水利水电专业毕业论文文献翻译中英文对照[管理资料]
水利水电类专业英语
1.Because of the enormous damage or potential damage caused by a flood of the magnitude that occurs once in a hundred years or less, stream gaging records of 10, 20, or 30 years are inadequate, although of some use, in planning flood control projects or for the spillway design of any large dam.由于量级在100年一遇或者更罕见的洪水引起的巨大破坏或潜在破坏，在洪水控制工程的规划或任意大型大坝的溢洪道的设计中，10年、20年或30年的水流测量记录尽管有些用途，但还是不够的。
2.The foundation, including abutments, should be of rock or consolidated materials sufficiently strong to support the structure and they must be watertight or so nearly so that excess leakage can be prevented by sealing any cracks or fissures in the foundation with a grouting material or closing the leakage paths by placing a blanket of impervious material in the reservoir area upstream from the dam site.地基包括坝肩，是由岩石或坚固的材料构成，足以承受结构的荷载，并且必须防水，或者能通过灌浆材料封堵地基中的裂缝或裂隙，或在坝址上游库区铺一层不透水材料来封闭渗漏通道，从而防止过量的渗漏，做到接近防水。
给水排水中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Optimum combination of water drainage,water supply and eco-environment protection in coal-accumulated basin of North ChinaAbstract The conflict among water drainage,water supply and eco-environment protection is getting more and more serious due to the irrational drainage and exploitation of ground water resources in coal-accumulated basins of North China.Efficient solutions to the conflict are tomaintain long-term dynamic balance between input and output of theground water basins,and to try to improve resourcification of the mine water.All solutions must guarantee the eco-environment quality.This paper presents a new idea of optimum combination of water drainage，water supply and eco-environment protection so as to solve theproblem of unstable mine water supply,which is caused by the changeable water drainage for the whole combination system.Both the management of hydraulic techniques and constraints in economy,society,ecology,environment,insustuial structural adjustments and sustainable developments have been taken into account.Since the traditional and separate management of different departments of water drainage,water supply and eco-environment protection is broken up these departments work together to avoid repeated geological survey and specific evaluation calculations so that large amount of national investment can be saved and precise calculation for the whole system can be obtained.In the light of the conflict of water drainage,water supply and eco-environment protection in a typical sector in Jiaozuo coal mine,a case study puts forward an optimum combination scheme,in which a maximum economic benefit objective is constrained by multiple factors.The scheme provides a very important scientific base for finding a sustainable development strategy.Keywords combination system of water drainage,water supply and eco-environment protection,optimal combination,resourcification of mine water.1Analyses of necessity for the combinationThere are three related problems in the basin.It is well known that the major mine-hydrogeological characteristics of the coal accumulated basin in North China display a stereo water-filling structure,which is formed by multi-layer aquifers connected hydraulically together with various kinds of inner or outer boundaries.Mine water hazards have seriously restricted the healthy development of coal industry in China because of more water-filling sources and stronger water-filling capacity in coal mines of the basin.Coal reserves in the basin are threatened by the water hazards.In Fengfeng,Xingtai,Jiaozuo,Zibao,Huaibei and Huainan coal mine districts,for example,it is estimatedthat coal reserves are threatened by the water hazards up to 52％,71.％40,％,60％,48％and 90％of total prospecting reserves respectively.It is obvious that un-mining phenomenon caused by the water hazards is serious.Water-bursting accidents under coal layers have seriously influenced safe production.Some statistical data show that there were 17 water-bursting accidents with over 1 m3/s inflow from 1985.Water drainage is an increasing burden on coal mines threatened by water hazards:high cost of water drainage raises coal prices and reduces profits of the enterprise.On the other hand,it is more and more difficult to meet the demand of water supply in coal mine districts in the basin.The reasons are not only arid and semi-arid weather conditions,but also a large amount of water drainage with deep drawdown in coal mines and irrational water exploitation.The deterioration of eco-environment is another problem.Phenomena of land surface karst collapse can be found.Many famous karst springs,which are discharge points for the whole karst groundwater syatem,stop flowing or their discharge rates decrease on a large scale.Desert cremophytes in large areas in west China die because of falling groundwater level.These three problems are related and contradictory.In order to solve the problems while ensuring safe mining,meeting water resource demands and slowing down the pace of eco-environment deterioration,it is necessary to study the optimum combination of water drainage,water supply and eco-environment protection in the basin.2The state of the art of research and the problemsAlthough research into the combination of water drainage and water supply started much earlier in some countries,their conception is simple and some shortcomings remain in their study on the theory and pattern of combination.China’s research history on the combination can be divided into three stages.The first stage is the utilization of mine water.A century ago mine water started to be used as water supply for mines.But the utilization scale and efficiency were quite limited at that time.The second stage is a comprehensive one:mine water was used while water hazards were harnessed.Great progress was made both in theory and practice of the combination.For example,the combination of water drainage and water supply not only means the utilization of mine water,but also means that it is a technique of preventing water hazards.It is unfortunate,however,that the combination research in this stage offered less sense ofeco-environment protection.Optimum combination management of water drainage,water supply and eco-environment protection is the third stage.Main features in this stage are to widen traditional research,and to establish an economic-hydraulic management model,in which safe mining,eco-environment protection and sustainable development demands,etc.are simultaneously considered as constraint conditions.3Trinity systemThe trinity system combines water drainage,water supply and eco-environment quality protection.The water-collecting structures of the system consist of land surface pumping wells in the mines,shallow land surface well in groundwater recharge areas and artificial relief wells under the mines.Both integration and coordination for the trinity system are distinguished according to the combination.The integration for the system means to utilize drainage water under the mines and pump water onto the land surface as water supply for different purposes without harming the eco-environmental quality.The coal mines are not only drainage sites,but also water supply sources.The purpose of drilling pumping wells on the land surface is to eliminate special influences on different consumers,which are caused by terminating drainage processes under the mines due to unexpected accidents in mining.The coordination for the system means to bulid some water supply sources for different consumers while ensuring eco-environmental quality in groundwater recharge positions,where pumping groundwater is quite effective on lowering groundwater heads in the mine areas.Itintercepts in advance the recharging groundwater flow towards the mines,which may not only provide consumers with good quality groundwater,achieve the goal of dropping down groundwater heads in the mines,but also effectively reduce the high costs of drainage and water treatment,which are needed by traditional dewatering measures with large drainage flow rates under the mines.The coordination changes the traditional passive pattern of preventing and