.Lexical Level:Proper words in proper places (Jonathan Swift):From now on, I expect that window to be kept closed.Excuse me, could you tell me the right time, please?What time is it, please?What‘s the time?Time?How much longer have we got?My watch seems to be going slow.Devices of construction of words also have rhetorical features:Affixation: prefix: a-, anti,, contra, counter, de, dis, il, im, in, ir, non, un, etc.suffix: ee, er, or, ese, ism, ster, ly, wise, etc.conversion, compounding, backformation, shortening, etc.2.1 Word-choice:2.1.1 Denotation & Connotation:car [physical appearance (d)]; [comfort, rich, luxury(c)]He put his head in his hands and began to cry.I know I‘m going to weep at the airport.There was a girl sitting and sobbing in the corner.The women gathered around the coffin and began to wail, as was the custom in the region.After vacillating for as long as he could and taking refug e in the supposed ambiguities of the state constitution, the mayor has finally yielded to pressure and agreed to try to do something. (negative)After careful examination of the constitutional and other issues involved, the mayor, responding to the people‘s wishes, has announced that he will take immediate action.2.1.2 Subjective & Objective:must/have to, etc.2.1.3 Physical & Mental: reasonable/rational; conscious/Conscientious, rational/reasonable, etc. 2.1.4 Active & Passive: would rather/had better, etc.2.1.5 Formal & Informal: inquiries/questions; affluent/rich; expatriation/ exile; amour/love.Formal anf informal are scalar. There are:Informal words and less informal words: blood toil, sweat and tears (Churchil);Bite the bullet (Nickson); kinder gentler America, read my lips (Bush) Formal words: laon words are usually formal, such as word from French, Latin, etc.V ery formal words/Solemn words/Rigid words: Academic and religious words for example.2.1.6 Derogatory & Commendatory: rather/fairly; cold/cool; warm/hot; jealousy/envy;easy/difficult2.1.7 Concrete & Abstract: desk, blackboard, pen; beauty, inflation, management, culture, liberal 2.1.8 General & Specific: building, weather, birds; skyscraper, hut, V ictorian courthouse2.1.9 Literal & figurative: eat three servings of turkey; eat like a horseLiteral statement & Ironic statement:A fine friend you turned out to be, borrowing my car and going on a date with my friend Joe! (Afine friend=a bad guy)Over statement & understatement:A ( a reporter): Do you enjoy playing golf?B (who has just won the French Open): A little bit.A ( a reporter): How bad was the tornado?B (a survivor): Well, that was quite a breeze.A (a visitor, upon coming in): Wow! Y our new house is like a big mansion.B (the host): We‘re happy with our little home.The farm has a good many acres that are virtually swamp.The student was sunk in a swamp of discouragement.V arious thorny problems that we try to sweep under the rug continue to bob up all the same.V arious thorny problems that we try to weed out continue to thrive all the same.2.2 V ariety of words:2.2.1 dialect:The house where I spent my childhood was down the road a piece from a church. (dialect) The house where I spent my childhood was a short distance from a church. (standard)2.2.2 slang:The meeting of the Finance Committee to discuss the proposed fund improvement plan was really zingy. (successful) Many students start out pretty together but then get weird.Many students start out with clear goals but then lose their direction.2.2.3 colloquial language:According to a Native American myth, the Great Creator had a dog hanging around with him when he created the earth. According to a Native American myth, the Great Creator was accompanied by a dog when he created the earth.2.2.4 obsolete or archaic; neologism:obsolete words: enwheel=encircle, cote=passarchaic words: doth=does, hath=has, quoth=said, thou=you, nought=worthless;fast=near, belike=perhapsneologism: botel, motel, bullet train, informercial, telemarketing, surrogate mother;cyber-space, email, internet, spellcheck, website, word-processor2.2.5 Technical words:motif, subtext, hypertext; CPU, modem, floppy disk drive, video ram, gigabyte, download, mouse, desktop, windows, etc. The patient has a severe contusion.That‘s a contusion you‘ve got there.That‘s a nasty bruise you have got there.If negotiators get hyper during contract discussion, they mess up chances for a settlement.If negotiators become excited or upset during contract discussion, they may harm chances for a settlement.2.2.6 Euphemism and fancy writing:In order to substantiate our desire to accommodate our guests we would appreciate your cooperation to anticipate your credit requirements before departure.If you wish to cash a check, please let us know before leaving.Many institutions of higher education recognize the need for youth at the threshold of maturity to confront the choices of life‘s endeavor and thus require students to select a field of concentration.Many colleges and universities force students to make decisions about their careers by requiring them to select a major.2.2.7 Sexist language:My gal will take care of that immediately.President Reagan came to Nancy‘s defense.President Reagan came to Mrs. Reagan‘s defense.Ladies are entering almost every occupation.Women are entering almost every occupation.The considerate doctor commends a nurse when she provides his patients with goodcare.The considerate doctor commends a nurse who provides good care for patients.The grocery shopper should save her coupons.Grocery shoppers should save their coupons.2.2.8 Trite expression and cliché:proud as a peacock, apple of one‘s eye, in the same boat, quick as lightning, etc.2.2.9 Clarity expression:Productivity actually depends on certain factors that basically involve psychology more than any particular technology. Productivity depends on psychology more than on technology.The type of large expenditures on advertising that manufactures must make is a very important aspect of the cost of detergents.Manufactures‘ large advertising expenditures increase the cost of detergents.At the point in time, the software is expensive due to the fact that it has no competition.The software is expensive now because it has no competition.Many unskilled workers without training in a particular job are unemployed and do not have any work.Many unskilled workers are unemployed.During that period of time, the membrane areas became pink in color and shiny in appearance.During that period, the membrane became pink anf shiny.The holes must e aligned in an accurate manner.The holes must be aligned accurately.The country is responsible for the educational system and public recreational activities.The country is responsible for education and public recreation.The tunnel, which was drilled for twenty-three miles, runs through a bed of solid chalk under the English Channel.The twenty-three-mile tunnel runs through solid chalk under the English Channel.Huge rotary blades were used by the drillers.The drillers used huge rotary blades.There are more than half a million shareholders who have invested in the tunnel. It is they and the banks that expect to profit. More than half a million shareholders have invested in the tunnel. They and the banks expect to profit.3.Syntactic Level3.1. The Processibility PrincipleThis principle recommends that the text should be presented in a manner which makes it easy for the hearer to decode in time. A text (in contrast to a message) is essentially linear and time-bound: thus in decoding we are often presented with choices as to (a) how to segment the message into units; (b) how to assign degrees of prominence or subordination to different parts of the message; and (c) how to order the parts of the message.3.1.1 The End-focus MaximThe End-focus Maxim applies to tone-units and therefore its operation is dependent on logically prior choices regarding the segmentation of the utterance into tone-units; the segmentation decision implies a decision about focus (which part of the tone-units will be signaled as prominent by means of the nuclear tone); and the End-focus Maxim implies that this decision, in turn, entails a decision about order.3.1.2 The End-weight MaximThe End-weight Maxim (broadly) induces a syntactic structure in which ?light‘ constituents precede ?heavy‘ones. Hence the characteristic English sentence has a predominance of right-branching over left-branching, and many movement transformations (e.g. the rule of extraposition) serve the Maxim of End-weight by helping to ensure that complex constituents are placed at the end of a clause or sentence. E.g.That Simon will resign is on the cards.---> It is on the cards that Simon will resign.3.1.3 The End-scope MaximThe End-scope Maxim states that logical operation such as a negative operator or a quantifier precedes, rather than follows, the elements (including other logical operators) which are within their scope. This maxim would explain the preferred readings of (1) and (2):(1) Everyone in the room knows at least two languages.(2) At least two languages are known by everyone in the room.Preferred reading of (1):(Ax(person x & in room) ---> (Ey>(language y & know x, y)))Preferred reading of (2):(Ey> (language y & (Ax((person x & in room x ) ---> (know x,y)))Other examples:There are not three books on the desk.The child will not come back home. → The child won‘t come back home.I can not go there on foot. → I can‘t go there on foot.3.1.4 Application of the Maxims(A) Sentences in English follow the End-weight maxim in their structures.(1)S—V—(A)He laughs best who laughs last.He was sitting on the chair.SNP VPN AUX VPHe was sitting on the chair(2)S—V—O—(A)I want a book.He put his book on the desk.He chose to live on the island for the rest of his life.We should avoid repeating the errors.He proposed that the meeting (should) be postponed.SNP VPN VP NPHe put his book on the desk.(3) S—V—Oi—OdI gave him a book.→ I gave a book to him.He bought his wife some flowers.→ He bought some flowers for his wife.The teacher asked him a question.