controlling groundwater hazards under the mines into that of active surface interception.Both very developed karst flow belts and accumulated groundwater recharge ones under the ground are relatively ideal interceptive coordination positions in the system.For the integration of the trinity system,artificial relief wells under the mines and the land surface pumping wells mainly penetrate into direct thin bedded karst aquifers interbedded with the mining coal layers,while for the coordination of the system,the shallow land surface wells mainly penetrate into very thick karst aquifer.Therefore,hydrogeological conceptual model for the system involves the multi-layer aquifers connected hydraulically by different inner boundaries.Setting up stereo hydrogeological conceptual models and corresponding mathematical models is a prerequisite for solving the managemental problems for the system.Management of the trinity system not only considers the effects of lowering groundwater heads and safe operation for water drainage subsystem,but also pays attention to the water demands for water supply subsystem and quality changes for eco-environment protection subsystem.They play the same important role in the whole combination system.It controls the groundwater heads in each aquifer to satisfy the conditions of safe mining with certain water head pressures in the mines,and to guarantee a certain amount of water supply for the mines and near areas,but the maximum drawdown of groundwater must not be ex ceded,which may result in lowering eco-environmental quality.4Economic-hydraulic management modelIn the trinity system management,groundwater resources in the mines and nearby areas,which are assessed on the premise of eco-environment qualities and safe operation in the mines,may be provided as water supply prices,drainage costs,transportation costs(including pipeline and purchasing the land costs)and groundwater quality treatment costs for the three different waterconsumers,the optimum management models may automatically allocate to each consumer a certain amount of groundwater resources and a concrete water supply scenario based on comparisons of each consumer’s economic contribution to the whole system in objective function.Therefore the management studies on the optimal combination among water drainage,water supply and eco-environment protection involve both the management of groundwater hydraulic techniques and the economic evaluations,eco-environment quality protection and industrial structure programs.In addition to realizing an economic operation,they also guarantee a safe operation which is a key point for the combination of the whole system.5The management model for the trinity system can reach water supply goals with drainage water under the mines and the land surface pumping water on the premise of ensuring eco-environmental quality.And it can make use of one model to lay down comprehensively optimum management scenarios for each subsystem by means of selecting proper constraints and maximum economic benefit objective produced by multiple water consumers.The model can raise the security and reliability of operation for the whole trinity system,and the drainage water can be forecast for the mines and the management of water supply resource and the evaluation of eco-environment quality can be performed at the same time so as to respectively stop the separate or closed management,of departments of drainage water,water supply and eco-environment protection from geological survey stage to management evaluation.This,in economic aspect,can not only avoid much geological survery and special assessment work which are often repeated by the three departments,and save a lot of funds,but also ,in technical aspect,make use of one model to simultaneously consider interference and influence on each other for different groundwater seepage fields so as to guarantee calculating precision of the forecast,the management and the evaluation work.The economic-hydraulic management model can be expressed as follows.6 A case studyA typical sector is chosen.It is located in the east of Jiaozuo coal mine,Henan Province,China.Itconsists of three mines:Hanwang Mine,Yanmazhuang Mine and Jiulishan Mine.The land surface is flat,and the whole area is about 30 km2.An intermittent river Shanmen flows through the sector from the north to the south.Average annual precipitation in the sector is about 662.3mm.Theprecipitation mainly concentrates inJune,July,August and September each year.Strata in the sector consist of very thick limestone in Middle Ordovician,coal-bearing rock series in Permo Carboniferous and loose deposits in Quaternary.There are four groups of faulted structures.The first is in northeast-southwest direction such as F3 and F1..The second is in the northwest-southeast direction such as Fangzhuang fault.The third is in the east-west direction such as Fenghuangling fault.The last is almost in north-south.These faults are all found to be normal faults with a high degree of dip angle.Four major aquifers have been found in the sector.The top one is a semi-confined porous aquifer.The next one is a very thin bedded limeston aquifer.The third is a thin bedded limestone aquifer.The last one at the bottom is a very thick limestone aquifer.Objective function of the management model is designed to be maximum economic benefit produced by domestic,industrial and agricultural water supply.Policy making variables of the model are considered as the domestic,industrial and agricultural groundwater supply rates in every management time step,and they are supplied by artificial relief flow wells under the mines,the land surface pumping wells in the mines and the shallow land surface wells in the groundwater recharge areas.All the 135 policy making variables are chosen in the model,27 for drainage wells under the mines in aquifer,27 for the land surface pumping wells in the mine districts in aquifer 27 in aquifer 27 in aquifer O2 27 for the shallow land surface wells in aquifer O2Based on the problems,the following constraint conditions should be considered:(1)Safe mining constraint with groundwater pressure in aquifer L8.There are altogether three coalmines in the typical sector,i.e.Hanwang Mine,Yanmazhuang Mine and Jiulishan Mine.Elevations of mining level for these mines are different because it is about 88-150 m in the second mining level for Hanwang Mine,and -200m in the second mining level for Yanmazhuang Mine,and-225 m in the first mining level for Jiulishan Mine.According to mining experiences,pressure-loaded heights for groundwater heads in safe mining state are considered as about 100-130m.Therefore,the groundwater level drawdowns in the three management time steps for aquifer L8 at three mines have to be equivalent to safe drawdown values at least in order to pervert groundwater hazards under the mines and to guarantee their safe operation.(2)Geological eco-environment quality constraint.In order to prevernt groundwater leakage fromupper contaminater porous aquifer into bottom one and then to seepage further down to contaminate the thin bedded limestone aquifer in the position of buried outcrop,the groundwater heads in the bottom porous aquifer must keep a certain height,i.e.the groundwater drawdowns in it are not allowed to exceed maximum values.(3)Groundwater head constraint at the shallow land surface wells in aquifer O2,The shallow landsurface wells should penetrate in aquifer O2 in order to avoid geological environment hazards,such as karst collapse and deep karst groundwater contamination.Groundwater head drawdowns in aquifer O2 for the shallow land surface wells are not allowed to exceed criticalvalues.(4)Industrial water supply constraint for the groundwater source in aquifer O2 .The rate ofindustrial water supply needed by the planned thermal power plant in the north of the sectoris designed to be 1.5 m3/s according to the comprehensive design of the system in thesector.In order to meet the demands of water,the rate industrial water supply for thegroundwater source in aquifer O2 in every management time step must be equivalent at leastto 1.5 m3/s.