→ The teacher asked a question of him.SNP VPN VP NPN VP NP NPHe bought his wife some flowers(4) S—V—O—CThe boss told her to type the letter as soon as possible. The boss made her type the letter as soon as possible. I‘ll have him speaking English within three months.We made it clear that the work should be finished in time. SNP VPN VP NPN VP S1 S2We made it clear that …(5) S—V—C(P)He is honest.The snow is becoming heavier and heavier.He is taller than Jim.SNP VPN VP COMPHe is taller than Jim(B) Clauses follow the End-weight maxim. Noun clauses such as:(1) the subject clauses:It is obvious that the burglar has entered the room.It‘s a pity that he should resign.That he won the game made a tremendous stir in our country.It is uncertain whether his family was originally British or American.It is not my business how he chooses to live.How he treated his parents tells us something about his personality.(2) the object clauses:She confessed that she disliked him from the first.We found it heartening that millions of people have the chance to improve their life.(3) the appositive clauses:The fact that smoking has something to do with cancer is known to all.It/The fact is known to all that smoking has something to do with cancer.(4) the predivative clauses:One advantage of solar energy is that it will never run out.The problem is who will water my plants while I am away.The reason why he didn‘t come to class is that/because he caught a cold last night.(5) clauses as adjective complements:I‘m afraid that he can’t afford to buy that apartment.He was not certain what should be done first.Relative clauses such as:(1)Restrictive relative clauses:I can clearly remember the da y on which John was born.No body knows the reason why she refused.There is no tree but bears (=that does not bear) some fruit.There few books but have a misprint or two.We often advise him not to drink more wine than is good for his health.There were more casualties than were reported.The swimming pool in the hotel is as luxurious as is necessary.(2)Non-restrictive relative clauses:He has two daughters, who are college students.He has two daughters who are college students.As is known to all, smoking has something to do with cancer.She is afraid of dogs, which I find strange.He likes taking a walk after supper, which is good to his health.John was admitted into the university, as we had expected.We did not go to the film, instead of which we went to the opera.Such books as are published by that press are nothing but rubbish.The driver was the man from whose room she had stolen the maps.They may be unwilling to lend us the computer, in which case we shall try elsewhere.Adverbial Clauses such as:(1)Adverbial Clauses of Time:when, after, as, as long as, as soon as, before, by the time (that), directly, immediately, during the time, the moment, now (that), once, since, until/till, whenever, while, etc. E.g.Y ou didn‘t look very well when you got up this morning.I pulled a muscle as I was lifting a heavy suitcase.Y ou can keep these records as long as you like.Once you’ve seen one penguin,you‘ve seen them all.He hasn‘t stopped complaining since he got back from his holiday.We always have to wait till/until the last customer has left.Now that we have decorated the house, we can move in.(2)Adverbial Clauses of Place:where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere, etc. E.g.Y ou can‘t camp where/wherever/anywhere you like these days.With a special train ticket you can travel wherever/anywhere/Everywhere you like inEurope for just over ￡100.(3)Adverbial Clauses of Manner:as, in the way (that), the way in which, in the same way as, as if, as though, etc. E.g.Type this again as I showed you a moment ago. (i.e. in the way I showed you)This fish isn‘t cooked as I like it. (i.e. in the way I like it.)This steak is cooked just how/the way I like it. (spoken)She‘s behaving (in) the same way her sister used to.She acted as if she were mad.It feels as if it’s going to rain.(4)Adverbial Clauses of Reason:because, as, seeing that since, etc. E.g.As/Because/Since there was very little support, the strike was not successful.(5)Adverbial Clauses of Condition:if, on condition (that), provided (that), providing (that), supposing (that), assuming (that), so/as long as, unless, etc. E.g.If he calls/should call,tell him I‘ll ring back.If you will/would/could wait a moment,I‘ll f etch the money.(6)Adverbial Clauses of Concession:though, although, even though, even if, considering (that), much as, while, whereas, however, no matter how, no matter how much, etc. E.g.Although/Though/Even though I felt sorry for him, I was secretly pleased that he washaving difficulties.While I disapprove of what you say, I would defend to the death your right to say so.Much as like to help,there isn‘t a lot I can do.(7)Adverbial Clauses of Purpose:so that, in order that, in case, lest, for fear (that), etc. E.g.I arrived early so that/in order that I might not miss anything.We‘ve installed an extinguisher next to the cooker in case there is/should be/might be evera fire.I avoided mentioning the subject lest/for fear that he be offended.