(5)Maximum amount constraint of groundwater resource available for abstraction.In order tomaintain the balance of the groundwater system in the sector for a long time and to avoid anyharmful results caused by continuous falling of groundwater head,the sum of groundwaterabstraction in each management time step is not allowed to exceed the maximum amount ofgroundwater resource available for abstraction.Since there is not only water drainage in the mines,but also water supply in the whole combination system,management period for the model is selected from June 1,1978 to May 31,1979,in which annual average rate of precipitation is about 50％.Management time steps for the period are divided into three.The first one is from June to September,the second from October to next January,and the last one from next February to May.According to comprehensive information about actual economic ability,economic development program and industrial structure adjustment in the sector at present and in the near future,and different association forms of water collecting structures among the land surface pumping wells,the shallow land surface wells and artificial relief flow wells under the mines,this paper designs 12 management scenarious,all of which take the safe operation in the trinity system as the most important condition.After making comparisons of optimum calculation results for the 12 scenarious,this paper comes to a conclusion that scenarios is the most ideal and applicable one for the typical sector.This scenario not only considers the effective dewatering advantage of the artificial relief flow wells under the mines and safe stable water supply advantage of the land surface pumping wells,but also pays attention to the disadvantage of low safe guaranty rate for the relief flow wells under the mines for water supply and of large drilling investment in the land surface pumping wells.Meanwhile,eh shallow land surface wells inaquifer O2in this scenario would not only provide water supply for the thermal power plant as planned,but also play an important role in dewatering the bottom aquifer,which is major recharge source of groundwater for the mines.If the drainage subsystem under the mines runs normally,this scenario could fully offer the effective dewatering functions of the artificial relief flow wells under the mines,and makes the trinity system operate normally.But if the drainage subsystem has to stop suddenly because of unexpected accidents,the scenario could still fully utilize the land surface pumping wells and the shallow land surface wells,and increae their pumping rates in order to make up for temporary shortage of water supply for the trinity system and to make its economic losses reduced to a minimum extent.Increasing groundwater abstraction rate for the land surface pumping wells and the shallow land surface wells,in fact,is very favorable for harnessing the water-accidents under the mines and for recovery production of the mines.To sum up,this scenario sets up a new pattern for the combination of water drainage,water supply and eco-environment protection.It solves quite well the conflicts between the low safe guaranty rate and the effective dewatering result for the artificial relief flow wells under the mines.It makes full use of beneficial aspect of the conflicts,and meanwhile compensates for the unbeneficial one by arranging the land surface pumping wells in the coal mine districts.Therefore,this scenario should be comprehensive and feasible.In this scenario,Hanwan Mine,Yanmazhuang Mine and Jiulishan Mine are distributed optimally for certain amount of domestic and industrial water supply,but not for much agricultural water supply.The land surface pumping wells are also distributed for different purposes of water supply.The water supply for the thermal power plant (1.5 m3/s) is provided by the shallow land surface prehensive effects,produced by the above three kinds of water collecting structures,completely satisfy all of the constraint conditions in the management model,and achieve an extremely good economic objective of 16.520551million RMB yuan per year.In order to examine the uncertainty of the management model,12management scenarios are all tested with sensitive analysis.7Conclusion(1)The optimum combination research among water drainage,water supply and eco-environmentprotection is of great theoretical significance and application value in the basin of North China for solving unbalanced relation between water supply and demands,developing new potential water supply sources and protecting weak eco-environment.(2)The combination research is concerned not only with hydraulic technique management but alsowith constraints of economic benefits,society,ecology,environment quality,safe mining and sustainable development in the coal mines.(3)The combination model,for the first time,breaks up the closed situation existing for a longtime,under which the government departments of drainage water,water supply and eco-environment protection from geological survey stage to management evaluation work respectively.Economically,it can spare the repeated geological survey and special assessment work done by the three departments and save a lot of funds;technically,one model is made use of to cover the interference and influence each other for different groundwater seepage fields soas to guarantee a high calculating precision of the forecast,the management and the evaluation work.(4)The management scenario presented in the case study is the most ideal and applicable for thetypical sector.This scenario not only makes full use of the effective dewatering advantages of the artificial relief flow wells under the mines and safe stable water supply advantages of the land surface pumping wells,but also pays attention to the disadvantages of low safe guaranty rate for the relief flow wells under the mines for water supply and of large drilling investment for the land surface pumping wells.References1.Investigation team on mine-hydrogeology and engineering geology in the Ministry ofGeology and Mineral Resources.Investigation Report on Karst-water-filling Mines(inChinese).Beijing:Geological Publishing House,19962.Liu Qiren,Lin Pengqi,Y u Pei,Investigation comments on mine-hydrogeological conditionsfor national karst-water-filling mines,Journal of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology(in Chinese),19793.Wang Mengyu,Technology development on preventing and curing mine water in coalmines in foreign countries,Science and Technology in Coal(in Chinese),19834.Coldewey,W.G.Semrau.L.Mine water in the Ruhr Area(Federal Republic of Germany),inProceedings of 5th International Mine Water Congress,Leicestershire:Quorn SelectiveRepro Limited,19945.Sivakumar,M.Morten,S,Singh,RN,Case history analysis of mine water pollution,inProceedings of 5th International Mine Water Congress,Leicestershire;Quorn SelectiveRepro Limited,19946.Ye Guijun.Zhang Dao,Features of Karst-water-filling mines and combination betweenwater drainage and water supply in China,Journal of Hydrogeology and EngineeringGeology(in China),19887.Tan Jiwen,Shao Aijun,Prospect analyses on Combination between water drainage andwater supply in karst water basin in northern China,Jounnal of Hebei College ofGeology(in Chinese),19858.Xin Kuide,Yu Pei,Combination between water drainage and water for seriouskarst-water-filling mines in northern China,Journal of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology(in Chinese),19869.Wu Qiang,Luo Yuanhua,Sun Weijiang et al.Resourcification of mine water andenvironment protection,Geological Comments(in Chinese),199710.Gao Honglian,Lin Zhengping,Regional characteristics of mine-hydrogeological conditionsof coal deposits in China,Journal of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology(in Chinese),198511.Jiang Ben,A tentative plan for preventing and curing measures on mine water in coal minesin northern China,Geology and Prospecting for Coaofield(in Chinese),1993中国北方煤炭积聚区的最佳组合排水，供水和生态环境保护摘要为了开采中国北方煤炭资源丰富的区域，不合理的排水使排水、供水和保护生态环境之间的冲突日趋严重。
水轮机和水力发电文献翻译(Word最新版)