(8)Adverbial Clauses of Result: so … that, such … that. E.g.He reacts so quickly (that) no one can match him.He is such a marvelous joker (that) you can’t help laughing.(9)Adverbial Clauses of Comparison: as … as, not so … as, than. E.g.He is not so/as quick in answering as his sister is.(10)Adverbial Clauses of Contrast: while, whereas. E.g.I like sports while/whereas she likes music.The Chinese eat their food with chopsticks while/whereas the Europeans eat their foodwith forks and knives.3.1.5 Sentence Structures in Rhetoric(A)Periodic vs. loose:A periodic sentence is one in which the main thought is not completed until the very end of the sentence. Often this type of sentence is more effective than one in which the main thought is given first, followed by one or more modifying clauses or phrases. This is so because, by withholding the key word or words of the sentence until the end, a sense of anticipating is created in te reader. Therefore a periodic sentence is likely to be more emphatic than a sentence with a looser construction. Notice the difference between the loose and periodic construction inthe following examples. In each periodic sentence, the main idea falls at the end.Loose construction The history of English words is the history of our civilization inmany ways.Periodic sentence In many ways, the history of English words is the history of ourcivilization.Loose construction She was offered a professional contract after winning the Olypicgold medal for figure skating, according to newspaper reports.Periodic sentence According to newspaper reports, after winning the Olympic goldmedal for figure skating, she was offered a professional contract.Loose construction There have been many great discoveries made by scientists in thetwentieth century.Periodic sentence Scientists in the twentieth century have made many greatdiscoveries.(B)The comma splice:We couldn‘t decide upon a new car, there were many attractive models.In the above sentence, two independent clauses are connected by a comma. This results in the punctuation error known as the comma splice. Y ou can test for a comma splice by substituting a period for the comma:We couldn‘t decide upon a new car. There were many attractive models.If the two clauses stand alone as separate sentences, then a comma alone cannot correctly join them. If you used a comma to combine two independent clauses into a single compound sentence, the comma must be followed by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, or, nor): We couldn‘t decide upon a new car, for there were so many attractive models.A comma splice may be corrected in four ways: (1) Add a coordination conjunction following the comma, (2) Add a subordinating adverb, making the second clause dependent on the first, (3) Add a semicolon, or (4) Add a period, separating the clauses into two sentences.I learned to like poetry when I read Kipling, his strong rhythms appealed to me. (comma splice)Coordinating I learned to like poetry when I read Kipling, for his strong rhythmsconjunction appealed to me.Subordinating I learned to like poetry when I read Kipling because his strong rhythms conjunction appealed to me. Semicolon I learned to like poetry when I read Kipling; his strong rhythmsappealed to me.Period I learned to like poetry when I read Kipling. His strong rhythmsappealed to me.(C)Run-on sentence:The term ―run-on sentence‖ (or ―fused sentence‖) describes two independent clauses run together without any punctuation between them. Such a sentence is even more confusing to a reader than the related error, the comma splice. Because the run-on contains no clues as to how words group together, it can easily be misread. Run-on sentences can be corrected by joining the two clauses with a comma and a conjunction, by inserting a semicolon between the two clauses if they are closely related, or by breaking the sentence into two sentences:Run-on The fruit pickers walked out of the orchards a meeting had beencalled to discuss a possible strike.Comma, conjunction The fruit pickers walked out of the orchards, for a meeting had been inserted called to discuss a possible strike.Run-on Philip wrote steadily for an hour the results were goodSemicolon inserted Philip wrote steadily for an hour; the results were good.Run-on Our first stop in the Far East was Hong Kong there we spent twodays shopping.Two sentences Our first stop in the Far East was Hong Kong. There we spent twodays shopping.