水轮机和水力发电文献翻译通过整理的水轮机和水力发电文献翻译相关文档，渴望对大家有所扶植，感谢观看！中文3840字外文文献：hydraulicturbines and hydro-electric power Abstract Power may be developed from water by three fundamental processes : by action of its weight, of its pressure, or of its velocity, or by a combination of any or all three. In modern practice the Pelton or impulse wheel is the only type which obtains power by a single process the action of one or more high-velocity jets. This type of wheel is usually found in high-head developments. Faraday had shown that when a coil is rotated in a magnetic field electricity is generated. Thus, in order to produce electrical energy, it is necessary that we should produce mechanical energy, which can be used to rotate the ‘coil’. The mechanical energy is produced by running a prime mover (known as turbine ) by the energy of fuels or flowing water. This mechanical power is converted into electrical power by electric generator which is directly coupled to the shaft of turbine and is thus run by turbine. The electrical power, which is consequently obtained at the terminals of the generator, is then transited to the area where it is to be used for doing work.he plant ormachinery which is required to produce electricity (i.e. prime mover +electric generator) is collectively known as power plant. The building, in which the entire machinery along with other auxiliary units is installed, is known as power house. Keywords hydraulic turbines hydro-electric power classification of hydel plants head scheme There has been practically no increase in the efficiency of hydraulic turbines since about 1925, when maximum efficiencies reached 93% or more. As far as maximum efficiency is concerned, the hydraulic turbine has about reached the practicable limit of development. Nevertheless, in recent years, there has been a rapid and marked increase in the physical size and horsepower capacity of individual units. In addition, there has been considerable research into the cause and prevention of cavitation, which allows the advantages of higher specific speeds to be obtained at higher heads than formerly were considered advisable. The net effect of this progress with larger units, higher specific speed, and simplification and improvements in design has been to retain for the hydraulic turbine the important place which it has long held at one of the most important prime movers. 1. types of hydraulic turbines Hydraulic turbines may be grouped in two general classes: the impulse type which utilizes the kinetic energy of a high-velocity jet which acts upon only a small partof the circumference at any instant, and the reaction type which develops power from the combined action of pressure and velocity of the water that completely fills the runner and water passages. The reaction group is divided into two general types: the Francis, sometimes called the reaction type, and the propeller type. The propeller class is also further subdivided into the fixed-blade propeller type, and the adjustable-blade type of which the Kaplan is representative. 1.1 impulse wheels With the impulse wheel the potential energy of the water in the penstock is transformed into kinetic energy in a jet issuing from the orifice of a nozzle. This jet discharge freely into the atmosphere inside the wheel housing and strikes against the bowl-shaped buckets of the runner. At each revolution the bucket enters, passes through, and passes out of the jet, during which time it receives the full impact force of the jet. This produces a rapid hammer blow upon the bucket. At the same time the bucket is subjected to the centrifugal force tending to separate the bucket from its disk. On account of the stresses so produced and also the scouring effects of the water flowing over the working surface of the bowl, material of high quality of resistance against hydraulic wear and fatigue is required. Only for very low heads can cast iron be employed. Bronze and annealed cast steel are normallyused. 1.2 Francis runners With the Francis type the water enters from a casing or flume with a relatively low velocity, passes through guide vanes or gates located around the circumstance, and flows through the runner, from which it discharges into a draft tube sealed below the tail-water level. All the runner passages are completely filled with water, which acts upon the whole circumference of the runner. Only a portion of the power is derived from the dynamic action due to the velocity of the water, a large part of the power being obtained from the difference in pressure acting on the front and back of the runner buckets. The draft tube allows maximum utilization of the available head, both because of the suction created below the runner by the vertical column of water and because the outlet of he draft tube is larger than the throat just below the runner, thus utilizing a part of the kinetic energy of the water leaving the runner blades. 1.3 propeller runners nherently suitable for low-head developments, the propeller-type unit has effected marked economics within the range of head to which it is adapted. The higher speed of this type of turbine results in a lower-cost generator and somewhat smaller powerhouse substructure and superstructure. Propeller-type runners for low heads and small outputs are sometimes constructed of cast iron. For heads above 20 ft, they are made of cast steel, a much morereliable material. Large-diameter propellers may have individual blades fastened to the hub. 1.4 adjustable-blade runners The adjustable-blade propeller type is a development from the fixed-blade propeller wheel. One of the best-known units of this type is the Kaplan unit, in which the blades may be rotated to the most efficient angle by a hydraulic servomotor. A cam on the governor is used to cause the blade angle to change with the gate position so that high efficiency is always obtained at almost any percentage of full load. By reason of its high efficiency at all gate openings, the adjustable-blade propeller-type unit is particularly applicable to low-head developments where conditions are such that the units must be operated at varying load and varying head. Capital cost and maintenance for such units are necessarily higher than for fixed-blade propeller-type units operated at the point of maximum efficiency. 2. thermal and hydropower As stated earlier, the turbine blades can be made to run by the energy of fuels or flowing water. When fuel is used to produce steam for running the steam turbine, then the power generated is known as thermal power. The fuel which is to be used for generating steam may either be an ordinary fuel such as coal, fuel oil, etc., or atomic fuel or nuclear fuel. Coal is simply burnt to produce steam from water and is the simplest and oldesttype of fuel. Diesel oil, etc. may also be used as fuels for producing steam. Atomic fuels such as uranium or thorium may also be used to produce steam. When conventional type of fuels such s coal, oil, etc. (called fossils ) is used to produce steam for running the turbines, the power house is generally called an Ordinary thermal power station or Thermal power station. But when atomic fuel is used to produce steam, the power station, which is essentially a thermal power station, is called an atomic power station or nuclear power station. In an ordinary thermal power station, steam is produced in a water boiler, while in the atomic power station; the boiler is replaced y a nuclear reactor and steam generator for raising steam. The electric power generated in both these cases is known as thermal power and the scheme is called thermal power scheme. But, when the energy of the flowing water is used to run the turbines, then the electricity generated is called hydroelectric power. This scheme is known as hydro scheme, and the power house is known as hydel power station or hydroelectric power station. In a hydro scheme, a certain quantity of water at a certain potential head is essentially made to flow through the turbines. The head causing flow runs the turbine blades, and thus producing electricity from the generator coupled to turbine. In this chapter, we are concerned with hydel scheme only.3.classification of hydel plants Hydro-plants may be classified on the basis of hydraulic characteristics as follow: ① run-off river plants .②storage plants.③pumped storage plants.④tidal plants. th ey are described below. (1) Run-off river plants. These plants are those which utilize the minimum flow in a river having no appreciable pondage on its upstream side. A weir or a barrage is sometimes constructed across a river simply to raise and maintain the water level at a pre-determined level within narrow limits of fluctuations, either solely for the power plants or for some other purpose where the power plant may be incidental. Such a scheme is essentially a low head scheme and may be suitable only on a perennial river having sufficient dry weather flow of such a magnitude as to make the development worthwhile. Run-off river plants generally have a very limited storage capacity, and can use water only when it comes. This small storage capacity is provided for meeting the hourly fluctuations of load. When the available discharge at site is more than the demand (during off-peak hours ) the excess water is temporarily stored in the pond on the upstream side of the barrage, which is then utilized during the peak hours. he various examples of run-off the river pant are: Ganguwal and Kolta power houses located on Nangal Hydel Channel, Mohammad Pur and Pathri power houses on GangaCanal and Sarda power house on Sarda Canal. The various stations constructed on irrigation channels at the sites of falls, also fall under this category of plants. (2) Storage plants A storage plant is essentially having an upstream storage reservoir of sufficient size so as to permit, sufficient carryover storage from the monsoon season to the dry summer season, and thus to develop a firm flow substantially more than minimum natural flow. In this scheme, a dam is constructed across the river and the power house may be located at the foot of the dam such as in Bhakra, Hirakud, Rihand projects etc. the power house may sometimes be located much away from the dam (on the downstream side). In such a case, the power house is located at the end of tunnels which carry water from the reservoir. The tunnels are connected to the power house machines by means of pressure pen-stocks which may either be underground (as in Mainthon and Koyna projects) or may be kept exposed (as in Kundah project). When the power house is located near the dam, as is generally done in the low head installations ; it is known as concentrated fall hydroelectric development. But when the water is carried to the power house at a considerable distance from the dam through a canal, tunnel, or pen-stock; it is known as a divided fall development. (3) Pumped storage plants. A pumped storage plantgenerates power during peak hours, but during the off-peak hours, water is pumped back from the tail water pool to the headwater pool for future use. The pumps are run by some secondary power from some other plant in the system. The plant is thus primarily meant for assisting an existing thermal plant or some other hydel plant. During peak hours, the water flows from the reservoir to the turbine and electricity is generated. During off-peak hours, the excess power is available from some other plant, and is utilized for pumping water from the tail pool to the head pool, this minor plant thus supplements the power of another major plant. In such a scheme, the same water is utilized again and again and no water is wasted. For heads varying between 15m to 90m, reservoir pump turbines have been devised, which can function both as a turbine as well as a pump. Such reversible turbines can work at relatively high efficiencies and can help in reducing the cost of such a plant. Similarly, the same electrical machine can be used both as a generator as well as a motor by reversing the poles. The provision of such a scheme helps considerably in improving the load factor of the power system. (4) Tidal plants Tidal plants for generation of electric power are the recent and modern advancements, and essentially work on the principle that there is a rise in seawater during high tide period and afall during the low ebb period. The water rises and falls twice a day; each fall cycle occupying about 12 hours and 25 minutes. The advantage of this rise and fall of water is taken in a tidal plant. In other words, the tidal range, i.e. the difference between high and low tide levels is utilized to generate power. This is accomplished by constructing a basin separated from the ocean by a partition wall and installing turbines in opening through this wall. Water passes from the ocean to the basin during high tides, and thus running the turbines and generating electric power. During low tide，the water from the basin runs back to ocean, which can also be utilized to generate electric power, provided special turbines which can generate power for either direction of flow are installed. Such plants are useful at places where tidal range is high. Rance power station in France is an example of this type of power station. The tidal range at this place is of the order of 11 meters. This power house contains 9 units of 38,000 kW. 4.Hydro-plants or hydroelectric schemes may be classified on the basis of operating head on turbines as f ollows: ① low head scheme (head<15m),②medium head scheme (head varies between 15m to 60 m) ,③high head scheme (head>60m). They are described below: (1) Low head scheme. A low head scheme is one which uses water head of less than 15 meters or so. A run offriver plant is essentially a low head scheme, a weir or a barrage is constructed to raise the water level, and the power house is constructed either in continuation with the barrage or at some distance downstream of the barrage, where water is taken to the power house through an intake canal. (2) Medium head scheme A medium head scheme is one which used water head varying between 15 to 60 meters or so. This scheme is thus essentially a dam reservoir scheme, although the dam height is mediocre. This scheme is having features somewhere between low had scheme and high head scheme.(3) High head scheme. A high head scheme is one which uses water head of more than 60m or so. A dam of sufficient height is, therefore, required to be constructed, so as to store water on the upstream side and to utilize this water throughout the year. High head schemes up to heights of 1,800 meters have been developed. The common examples of such a scheme are: Bhakra dam in (Punjab), Rihand dam in (U.P.), and Hoover dam in (U.S.A), etc. The naturally available high falls can also be developed for generating electric power. The common examples of such power developments are: Jog Falls in India, and Niagara Falls in U.S.A. 水轮机和水力发电摘要水的能量可以通过三种基本方法来获得：利用水的重力作用、水的压力作用或水的流速作用，或者其中随意两种或全部三种作用的组合。
水利水电工程专业英语——水文及水资源篇
水利水电工程专业英语——水文与水资源篇1. Hydrological Cycle and Budget1.水文循环与预算Hydrology is an earth science. It encompasses the occurrence, distribution, movement, and properties of the waters of the earth and their environmental relations. Closely allied fields include geology, climatology, meteorology and oceanography.水文学是一门地球科学。
它包含地球水资源的发生、分布、运动和特质，以及其环境关系。
与之密切相关领域包括地质学，气候学，气象学和海洋学。
The hydrologic cycle is a continuous process by which water is transported from the oceans to the atmosphere to the land and back to the sea. Many sub-cycles exist. The evaporation of inland water and its subsequent precipitation over land before returning to the ocean is one example. The driving force for the global water transport system is provided by the sun, which furnishes the energy required for evaporation. Note that the water quality also changes during passage through the cycle; for example, sea water is converted to fresh water through evaporation.水文循环是一个连续的过程，在这个过程中水从海洋被运输到大气中，降落到陆地，然后回到海洋。
水利专业名词(中英文对照)