(D)ExpletivesAn expletive is a ―filler‖ word (it, there) placed at the beginning of a sentence to allow the subject to appear later in the sentence; it often combines with some form of the be verb. Although an expletive can often work better than any other construction to express an idea, it tends to be overused by English writers. When relied upon unnecessarily, it contributes to wordiness.Normally, expletives are most effectively used in short sentences. Here is an example of an expletive that works well:Why should the government have fallen?There were several reasons.In contrast, here is an example of an unnecessary expletive. Notice that, when it is removed, the sentence contains two fewer words:With expletive There were several advantages to buying a Eurailpass.Expletive removed Buying a Eurailpass offers several advantages.Consider two even more extreme examples of reducing the number of words in a sentence by eliminating expletives: Wordy There are numerous travel agencies that exist throughout the world. (10 words) Shortened Numerous travel agencies exist throughout the world. (7 words)Wordy There are going to be certain parts of your garden that are your favorites for summer time relaxing and entertaining. (18 words)Shortened Certain parts of your garden will be your favorites for summertime relaxing and entertaining. (14 words)4.Textual LevelStructure of an English composition (see diagram 1)4.2 Structure of an English Paragraph4.2.1 The topic sentenceAn English paragraph concentrates on a single or central idea, and all the facts, examples, and reasons used to develop thatidea must be relevant. This central idea is known as a topic sentence.An English paragraph is very different from an Oriental paragraph in that the former usually follows a direct line of development, and the latter, a circular line: (see the attached diagram) English ( ) Oriental ( )4.2.2 Coherence & UnityThe typical straight line of development of an English paragraph is the basis of its particular type of coherence . An English paragraph is coherent when its ideas are clearly related to eachother in orderly sequence. Each sentence in such a paragraph should naturally grow out of each (Diagram 1. The structure of an English composition)previous sentence in developing the central idea.One way to achieve coherence is to arrange details of a paragraph in a systematic way that is appropriate for the subject matter. For example, many writers of English place their supporting details in order of importance, often starting with the leastimportant detail and ending with the most important one. Paragraphs are also developed chronologically(mentioning events in the order they occur in time), spatially (moving from discussing one location to discussing another in some orderly sequence), from the general to the specific, or from the specific to the general.4.2.3 Transitions & SubordinationsIn order to link the relevant and specific ideas together, a writer has to use transitional words. English transitional words are many. Let us take the following for examples:1)for sequential descriptions:first(ly), second(ly), next, finally; one, two; for one thing, and for another; to begin with, then, etc.2)for addition and further descriptions:also, above all, besides, moreover, then, in addition, what ismore, furthermore, etc.3)for apposition and parallel descriptions:namely, for example, that is, that is to say, etc.4)for result:consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus, as a result, etc.5)for similar descriptions:equally, likewise, similarly, in the same way, etc.6)for conclusive descriptions:or (else), otherwise, therefore, then, in that case, etc.7)for alternative descriptions:alternatively, rather, in other words, etc.8)for contrastive descriptions:instead, on the contrary, in contrast, by comparison, on the onehand, (and) on the other hand, etc.9)for contrastive or concessive descriptions:anyhow, anyway, however, nevertheless, still, though, yet, in any case, at any rate, in spite of that, after all, all the same, etc.10)for time descriptions:meanwhile, at the same time, in the meantime, etc.11)for other descriptions:by the way, incidentally, etc.12)for summary:then, all in all, in conclusion, to sum up, in a word, etc.Subordination is the technique of putting together ideas that are unequal in weight so that the relative importance of each will be quickly apparent to the reader. Through subordination, you can focus on the central, or controlling, idea of your sentence by placing it in the independent clause and placing the less important idea in a dependent clause or phrase. There are many ways of forming a subordination in English, subordinators being the most important. (参见：英语句⼦)4.3 The Composition Outline4.3.1 What a developed outline is4.3.2 Why it is fundamental to writing4.3.3 How an outline is thought out4.3.4 The delevopment of a paragraph/composition4.3.4.1 The chronological developmentThe logical way to write about a process is in order of time, or chronologically. A writer begins with the first step in a process and describes the sequence in order until he reaches the last step. This kind of organization can be used in a single paragraph or in a much longer essay. Both factual writing and works of fiction, such as short stories and novels, are often developed chronologically.4.3.4.2 The spatial developmentIf a writer follows a spatial development, details are arranged according to their location and their relationship to each other. Spatial development is especially suited to subject matter dealing with places or areas. Such a development would work well if you were describing a limited interior, such as a classroom or the inside of a submarine; a description might be developed spatially by following the order in which an observer‘s eye would travel around the room—from left to right, or from right to left. Spatial development would also be effective if you were writing about a very broad area, such as the continent of Latin America or the solar system.4.3.4.3 The expository development by examples—by comparison and contrast—by cause and effect—by definition—by logical division5. Writing-Up/Practice5.1.1 Write a paragraph on any topic you are interested in. Pay attention to the topic sentence andsupporting ideas.1)Internet is becoming a dominant element in modern lifeThere is a good side and a bad side to everything --- and that includes the Internet.As the latest product of the “technological revolution”, the Internet has ushered in a new era of global information. Along with its advangtages (conveniences), the Internet, however, has brought mankind new problems (to solve).There is no denying that the Internet can vastly improve the efficiency of scientific research; it allows scientists swift access to all the data and research findings in their fields available worldwide. Moreover, as information is as valuable as any material resources, anyone who has access to the Internet has a competitive advantage in business over those who don‘t. Last but not the least, the Internet has made personal communication both more convenient and more rapid.However, over the advantages of the Internet, its drawbacks should not be neglected. For one thing, the construction of links to the system requires a huge amount of investment. For another, not all the information available on the Internet is either useful or harmless; pornographic items can have bad effect on people, especially on our youngsters.All in all, I would say that the pros outweigh the cons. The Internet, if properly managed, holds the keys to success in the 21st century.2)AdvertisementAdvertisement plays an important role in people‘s life in today‘s society. As a means to promote trade and business, advertisement is helpful and can provide some conveniences for people.Advertisements can help people to sell and buy proper products. Advertisements today appear on televisions, in newspapers or magazines, and even in the large boards on the tall buildings along the streets. Therefore, it is quite convenient for people to get information for the products they want to buy. For the producer‘s part, advertisements can help people know their products better so that people can come and buy their products. In this case, advertisements can promote the selling of products.。
《现代汉语修辞学》课件
02
多种媒介、传播广泛
总结词
03
广告体可以通过多种媒介传播，如电视、广播、报纸、互联网等，传播范围广泛，影响力大。
详细描述
客观公正、事实准确
总结词
新闻体以客观公正的态度报道事实，强调信息的真实性和准确性，不偏不倚地反映事件原貌。
详细描述
总结词
内容严谨、语言规范
总结词
信息量大、时效性强
详细描述
1
2
3
修辞学研究正与其他学科领域如语言学、心理学、社会学等进行交叉融合，以更全面地揭示修辞现象的本质。
跨学科研究
实证研究方法在修辞学研究中越来越受到重视，通过数据和实验来验证理论假设，提高研究的客观性和科学性。
实证研究
对语境的深入研究是当前修辞学研究的热点之一，探讨语境因素如何影响修辞效果，有助于更好地理解修辞的运用。
总结词
语境特定、语言变异
详细描述
口语体常常在特定的语境中使用，如家庭、学校、工作场所等，语言变异较大，有时会出现俚语、俗语等。
总结词
格式固定、表达规范
详细描述
书信体有固定的格式和规范，如称呼、正文、结尾等，语言表达比较规范，用词考究。
总结词
情感真挚、语言亲切
总结词
语言得体、文采斐然
详细描述
修辞学与文学、文化学、心理学等学科也有一定的联系，因为这些学科也涉及到语言的运用和理解。
02
CHAPTER
现代汉语修辞手法
将事物赋予人的特征，使其形象更加生动、鲜明。
总结词
拟人通过将事物人格化，赋予其人类的情感、动作或语言，使描述更具情感色彩和表现力，增强语言的感染力。
详细描述
总结词
用某一事物的特征来代替该事物的本身。
语用学 第二章讲义
语用学第二章讲义衡水学院外国语学院教案课程名称语用学课程类型授课专业汉语国际教育授课班级 10级汉语国际教育专业授课教师郑静静2021－2021 学年度第 1 学期章节课时学生第二章指示语 2 2021级汉语国际教育专业 1、例证话语同其语境的关联、指示词语的理解、指示词语的心理距离；教学内容 2、复习人称指示和时间指示； 3、学习地点指示语、话语指示语、社交指示语、数字指示和前指现象。
1、使学生从语用角度了解指示词语的功能，脱离结构主义对指教学要求示词语的狭义理解，把话语和周围的世界联系起来。
2、要求学生掌握指示词语的功能，能够把话语与其语境关联起来。
教学重点教学难点指示词语的文内照应和文外照应指示词语的文内照应和文外照应 1、引导学生自主学习与思考，不能简单灌输；教学策略与方法 2、精讲多练，精讲重难点，多多例证；3、教学内容环环相扣，尤其注重复习，争取课上帮助学生完成记忆任务；4、教学活动多样化，防止课堂枯燥。
作业参考书目复习所有有关指示语的内容。
1. 冉永平.《语用学：现象与分析》.北京大学出版社.2021 2. 冉永平，冉永平.《新编语用学概论》.北京大学出版社.2021一、复习：语言哲学家巴尔-希列尔指出，指示及指示性是自然语言固有的、不可避免的特性；人们所讲的90%以上的陈述句都包括说话人、听话人、时间、地点等指示信息，只有获取了类似词语的知识内容后，才能完整的理解话语的意义。
指示语：依赖于语境；语言形式。
莱文森把知识与划分为五类：人称指示语、时间指示语、地点指示语、话语指示语、社交指示语。
讲到了人称指示语和时间指示语，人称指示语指示的是言语交际或言语事件中的参与者，包括说话人、听话人或第三者，可分为第一人称指示语、第二人称指示语和第三人称指示语。
1、我饿了。
小孩子看到零食；男生陪女朋友逛街；加班。
2、记者：这个工作很辛苦，咱们实话实说，有没有厌烦的时候？在语用上，“咱们实话实说”具有一定的言语行为驱使性，此时借助第一人称复指代词“咱们”而不是“你”，既包括了说话人自己，也包括了听话人，这样分减了该话语对对方可能产生的驱使性，使人听起来觉得更亲切，具有语用移情的功能。
语用学讲义(1)
语用学胡勇参考文献何兆熊1999《新编语用学概要》上海外语教育何自然1988《语用学概论》湖南教育出版社索振羽2000《语用学教程》北京大学出版社Levinson 2001(1983)《语用学》外研社今天是星期天。
语音学分析其中每个字的发音以及整个句子的语调句法学指出这是一个SVO语序的主谓陈述句，由2个名词和1个动词构成语义学关心这句话的意思：说话人说这句话的当天是一个星期七天中的第一天语用学将结合具体语境分析，考虑说话的时间、地点、交际双方的身份、正在从事的活动等A 妻子对伏案工作不知休息的丈夫说B 妻子对只在星期天才帮忙做点家务的丈夫说C 住在北京郊区平日难得进城逛街游玩的孩子对父亲说D ……语用学研究在具体语境中如何理解和运用语言第一章绪论1.1 语用学的起源和发展广义：对人类有目的的行为所作的研究Pragmatics狭义：对有目的的语言活动的研究美国哲学家Morris（1901-1979）1937年自造英语词“pragmatics”，并用在他的《符号理论基础》（1938）一书中。
英国牛津哲学家Austin（1911-1960）1955年正式提出第一个语用学理论，并在哈佛作学术讲座。
美国哲学家Grice（1913-1988）1967年在哈佛作学术讲座。
1977年荷兰正式出版《语用学杂志》。
1983年Levinson 出版了《语用学》教材。