水利专业名词（中英）A安全储备safety reserve安全系数safety factor安全性safety岸边溢洪道river-bank spillway岸边绕渗by-pass seepage around bank slope岸墙abutment wall岸塔式进水口bank-tower intakeB坝的上游面坡度upstream slpoe of dam坝的下游面downstream face of dam坝顶dam crest坝顶长度crest length坝顶超高freeboard of dam crest坝高dam height坝顶高程crest elevation坝顶宽度crest width坝段monolith坝基处理foundation treatment坝基排水drain in dam foundation坝基渗漏leakage of dam foundation坝肩dam abutment坝壳dam shell坝坡dam slope坝坡排水drain on slope坝体混凝土分区grade zone of concrete in dam 坝体排水系统drainage system in dam坝型选择selection of dam type坝址选择selection of dam site坝趾dam toe坝踵dam heel坝轴线dam axis本构模型constitutive model鼻坎bucket比尺scale比降gradient闭门力closing force边墩side pier边界层boundary layer边墙side wall边缘应力boundary stress变形观测deformation observation变中心角变半径拱坝variable angle and radius arch dam 标准贯入试验击数number of standard penetration test 冰压力ice pressure薄壁堰sharp-crested weir薄拱坝thin-arch dam不均匀沉降裂缝differential settlement crack不平整度irregularityC材料力学法method of strength of materials材料性能分项系数partial factor for property of material 侧槽溢洪道side channel spillway侧轮side roller侧收缩系数coefficient of side contraction测缝计joint meter插入式连接insert type connection差动式鼻坎differential bucket掺气aeration掺气槽aeration slot掺气减蚀cavitation control by aeration厂房顶溢流spill over power house沉降settlement沉井基础sunk shaft foundation沉沙池sediment basin沉沙建筑物sedimentary structure沉沙条渠sedimentary channel沉陷缝settlement joint沉陷观测settlement observation衬砌的边值问题boundary value problem of lining 衬砌计算lining calculation衬砌自重dead-weight of lining承载能力bearing capacity承载能力极限状态limit state of bearing capacity 持住力holding force齿墙cut-off wall冲击波shock wave冲沙闸flush sluice冲刷坑scour hole重现期return period抽排措施pump drainage measure抽水蓄能电站厂房pump-storage power house出口段outlet section初步设计阶段preliminary design stage初参数解法preliminary parameter solution 初生空化数incipient cavitation number初应力法initial stress method船闸navigation lock垂直升船机vertical ship lift纯拱法independent arch method次要建筑物secondary structure刺墙key-wall粗粒土coarse-grained soil错缝staggered jointD大坝安全评价assessment of dam safety大坝安全监控monitor of dam safety大坝老化dam aging大头坝massive-head dam单层衬砌monolayer lining单级船闸lift lock单线船闸single line lock挡潮闸tide sluice挡水建筑物retaining structure导流洞diversion tunnel导墙guide wall倒虹吸管inverted siphon倒悬度overhang等半径拱坝constant radius arch dam等中心角变半径拱坝constant angle and variable radius arch dam 底流消能energy dissipation by hydraulic jump底缘bottom edge地基变形foundation deformation地基变形模量deformation modulus of foundation地基处理foundation treatment地下厂房underground power house地下厂房变压器洞transformer tunnel of underground power house 地下厂房出线洞bus-bar tunnel of underground power house地下厂房交通洞access tunnel of underground power house地下厂房通风洞ventilation tunnel of underground power house地下厂房尾水洞tailwater tunnel of underground power house地下轮廓线under outline of structure地下水groundwater地形条件topographical condition地形图比例尺scale of topographical map地应力ground stress地震earthquake地震烈度earthquake intensity地质条件geological condition垫层cushion垫座plinth吊耳lift eye调度dispatch跌坎drop-step跌流消能drop energy dissipation跌水drop迭代法iteration method叠梁stoplog丁坝spur dike定向爆破堆石坝directed blasting rockfill dam动强度dynamic strength动水压力hydrodynamic pressure洞内孔板消能energy dissipation by orifice plate in tunnel 洞内漩流消能energy dissipation with swirling flow in tunnel 洞身段tunnel body section洞室群cavern group洞轴线tunnel axis陡坡steep slope渡槽短管型进水口intake with pressure short pipe断层fault堆石坝rockfill dam对数螺旋线拱坝log spiral arch dam多级船闸multi-stage lock多线船闸multi-line lock多心圆拱坝multi-centered arch dam多用途隧洞multi-use tunnelE二道坝secondary damF发电洞power tunnel筏道logway反弧段bucket反滤层filter防冲槽erosion control trench防洪flood preventi，flood control防洪限制水位restricted stage for flood prevention防浪墙parapet防渗墙anti-seepage wall防渗体anti-seepage body放空底孔unwatering bottom outlet非常溢洪道emergency spillway非线性有限元non-linear finite element method非溢流重力坝nonoverflow gravity dam分岔fork分洪闸flood diversion sluice分项系数partial factor分项系数极限状态设计法limit state design method of partial factor 封拱arch closure封拱温度closure temperature浮筒式升船机ship lift with floats浮箱闸门floating camel gate浮运水闸floating sluice辅助消能工appurtenant energy dissipationG刚体极限平衡法rigid limit equilibrium method刚性支护rigid support钢筋混凝土衬砌reinforced concrete lining钢筋计reinforcement meter钢闸门steel gate高边坡high side slope高流速泄水隧洞discharge tunnel with high velocity工程管理project management工程规划project plan工程量quantity of work工程设计engineering design工程施工engineering construction工作桥service bridge工作闸门main gate拱坝坝肩岩体稳定stability of rock mass near abutment of arch dam 拱坝布置layout of arch dam拱坝上滑稳定分析up-sliding stability analysis of arch dam拱坝体形shape of arch dam拱端arch abutment拱冠arch crown拱冠梁法crown cantilever method拱冠梁剖面profile of crown cantilever拱内圈intrados拱外圈extrados固结consolidation固结灌浆consolidation grouting管涌piping灌溉irrigation规范code，specification过坝建筑物structures for passing dam 过滤层transition layer过渡区transition zone过木机log conveyer过木建筑物log pass structures过鱼建筑物fish-pass structuresH海漫flexible涵洞culvert河道冲刷river bed scour荷载load荷载组合load combination横缝transverse joint横拉闸门horizontal rolling /sliding gate 洪水标准flood standard虹吸溢洪道siphon spillway厚高比thickness to hight ratio弧形闸门radial gate护岸工程bank-protection works护坡slope protection护坦apron戽琉消能bucke-type energy dissipation滑坡land slip滑楔法sliding wedge method滑雪道式溢洪道skijump spillway环境评价environment assessment换土垫层cushion of replaced soil回填灌浆backfill grouting混凝土concrete混凝土衬砌concrete lining混凝土防渗墙concrete cutoff wall混凝土面板concrete face slab混凝土面板堆石坝concrete-faced rockfill dam 混凝土重力坝concrete gravity damJ基本荷载组合basic load combination基本剖面basic profile基面排水base level drainage激光准直发method of laser alignment极限平衡法limit equilibrium method极限状态limit state坚固系数soundness coefficient剪切模量shear modulus剪切应力shear stress检查inspection检修闸门bulkhead简单条分法simple slices method建筑材料construction material简化毕肖普法simplified Bishop’s method渐变段transition键槽key/key-way浆砌石重力坝cement-stone masonry gravity dam 交叉建筑物crossing structure交通桥access bridge校核洪水位water level of check floo校核流量check flood discharge接触冲刷contact washing接触流土soil flow on contact surface节制闸controlling sluice结构可靠度reliability of structure结构力学法structural mechanics method 结构系数structural coefficient截流环cutoff collar截水槽cutoff trench进口段inlet进口曲线inlet curve进水喇叭口inlet bellmouth进水闸inlet sluice浸润面saturated area浸润线saturated line经济评价economic assessment井式溢洪道shaft spillway静水压力hydrostatic pressure均质土坝homogeneous earth damK开敞式溢洪道open channel spillway开裂机理crack mechanism勘测exploration survey坎上水深water depth on sill抗冲刷性scour resistance抗冻性frost resistance抗滑稳定安全系数safety coefficient of stability against sliding 抗剪断公式shear-break strength formula抗剪强度shear strength抗裂性crack resistance抗磨abrasion-resistance抗侵蚀性erosion-resistance抗震分析analysis of earthquake resistance颗粒级配曲线grain size distribution curve可靠度指标reliability index可行性研究设计阶段design stage of feasibility study空腹重力坝hollow gravity dam空腹拱坝hollow arch dam空化cavitation空化数cavitation number空蚀cavitation damage空隙水压力pore water pressure控制堰control weir枯水期low water period库区reservoir area宽顶堰broad crested weir宽缝重力坝slotted gravity dam宽高比width to height ratio扩散段expanding section扩散角divergent angleL拦沙坎sediment control sill拦污栅trash rack廊道gallery浪压力wave pressure棱体排水prism drainage理论分析theory analysis力法方程canonical equation of force method连续式鼻坎plain bucket联合消能combined energy dissipation梁式渡槽beam-type flume量水建筑物water-measure structure裂缝crack临界水力坡降critical hydraulic gradient临时缝temporary joint临时性水工建筑物temporary hydraulic structure流量discharge流速flow velocity流态flow pattern流土soil flow流网flow net流向flow direction露顶式闸门emersed gateM马蹄形断面horseshoe section脉动压力fluctuating pressure锚杆支护anchor support门叶gate flap迷宫堰labyrinth weir面流消能energy dissipation of surface regime 模型试验model test摩擦公式friction factor formula摩擦系数coefficient of friction目标函数objective functionN内部应力internal stress内摩擦角internal friction angle内水压力internal water pressure挠度观测deflection observation泥沙压力silt pressure粘性土cohesive soil碾压混凝土重力坝roller compacted concrete gravity dam 凝聚力cohesion扭曲式鼻坎distorted type bucketP排沙底孔flush bottom outlet排沙漏斗flush funnel排沙隧洞flush tunnel排水drainage排水孔drain hole排水设施drainage facilities抛物线拱坝parabolic arch dam喷混凝土支护shotcrete support喷锚支护spray concrete and deadman strut漂木道log chute平板坝flat slab buttress dam平衡重式升船机vertical ship lift with counter weight平面闸门plain gate平压管equalizing pipe坡率slope ratio破碎带crush zone铺盖blanketQ启闭机hoist启门力lifting force砌石拱坝stone masonry arch dam潜坝submerged dam潜孔式闸门submerged gate倾斜仪clinometer曲线形沉沙池curved sedimentary basin渠首canal head渠道canal渠系建筑物canal system structure取水建筑物water intake structureR人工材料心墙坝earth-rock dam with manufactured central core 人字闸门mitre gate任意料区miscellaneous aggregate zone溶洞solution cavern柔度系数flexibility coefficient褥垫式排水horizontal blanket drainage 软弱夹层weak intercalationS三角网法triangulation method三角形单元三心圆拱坝三轴试验扇形闸门上游设计洪水位设计基准期设计阶段设计阶段划分设计流量设计状况系数设计准则伸缩缝渗流比降渗流变形渗流分析渗流量渗流体积力渗流系数生态环境生态平衡失效概率施工导流施工缝施工管理施工条件施工图阶段施工进度实体重力坝实用剖面实用堰事故闸门视准线法收缩段枢纽布置triangular element three center arch dam triaxial testsector gate upstreamdesign flood level design reference period design stagedividing of design stage design discharge design state coefficient design criteria contraction joint seepage gradient seepage deformation seepage analysis seepage discharge mass force of seepage permeability coefficient ecological environment ecological balance probability of failure construction diversion construction jointconstruction managementconstruction conditionconstruction drawing stageconstruction progresssolid gravity dampractical profilepractical weiremergency gatecollimation methodconstringent sectionlayout of hydraulic complex输水建筑物water conveyance structure竖式排水vertical drainage数值分析numerical analysis双层衬砌double-layer lining双曲拱坝double curvature arch dam水电站地下厂房underground power house 水电站建筑物hydroelectric station structure 水垫塘cushion basin水工建筑物hydraulic structure水工隧洞hydraulic tunnel水环境water environment水库吹程fetch水库浸没reservoir submersion水库渗漏reservoir leakage水库坍岸reservoir bank caving水库淹没reservoir inundation水力资源water power resource水力劈裂hydraulic fracture水利工程hydraulic engineering，water project 水利工程设计design of hydroproject水利工程枢纽分等rank of hydraulic complex 水利枢纽hydraulic complex水面线water level line水能hydraulic energy水平位移horizontal displacement水体污染water pollution水土流失water and soil loss水位急降instantaneous reservoir drawdown 水压力hydraulic pressu水闸sluice水质water quality水资源water resources顺坝longitudinal dike四边形单元quadrangular element塑性破坏failure by plastic flow塑性变形plastic deformation塑性区plastic range锁坝closure dike锁定器dog deviceTT型墩T-type pier塌落拱法roof collapse arch method塔式进水口tower intake台阶式溢流坝面step-type overflow face 弹塑性理论elastoplastic theory弹性基础梁beam on elastic foundation 弹性抗力elastic resistance弹性中心elastic centre弹性理论theory of elasticity特殊荷载组合special load combination 体形优化设计shape optimizing design 挑距jet trajectory distance挑流消能ski-jump energy dissipation挑射角exit angle of jet调压室surge tank贴坡排水surface drainage on dam slope通航建筑物navigation structure通气孔air hole土工复合材料geosynthetic土工膜geomembrane土工织物geotexile土石坝earth-rock dam土压力earth pressure土质材料斜墙坝earth-rock dam with inclined soil core 土质心墙坝earth-rock dam with central soil core驼峰堰hump weir椭圆曲线elliptical curveWWES型剖面堰WES curve profile weir外水压力external water pressure弯矩平衡moment equilibrium围岩surrounding rock围岩强度strength of surrounding rock围岩稳定分析围岩压力surrounding rock pressu帷幕灌浆curtain grouting维修maintenance尾水渠tailwater canal温度缝temperature joint温度计thermometer温度应变temperature strain温度应力temperature stress温降temperature drop温升temperature rise污水处理sewage treatment无坝取水undamed intake无粘性土cohesionless soil无压泄水孔free-flow outletX下游downstream现场检查field inspection橡胶坝rubber dam消力池stilling basin消能防冲设计design of energy dissipation and erosion control消能工energy dissipator校核洪水位water level of check flood 校核流量check flood discharge斜缝斜墙泄洪洞泄洪雾化泄水重力坝胸墙悬臂梁汛期Y压力计压缩曲线淹没系数扬压力养护液化溢洪道溢流面溢流前缘溢流重力坝翼墙翼墙式连接引航道引水渠引张线法应力分析应力集中应力应变观测应力重分布永久缝优化设计有坝取水有效库容预压加固预应力衬砌inclined joint inclined coreflood discharge tunnel flood discharge atomization overflow gravity damcantiever beamflood periopressure meter compressive curve coefficient of submergence upliftcureliquifactionspillwayoverflow facelength of overflow crest overflow crestoverflow gravity dam wing wallwing wall type connection approach channel diversion canaltense wire method stress analysisstress concentrationstress-strain observationstress redistributionpermanent jointoptimizing designbarrage intakeeffective storagesoil improvement by preloading prestressed lining原型prototype约束条件constraint condition允许水力坡降allowable hydraulic gradient Z增量法increment method闸底板floor of slui闸墩pier闸孔sluice opening闸孔跨距span of sluice opening闸门槽gate slot闸室chamber of sluice闸首lock head闸址sluice site正槽溢洪道chute spillw正常使用极限状态limit state of normal operation 正应力normal stress正常溢洪道main spillw支墩坝buttress dam止水watertight seal止水装置sealing device趾板toe slab趾墩toe pier滞回圈hysteresis loop主应力principal stress纵缝longitudinal joint阻尼比damped ratio作用action作用水头working pressure head最优含水率optimum moisture content。
水利水电工程专业英语——水文与水资源篇
水利水电工程专业英语——水文与水资源篇1. Hydrological Cycle and Budget1.水文循环与预算Hydrology is an earth science. It encompasses the occurrence, distribution, movement, and properties of the waters of the earth and their environmental relations. Closely allied fields include geology, climatology, meteorology and oceanography.水文学是一门地球科学。
它包含地球水资源的发生、分布、运动和特质，以及其环境关系。
与之密切相关领域包括地质学，气候学，气象学和海洋学。
The hydrologic cycle is a continuous process by which water is transported from the oceans to the atmosphere to the land and back to the sea. Many sub-cycles exist. The evaporation of inland water and its subsequent precipitation over land before returning to the ocean is one example. The driving force for the global water transport system is provided by the sun, which furnishes the energy required for evaporation. Note that the water quality also changes during passage through the cycle; for example, sea water is converted to fresh water through evaporation.水文循环是一个连续的过程，在这个过程中水从海洋被运输到大气中，降落到陆地，然后回到海洋。
水利水电工程专业英语段翻译
•Owingto the fact that electr icity can be transm itted from whereit is genera ted to whereit is needed by meansof powerlinesand transf ormer s, largepowerstatio ns can be builtin remote places far fromindust rialcenter s or largecities, as is citedthe case with hydroe lectr ic powerstatio ns that are insepa rable from watersource s.•由于电力可以从发电的地方通过电线和变压器输送到需要用电的地方，因此大型电站可以建在远离工业中心或大城市的地方，离不开水源的水力发电站就常常是这样建立的。
Ideall y suited to narrow canyon s compos ed of rock, the archdam provid es an econom icaland effici ent struct ure to contro lthe stream flow. The load-carryi ng capaci ty of an arch damenable s the design er to conser ve materi al and stillmainta in anextrem ely safe struct ure.•拱坝最适合于修建在岩石峡谷中，它是一种控制河道中水流经济而有效的建筑物。
一座拱坝的承载能力足以使设计人员用较少的材料而仍能建成极为安全的结构。
水利专业英语翻译
5.Discussion 讨论This paper has analysed local-scale short-term spatio-temporal variations in groundwater composition in a wetland environment in The Netherlands. In general largest variations in groundwater quality parameters, both spatially and temporally, occur for nutrients (NO-, PO3-, NH4, K) and redox related metals (Fe, Mn). Macroions (Na-Cl, Ca-Mg-HCO3 and SiO2) show intermediate to low variations. Spatial and temporal RSD show good correlation, with spatial RSD-s being approximately three times larger than temporal RSD-t in the study area. This may partly be caused by the fact that in the determination of these indices spatial and temporal dimensions are interlinked to a certain degree, as spatial RSD is calculated as the median over the separate spatial RSD values per sampling campaign (i.e. time), and temporal RSD is calculated as the median over the separate temporal RSD values per filter screen (i.e. space).本文分析了荷兰的湿地环境中地下水组成成分在局地尺度下短期内时空变化。
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水利专业名词(中英) A安全储备 safety reserve安全系数 safety factor安全性 safety岸边溢洪道 river-bank spillway岸边绕渗 by-pass seepage around bank slope 岸墙 abutment wall岸塔式进水口 bank—tower intakeB坝的上游面坡度 upstream slpoe of dam坝的下游面 downstream face of dam坝顶 dam crest坝顶长度 crest length坝顶超高 freeboard of dam crest坝高 dam height坝顶高程 crest elevation坝顶宽度 crest width坝段 monolith坝基处理 foundation treatment坝基排水 drain in dam foundation坝基渗漏 leakage of dam foundation坝肩 dam abutment坝壳 dam shell坝坡 dam slope坝坡排水 drain on slope坝体混凝土分区 grade zone of concrete in dam坝体排水系统 drainage system in dam坝型选择 selection of dam type坝址选择 selection of dam site坝趾 dam toe坝踵 dam heel坝轴线 dam axis本构模型 constitutive model鼻坎 bucket比尺 scale比降 gradient闭门力 closing force边墩 side pier边界层 boundary layer边墙 side wall边缘应力 boundary stress变形观测 deformation observation变中心角变半径拱坝 variable angle and radius arch dam 标准贯入试验击数 number of standard penetration test 冰压力 ice pressure薄壁堰 sharp—crested weir薄拱坝 thin-arch dam不均匀沉降裂缝 differential settlement crack不平整度 irregularityC材料力学法 method of strength of materials材料性能分项系数 partial factor for property of material 侧槽溢洪道 side channel spillway侧轮 side roller侧收缩系数 coefficient of side contraction测缝计 joint meter插入式连接 insert type connection差动式鼻坎 differential bucket掺气 aeration掺气槽 