1986年，国际语用学会（IPrA）在比利时成立。
现代语言学的发展脉络语音（语音学、音系学）phonetics, phonology词汇（形态学）morphology语法（句法学）syntax语义（语义学）semantics语用（语用学）pragmaticsThree subfields of semioticsSyntax, the study of the interrelation of the signs;semantics, the study of the relation between the signs and the objects to which theyapply;pragmatics, the relationship between the sign system and the user.Saussure：“语言”和“言语”语言言语社会的，主要的个人的，从属的确定的，必然的变化的，偶然的语言是言语活动中的社会部分，它不受个人意志的支配，是社会成员共有的，是一种社会心理现象。
语法与修辞 Microsoft Word 文档
第一章语法和语法学第一节什么是语法和语法学一、什么是语法语法是语言的组织规则。
要使语言起到传递信息、交流思想的作用，必须把具体的、备用的语言单位逐层组织组织起来，成为一个表达一定思想的句子。
有时候，一个句子还不能清楚地表达思想，还要组成一组句子。
这种把语言单位下级服组织起来使之成为表达思想的工具的规则，就是语法。
语法规则主要是指词的变化规则和用词造句的规则。
汉语缺少词的形态变化，汉语的语法，主要是讲用词造句的规则。
现代汉语语法，是现代汉语用词造句的规则。
如“劳动创造世界”这个句子。
词和词的组合必须按照这种顺序排列，才能把意思正确地表达出来，如果说成“劳动世界创造”，或“创造世界劳动”都不成话。
又如在“我和父亲去过北京”这两个句子里，由于“我”与“父亲”这两个词之间使用了“和”、“的”这两个不同的虚词，因而形成了不同的结构关系，表达了不同的意思。
从以上例子中看出现代汉语的用词语造句必须遵循一定的规则。
语法一般分为词法与句法两个部分。
词法主要讲语素和词，句法主要讲词组、单句、复句和句组。
二、语法的约定性和稳定性语言里运用哪些语法手段来组织各语言单位以表达思想，是人们在使用语言的过程中长期以来约定俗成的。
人人都这么说，这么写，逐渐形成了规则，大家都理解，都接受，都遵守，这样，语言才成为使用者共同的交际工具。
这些规则，既约定俗成之后，就不能随意违反，否则，无法交流思想，例如现代汉语中说“我吃饭”不说“我饭吃”，说“我看书”不说“我书看”。
这种“主——述——宾”的格式是长期以约定成俗的，使用现代汉语的人都得共同遵守，如果违背这个词序组织的句子。
就会出现语法错误，使思想的交流出现障碍。
语言是随着时代的变化而发展的，在语言的发展过短中，语音、词汇的发展变化很快，语法发展变化比较缓慢。
语法规则约定俗成之后有相对的稳定性，只有这样，人们在组织句子时才不致于无所遵循，才能更好地发挥语言的交际职能。
如汉语语法中很重要的语法手段之一的词序，古汉词与现代汉语的一般句子结构基本相同，即主语在前，谓语在后；动词谓语在前，宾语在后；定语、状语在中心语之前，补语在中心语之后。
语用学知识点整理
第一章语用学的性质及研究问题一、什么是语用学●解释人们如何使用语言的研究莫里斯关于符号研究有三大领域：符号与符号之间关系的研究（语法学）、符号和世界的关系（语义学）、符号和解释者的关系（语用学）●语用学和语义学、语法学、修辞学的差别语义：语言符号所具有的价值，指称事件，如杯子可以指称无数个杯子，今天是说话人的所在时刻语用：交际当中的具体意义，现实性或可能性语法：使用语言的规则修辞：修辞学就是语用学中的一个部分，不存在基准线，所有表达都是为了准确二、语用学所研究的问题都与交际有关，主要分为以下几个问题：●关于交际意图如何实现的问题（最重要、最根本的问题）●关于言语交际的问题（言语交际、交际意图实现的行为）●关于交际意义建立的问题（意义存在于交际之中）●关于研究指称的问题（比如：妈妈）●关于话语分析的问题（片段/听说明天有台风，听说是话语标记）第二章言语交际（实现交际意图的活动）一、含义：语言是人类交际的重要工具，言语交际是最基本的实现交际意图的一种活动，言语交际是言语存在的具体状况，简而言之，言语交际就是用言语实现交际的活动。
二、特征●言语交际是一种社会行为，社会性体验，人的存在方式●言语交际是一种互动行为，情感认知，交际存在于主体双方的互动行为●言语交际是一种认知加工行为，认知活动，心理行为，交际在认知双方上的不断接近●言语交际是一种信息的分享行为三、要素言语交际的要素包括：主体要素、交际意图、交际环境、交际形式1、交际主体●含义：交际主体是言语交际行为的参与者和启动者，决定了交际意图和交际形式的选择，是实施言语交际行为的人，包括说话的人和听话的人●主体角色：①话语角色，说话人、听话人，二者之外的人，人称代词区分话语角色的词②社会角色：社会关系（血缘、姻缘）亲缘-地缘-业缘；情感关系（亲疏远近）●主体分布（主体构成）：话语角色的分布状况（一对一、一对多、多对一）2、交际意图●含义：有意识满足需求或需要的愿望，马新诺认为需求的进程是生物需求-安全需求-归属需求●意向：①含义：请求、承诺都是一种意向②类型（从意向角度概括）请求[p]:要求对方做某事或不做某事，求助、禁止、劝诫、命令、要求，告知[p]：告诉对方某个事项，延迟反应=空间位移，因为谎言性才有了告知性表达[p]:向对方表达大自己的情感或态度，致歉、寒暄承诺[p]:与对方约定某种事项宣告[p]:向对方宣布某种事项进入了一个新的状态3、交际环境●含义：言语交际存在的时间、空间状况，语境是被交际主体认知到的时空状况，语境是主观的、变化的、选择的，交际主体是不断被建构出来的●语境的种类（根据时空的物理属性划分）：①时间：时点、时段、时长②空间●语境的问题：主体在时间与空间中的分布状况——①时间-同时/异时（写信）②空间-同地/异地●语境的组合：①同时同地：课堂、面对面交谈②同时异地：打电话③异时同地：留言、BBS论坛④异时异地：写信、看书●语境的文化素养：①文化语境（社会文化含义）②非文化语境（自然语境）●语境的范围：①背景语境（范围最大）：社会②情境语境：办公室、教室③上下文语境：说话的前言后语●语境的作用：①提供了最真实的需要，由于需要产生了交际意图②决定了交际形式的选择③参与了交际意图的实现、交际意义的建立4、交际形式●含义：实现交际意图所采取的手段，包括了语言形式和非语言形式●语言形式：汉语普通话音节界限清楚—节奏感强汉语有声调、音节的高低升降—抑扬顿挫汉语是元音占优势的语言—音乐美、乐美●非语言形式：①表情（最重要的）②身体的姿态和动作③服饰（服装、发型、配饰）④空间距离：亲密区、个人区、社交区、公众距离5、交际活动的过程交际主体在特定环境中，在各要素相互制约、相互形成的情况下，围绕着交际意图的实现，对交际形式作出的选择的过程第三章交际意图的实现问题一、实质：对语言符号的选择过程二、条件●说话者：选择形式，形成话语●听话者：从话语中解读含义●被人们忽略的条件①需求条件：说话者对自身需求和他人需求的认识构成了交际意图的实现条件之一②能力条件：只有具备某种能力才能满足某种需求，能力是实现交际意图的手段③意愿条件：满足某种需求的愿望，确认意愿本身也可实现交际意图三、过程●含义：即言语交际、语言符号生成的过程，形成一条编码、发出、传递、接收、解码的言语链●分为以下阶段：1、编码：选择合适的语言形式，指称交际意图的整体（如：坐、坐下、请坐）2、认知假设①含义：为了实现交际意图，对认知的诸多因素的推测和假设②包括以下方面：a.关于交际主体的假设（主体角色、角色关系、情感关系）b.对语境合适性的推断c.对实现条件的推断3、策略选择①含义：建立在认知假设基础上，选择实现交际意图的方式和策略②有以下模式：a.主体关系模式：在保证实现交际意图的前提下,注重主体关系的和谐b.语境适合模式：选择的语境要符合状况,致谢分正式和非正式场合c.需求条件模式：在其它条件不变下，凸显需求d.能力条件模式e.意愿条件模式4、语言形式的选择①含义：选择合适的语言形式，将交际意图符号化，如：舞蹈的形体化、音乐的旋律化、画的线条化和色彩化5、话语的生成过程①含义：话语是实际被说出来的，并被听话者接受，感知并理解的语言符号系列②话语的特征a.话语是线性的系列，按时间结构b.话语是承载着交际意图，所以话语也表达了交际意义，如神经病c.话语是临时建构出来的、具有临时性的，成语被长久记性后，不再是具体的，而是抽象③话语的结构可分为a.主体片段：一个话语中表现交际行为的主体要素b.意向片段C.事项片段：一个事物在交际意图中的具体事项及与其事项有关的其它要素，如过去一年对我的帮助d.话语标记：如你听，表示提示第四章指称问题一、含义把抽象的语言符号和具体的对象连接的一个途径，指称，又可以叫指示，概括地说，一个话语中的某个词语跟交际环境当中具体对象的关系，这种关系叫指称二、指称的范围●含义：事实上，包含着全部我们想表现的事件的所有的东西或所认识的事件●具体说，包含下列：1、对象指称：我们认识的一种个体（人、事物）抽象的概念具体化2、时间指称：把时间范畴具体化，更多时候，对象称为时间，时间作为存在，行为被指称3、空间指称：空间范畴具体化，如根据经纬度划分东南西北，包括方向4、事件指称：无论是人的存在行为还是非人，用语言指称事件整体5、关系指称：个体与个体，事件与事件之间的关系，用语言指称关系三、指称的形式●含义：用于指称的语言形式●有以下形式：1、词：用于指称的基本单位，指称的最基本单位2、词形变化：英语、日语3、韵律形式：停顿、声调4、用词组合：词指称对象、事件四、指称的方式●含义：用语言指称对象的途径●有以下方式：1、预设：一个语句存在的条件，对连续事件的指称方式，说出来的是凸显，没说出来的背景，预设在背景之中2、焦点：凸显的部分为焦点，最容易激活事件概念整体的程度称为可及性最强第五章话语分析一、含义根据话语属性，对话语作出分析，叫话语分析即：概念-属性-特征-分析结果二、性质1、话语是承载交际意图的形式2、话语是一个按时间结构的线性分析，抽离了时间，话语即不存在3、话语是由语言符号构成的一个单位三、功能实现交际意图（请求、告知、承诺、表达、宣告），交际意图的实现是在特定的语境和情境中四、结构1、言语行为2、信息分布在主位推进模式中，已知信息是主位，新信息是述位3、意义结构a.概念关系b.事件c.逻辑关系4、形式关系（找出符号与符号之间的关系）a.重现：顶真是重现词语b.关联词语c.指别：前指、后指五、类型1、功能类型2、媒介类型：口语、书面语3、互动类型a.对话：①话语权：按照什么样的规则说话②轮换话语权：争夺、转让③相邻对-问答、请求-回答b.独白六、标记●含义：标明人们如何说话的成分●功能a.话语进程如：以上b.来源如：据...... 张三认为c.提示：信道状况、提醒对方注意d.语态●形式：词、语第六章语用学理论一、含义对语言使用现象，产生的不同的解释方法二、言语行为理论●产生背景奥赛汀提出，由其学生塞尔继承并发展，哲学关注的根本问题：世界是物质的还是精神的？哲学本体论研究，关于世界的本源，我们看待世界的方式就是我们认识世界的方式●主要内容（奥赛汀提出了核心内容）1、言语行为：说话就是实施了一个行为，因此奥赛汀认为交际的最基本单位不是句子是行为，如我宣布，是城市化语言2、言语行为三分说：认为说出一句话实施了三个行为a.命题行为，即言之所述b.施为行为 c.取效行为，即言后之果3、施为行为的种类：a.裁决行为b.承诺行为c.行使行为d.表态行为e.阐述行为4、实施某种行为的条件5、适切方向：语言和事件有一个适切方向，指令类行为让事件适应行为6、间接言语行为：通过实施一个言语行为，间接实施另一个言语行为，与之相对为直接言语行为，即如何从一个施为行为推导到另一个施为行为三、言语交际理论●含义把言语交际看做人的行为，提出了言语交际的单位是行为，言语行为的立场是语言使用的立场，打破了传统的形式使用的立场●其它1、言语交际理论是关于施为行为的研究，关于意图的研究，交际意图才是核心2、言语交际理论几次提到意义、命题、句子意义（扩大点为字面意义），意图可以是意义的核心，提供基点3、言语行为理论揭示人交际的规律四、会话含义理论●产生背景格莱斯提出，用于解释言语交际中的意义问题，关注人们如何使用语言，格莱斯围绕会话含义建立了一系列原则，称为合作原则；后来补充的原则称为礼貌原则●会话含义1、交际当中的意义分为自然意义和非自然意义，会话含义就是非自然意义当中最重要的一种，典型的非自然意义2、自然意义：如果交际当中不存在施事者，当然也不存在施事者的意图，话语的意义是被自然理解的，这种意义被称为自然意义，在交际当中不存在自然意义3、非自然意义：如果一句话具有非自然意义，当且仅当a.S说出v，在H那里引起某种效果Zb.能够从S中理解Z并实施说出的V●会话含义的特征1、可取消性2、不可分离性3、不确定性4、可推导性5、非常规性6、明示性●合作原则在格莱斯看来，参与交际的人要趋同一个共同目标或方向，这个就是合作原则。
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语用学与修辞学讲义第一章绪论第一节语用学与修辞学的概念一、什么是语用学Pragmatics这一术语由美国哲学家C.Morris在《符号学理论基础》(1938)一书中首次提出。
如果以1977年在荷兰创刊的《语用学杂志》为标志，则语用学作为一们独立的学科迄今不过30多年的历史。
1、定义：Charles W.Morris在其《符号理论基础》中提出：语用学研究“符号与符号解释者的关系”，研究“符号与有生命的方面，即研究符号作用下出现的所有心理、生理和社会现象”。
列文森（Levinson S.C.，1983：转引自何兆熊，1989：8-9）有关语用学的几个定义：（1）“语用学是对在一种语言的结构中被语法化后被编码的语言和语境之间的关系的研究”；（2）“语用学是对所有那些未能纳入语义理论的意义侧面研究”；（3）“语用学是对语言和语境之间对于说明语言理解来说是十分根本的那些关系的研究”；（4）“语用学是对语言使用者把句子和使这些句子得以合适的语境相匹配的能力的研究”；（5）“语用学是对指示（至少是其中的一部分）、含义、前提、言语行为以及话语结构各个侧面的研究。
”（6）“语用学多要研究的是语言使用者在特定的语境中运用合适的语句的能力。
”（英·列文森 S。
C。
Levinson,Pragmatics,Cambrige University Press。
1983 P。
24。
再来看看其他学者对语用学的定义（何兆熊，1989：10-11）：（1）“语用学是对语言行为以及实施这些行为的语境所作的研究（Stalnaker，1972）”；“语用学是一种旨在描述说话人如何使用一种语言的句子达致成功交际的理（2）论（Kempson，1975）”；（3）“语用学是对语言的使用和语言交际进行的研究（Akmajian，1979）”；（4）“语用学可以有效地定义为对话语如何在情景中取得意义的研究。
”（英·利奇G。
N。
Leech,Principles of Pragmatics,Longman,1983。
P。
X。
何自然：“语用学研究特定情景中的特定话语，研究不同的语言交际环境下如何理解和运用语言。
”（《语用学概论》第1页金定元：“语用学就是研究语境的科学。
”（《语用学——研究语境的科学》载《中国语文天地》1986年第1期。
）周礼全：“语用学是符号学的重要部分……它研究：在一个语境中，说话者如何应用话语准确地表达和传达自己的思想感情给听话者，从而达到自己的意图；它也研究：在一个语境中，听话者如何准确地了解说话者通过话语所表达和传达的思想感情及其背后的意图。
”（《中国语用学思想·序》）2、对象和内容就语用学研究对象而言，大致出现三大主要趋势：一是认为语用学研究说话者意义（speaker meaning），如G Leech（1983），强调发出信息的话语生成者。
二是主张语用学应研究话语解释（utterance interpretation）如D.Sperber&D.Blake more(1992),他们从认知角度出发，解释心理认知因素在话语理解中的作用，主要强调信息的接受者。
三是主张语用学应同时研究说话者与受话者，如S.Davis（1991）等认为语用学应研究人们如何运用和理解语言，以及在理解运用语言时心理存在的认知问题。
语用学归根结蒂是对语言意义的研究，它既是“理解语言使用语言的学问”，也是“研究语言合适得体”的学问。
大致包括以下方面的内容：（1）指称(deixis)；（2）会话含义(conversational implicatyre)；（3）预设(presupposition)；（4）言语行为(speech acts)；（5）会话分析(conversational analysis)以及微观上的合作原则(cooperative principle)、礼貌原则（polite principle），都与会话含义和言语行为理论密切关联。
研究方向呈现纷繁驳杂的景象，主要有语用语言学、认知语用学、社会语用学和发展语用学及跨文化语用学3、学科性质：是语言学的一个分支学科。
二、什么是修辞学1、修辞学的定义：黄伯荣：交流思想时，同一个意思可以用不同的形式来表达，各种形式有自己特有的表达效果。
在表达效果、语境确定的前提下，如何积极调动语言因素，配合非语言因素，以最恰当完美的语言加工形式去获得最佳的表达效果，这就是修辞。
“美辞说”：“修辞学就是美辞学，是研究如何使辞藻美丽的学问。
”（岛村龙太郎《新美辞学》）王希杰：修辞学是从表达效果出发来研究口语和书面语在交际活动中的言语常规、变形和正负偏离现象，建立已然的和可能的修辞规范及超规范、反规范的模式的一门语言科学。
2、对象与内容：修辞学的研究对象：一、交际的全过程二、一切的说写和听说者三、话语的表达效果四、包括无意识、潜意识五、研究潜修辞现象六、不可忽视非语言因素修辞学的内容：词语的锤炼、句式的选择、辞格3、学科性质：A、修辞学是边缘学科。
陈望道张志公宗廷虎B、修辞学是语言中的一个分支学科。
修辞学“属于语言文字形式上的一个部门”（祝秀侠《社会修辞学》）在我们看来，修辞学是语言中的一个分支学科，这一点是不能动摇的。
语言是修辞学研究的真正的唯一的对象，修辞学研究作为交际工具的在交际市场上被使用的作为商品在流通的语言，目的是要揭示人类的语言之迷，提高语言的功能，这正是语言科学所要解决的重要问题之一。
作为语言学的唯一对象的语言是什么？是作为人类的思维工具交际工具的音义相结合的符号系统！那么正是修辞学承担了研究语言的交际工具的重大任务。
当然可以同研究语言的音义结构的语义学、音位学、语法学平起平坐，并驾齐驱，一同构成了语言学的重要内容。
一方面没有修辞学，语言学便是残缺不全的不完整的，另一方面把修辞赶出语言学的大门，它也就无法找到自己的归属了。
第二节语用学、修辞学研究的历史回顾一、语用学研究的历史回顾1、国外的语用学研究哲学乃语言学的摇篮，语用学的基本观点即肇始于实用主义哲学的意义理论。
早在19世纪末20世纪初，实用主义的创始人皮尔士（C.Peirce）就研究了观念的意义问题。
他认为，语言的意义和性质是由语言使用者的主观需要和感觉经验决定的。
本世纪30年代，将实用主义和逻辑实证主义相结合的代表人物莫里斯(Charles W.Morris )发展了皮尔士的观点，他在其《符号理论基础》中提出了符号学的三分说，认为符号学包括“符号关系学”（即句法学）、“语义学”和“语用学”，其中语用学研究“符号与符号解释者之间的关系”，（1938）研究“符号与有生命的方面，即研究符号作用下出现的所有心理、生理和社会现象”或“研究符号的来源、用法及其在行为中出现时所产生的作用”。
（1946）继莫氏之后，语用学研究走出了纯理论的构想阶段。
50至70年代，英国哲学家奥斯汀（A. Austin)首先提出了言语行为理论，认为语言交际的基本单位不是句子而是言语行为，如“请求”、“命令”等。
后来，美国哲学家塞尔(J. Searle)发展和完善了奥氏的言语行为理论，提出了间接言语行为理论。
美国哲学家格赖斯(H. P.Grice )还提出了著名的“合作原则”和“会话含意”学说。
哲学家们的建树为语用学这一新兴学科的诞生奠定了理论基础。
语用学作为语言学学科分支之一而得到国际学术界承认有三大标志：一是1979年《语用学杂志》（Journal of Pragmatics) 在荷兰创刊；二是1983年第一部语用教科书(S.C.Levinson:Pragmatics)的面世；三是1986年国际语用学会成立。
国外语用学有两大流派：英美学派的微观语用学和欧洲大陆的宏观语用学。
英美学派主张语用学有自己的研究领域，即与语义学处于同等地位，但各自有明确的分工，是语言学的一个分相研究。
里奇认为语义学揭示的意义是二元关系，即“X的意思是Y”；而语用学揭示的是三元关系。
即“S通过说X来表示Z”。
因此语义学研究的是词语在语句中的意义，而语用学表达的是通过语句中词语的意义来表达说话人意图表达的意义。
欧陆学派主张，凡语言的使用和理解有关的都是语用学的研究对象，将语用学看成是语言功能的一种纵观。
2、我国语用学理论的引进我国语用学的研究时间不长，仅有20多年。
从1980年起《国外语言学》杂志就开始介绍国外的语用学。
最早向国内学者全面介绍语用学的是北京大学的胡壮麟教授，他在《国外语用学》（1980年第3期）以《语用学》为题，从语用学的研究对象和方法、各个语言学派对语用学的评论、语用学与其他学科的关系和语用学规则等四个方面介绍语用学。
20世纪80年代陆续有钱兆明（1981）、倪波（1982）、黄宏熙（1982）、程雨民（1983）、刘保山（1983）、何兆熊（1983）黄次栋（1984）、廖秋忠（1985、1986）、花永年（1986）、金定元（1986）、陈平（1987）、刘润清（1987）、胡文仲（1988）、沈家煊（1988）、邓旭东（1988）、段开成（1988）、戚雨村（1988）、王纵炎（1988）等分别就语用学某一或几方面课题进行评价，从不同侧面丰富了语用学的引进与介绍。
值得一提的是戚雨村的《语用学说略》(《外国语》，1988年，NO.4)较为全面地概述了语用学的兴起和发展以及研究范围，如指示、预设、语言行为理论、合作原则和礼貌原则、会话分析等。
90年代以钱冠连（1990、1991）、杨自俭（1990）、顾曰国（1990、1992）、张亚非（1992）、曲卫国（1993）、赵世开（1993）、徐盛桓（1993a、1993b、1994、1995）、何自然（1995、1996）、范文芳（1995）为代表，并结合国内外最新研究成果对语用学的主要理论作了系统的评述。
有代表性的是何自然的《近年来国外语用学研究概述》（《外国语》，1995年，NO.3）介绍了英美学派和欧洲大陆学派对语用学的研究状况，其中包括社会交际语用学、跨文化语用学、语际语用学以及以“关联理论”为核心的认知语用学、基本上囊括了90年代西方语用学的研究范围。
何兆熊的《90年代看语用》》（《外国语》，1997年，NO.4）把语用学的发展分成3个阶段。
何兆熊(1997)认为，语用学的发展可以粗略地分为三个阶段：20世纪70年代是语用学的兴起阶段。
60年代初，英国哲学家奥斯汀提出了言语行为理论。
但当时语言学界几乎是乔姆斯基转换生成语法的一统天下，言语行为理论并没有引起太大的注意。
出于对乔氏理论的反动，也由于语言学研究的不断深入，言语行为理论到70年代才十分风行。
语言学的其它分支领域纷纷比照该理论对自己的研究重新进行了考虑。
在该时期，传统语义研究废纸篓里的内容被纷纷抖落出来。