aeration slot掺气减蚀 cavitation control by aeration厂房顶溢流 spill over power house沉降 settlement沉井基础 sunk shaft foundation沉沙池 sediment basin沉沙建筑物 sedimentary structure沉沙条渠 sedimentary channel沉陷缝 settlement joint沉陷观测 settlement observation衬砌的边值问题 boundary value problem of lining衬砌计算 lining calculation衬砌自重 dead-weight of lining承载能力 bearing capacity承载能力极限状态 limit state of bearing capacity 持住力 holding force齿墙 cut—off wall冲击波 shock wave冲沙闸 flush sluice冲刷坑 scour hole重现期 return period抽排措施 pump drainage measure抽水蓄能电站厂房 pump-storage power house出口段 outlet section初步设计阶段 preliminary design stage初参数解法 preliminary parameter solution 初生空化数 incipient cavitation number初应力法 initial stress method船闸 navigation lock垂直升船机 vertical ship lift纯拱法 independent arch method次要建筑物 secondary structure刺墙 key-wall粗粒土 coarse-grained soil错缝 staggered jointD大坝安全评价 assessment of dam safety大坝安全监控 monitor of dam safety大坝老化 dam aging大头坝 massive—head dam单层衬砌 monolayer lining单级船闸 lift lock单线船闸 single line lock挡潮闸 tide sluice挡水建筑物 retaining structure导流洞 diversion tunnel导墙 guide wall倒虹吸管 inverted siphon倒悬度 overhang等半径拱坝 constant radius arch dam等中心角变半径拱坝 constant angle and variable radius arch dam 底流消能 energy dissipation by hydraulic jump底缘 bottom edge地基变形 foundation deformation地基变形模量 deformation modulus of foundation地基处理 foundation treatment地下厂房 underground power house地下厂房变压器洞transformer tunnel of underground power house 地下厂房出线洞 bus-bar tunnel of underground power house地下厂房交通洞 access tunnel of underground power house地下厂房通风洞 ventilation tunnel of underground power house 地下厂房尾水洞 tailwater tunnel of underground power house 地下轮廓线 under outline of structure地下水 groundwater地形条件 topographical condition地形图比例尺 scale of topographical map地应力 ground stress地震 earthquake地震烈度 earthquake intensity地质条件 geological condition垫层 cushion垫座 plinth吊耳 lift eye调度 dispatch跌坎 drop—step跌流消能 drop energy dissipation跌水 drop迭代法 iteration method叠梁 stoplog丁坝 spur dike定向爆破堆石坝 directed blasting rockfill dam动强度 dynamic strength动水压力 hydrodynamic pressure洞内孔板消能 energy dissipation by orifice plate in tunnel洞内漩流消能 energy dissipation with swirling flow in tunnel 洞身段 tunnel body section洞室群 cavern group洞轴线 tunnel axis陡坡 steep slope渡槽短管型进水口 intake with pressure short pipe断层 fault堆石坝 rockfill dam对数螺旋线拱坝log spiral arch dam多级船闸 multi-stage lock多线船闸 multi-line lock多心圆拱坝 multi—centered arch dam多用途隧洞 multi-use tunnelE二道坝 secondary damF发电洞 power tunnel筏道 logway反弧段 bucket反滤层 filter防冲槽 erosion control trench防洪 flood preventi，flood control防洪限制水位 restricted stage for flood prevention防浪墙 parapet防渗墙 anti-seepage wall防渗体 anti—seepage body放空底孔 unwatering bottom outlet非常溢洪道 emergency spillway非线性有限元 non-linear finite element method非溢流重力坝 nonoverflow gravity dam分岔 fork分洪闸 flood diversion sluice分项系数 partial factor分项系数极限状态设计法 limit state design method of partial factor 封拱 arch closure封拱温度 closure temperature浮筒式升船机ship lift with floats浮箱闸门 floating camel gate浮运水闸 floating sluice辅助消能工 appurtenant energy dissipationG刚体极限平衡法 rigid limit equilibrium method刚性支护 rigid support钢筋混凝土衬砌 reinforced concrete lining钢筋计 reinforcement meter钢闸门 steel gate高边坡 high side slope高流速泄水隧洞 discharge tunnel with high velocity工程管理 project management工程规划 project plan工程量 quantity of work工程设计 engineering design工程施工 engineering construction工作桥 service bridge工作闸门 main gate拱坝坝肩岩体稳定 stability of rock mass near abutment of arch dam 拱坝布置 layout of arch dam拱坝上滑稳定分析 up—sliding stability analysis of arch dam拱坝体形 shape of arch dam拱端 arch abutment拱冠 arch crown拱冠梁法 crown cantilever method拱冠梁剖面 profile of crown cantilever拱内圈 intrados拱外圈 extrados固结 consolidation固结灌浆 consolidation grouting管涌 piping灌溉 irrigation规范 code，specification过坝建筑物 structures for passing dam过滤层 transition layer过渡区 transition zone过木机 log conveyer过木建筑物 log pass structures过鱼建筑物 fish-pass structuresH海漫 flexible涵洞 culvert河道冲刷 river bed scour荷载 load荷载组合 load combination横缝 transverse joint横拉闸门 horizontal rolling /sliding gate 洪水标准 flood standard虹吸溢洪道 siphon spillway厚高比 thickness to hight ratio弧形闸门 radial gate护岸工程 bank—protection works护坡 slope protection护坦 apron戽琉消能 bucke-type energy dissipation滑坡 land slip滑楔法 sliding wedge method环境评价 environment assessment换土垫层 cushion of replaced soil回填灌浆 backfill grouting混凝土 concrete混凝土衬砌 concrete lining混凝土防渗墙concrete cutoff wall混凝土面板 concrete face slab混凝土面板堆石坝 concrete-faced rockfill dam 混凝土重力坝 concrete gravity damJ基本荷载组合 basic load combination基本剖面 basic profile基面排水 base level drainage激光准直发 method of laser alignment极限平衡法 limit equilibrium method极限状态 limit state坚固系数 soundness coefficient剪切模量 shear modulus剪切应力 shear stress检查 inspection检修闸门 bulkhead简单条分法 simple slices method建筑材料 construction material渐变段 transition键槽 key/key—way浆砌石重力坝 cement—stone masonry gravity dam 交叉建筑物 crossing structure交通桥 access bridge校核洪水位 water level of check floo校核流量 check flood discharge接触冲刷 contact washing接触流土 soil flow on contact surface节制闸 controlling sluice结构可靠度 reliability of structure结构力学法 structural mechanics method结构系数 structural coefficient截流环 cutoff collar截水槽 cutoff trench进口段 inlet进口曲线 inlet curve进水喇叭口 inlet bellmouth进水闸 inlet sluice浸润面 saturated area浸润线 saturated line经济评价 economic assessment井式溢洪道 shaft spillway均质土坝 homogeneous earth damK开敞式溢洪道 open channel spillway开裂机理 crack mechanism勘测 exploration survey坎上水深 water depth on sill抗冲刷性 scour resistance抗冻性 frost resistance抗滑稳定安全系数 safety coefficient of stability against sliding 抗剪断公式 shear—break strength formula抗剪强度 shear strength抗裂性 crack resistance抗磨 abrasion—resistance抗侵蚀性 erosion-resistance抗震分析 analysis of earthquake resistance颗粒级配曲线 grain size distribution curve可靠度指标 reliability index可行性研究设计阶段 design stage of feasibility study空腹重力坝 hollow gravity dam空腹拱坝 hollow arch dam空化 cavitation空化数 cavitation number空蚀 cavitation damage控制堰 control weir枯水期 low water period库区 reservoir area宽顶堰 broad crested weir宽缝重力坝 slotted gravity dam宽高比 width to height ratio扩散段 expanding section扩散角 divergent angleL拦沙坎 sediment control sill拦污栅 trash rack廊道 gallery浪压力 wave pressure棱体排水 prism drainage理论分析 theory analysis力法方程 canonical equation of force method 连续式鼻坎 plain bucket联合消能 combined energy dissipation梁式渡槽 beam-type flume量水建筑物 water-measure structure裂缝 crack临界水力坡降 critical hydraulic gradient临时缝 temporary joint流量 discharge流速 flow velocity流态 flow pattern流土 soil flow流网 flow net流向 flow direction露顶式闸门 emersed gateM马蹄形断面 horseshoe section脉动压力 fluctuating pressure锚杆支护 anchor support门叶 gate flap迷宫堰 labyrinth weir面流消能 energy dissipation of surface regime 模型试验 model test摩擦公式 friction factor formula摩擦系数 coefficient of friction目标函数 objective functionN内部应力 internal stress内摩擦角 internal friction angle内水压力 internal water pressure挠度观测 deflection observation粘性土 cohesive soil碾压混凝土重力坝 roller compacted concrete gravity dam 凝聚力 cohesion扭曲式鼻坎 distorted type bucketP排沙底孔 flush bottom outlet排沙漏斗 flush funnel排沙隧洞 flush tunnel排水 drainage排水孔 drain hole排水设施 drainage facilities抛物线拱坝 parabolic arch dam喷混凝土支护shotcrete support喷锚支护 spray concrete and deadman strut漂木道 log chute平板坝 flat slab buttress dam平衡重式升船机vertical ship lift with counter weight 平面闸门 plain gate平压管 equalizing pipe坡率 slope ratio破碎带 crush zone铺盖 blanketQ启门力 lifting force砌石拱坝 stone masonry arch dam潜坝 submerged dam潜孔式闸门 submerged gate倾斜仪 clinometer曲线形沉沙池 curved sedimentary basin渠首 canal head渠道 canal渠系建筑物 canal system structure取水建筑物 water intake structureR人工材料心墙坝earth-rock dam with manufactured central core 人字闸门 mitre gate任意料区 miscellaneous aggregate zone溶洞 solution cavern柔度系数 flexibility coefficient褥垫式排水 horizontal blanket drainage软弱夹层 weak intercalationS三角网法 triangulation method三角形单元 triangular element三心圆拱坝 three center arch dam三轴试验 triaxial test上游 upstream设计洪水位 design flood level设计基准期 design reference period设计阶段 design stage设计阶段划分 dividing of design stage 设计流量 design discharge设计状况系数 design state coefficient 设计准则 design criteria伸缩缝 contraction joint渗流比降 seepage gradient渗流变形 seepage deformation渗流分析 seepage analysis渗流量 seepage discharge渗流体积力 mass force of seepage渗流系数 permeability coefficient 生态环境 ecological environment生态平衡 ecological balance失效概率 probability of failure施工导流 construction diversion施工缝 construction joint施工管理 construction management施工条件 construction condition施工图阶段 construction drawing stage实体重力坝 solid gravity dam实用剖面 practical profile实用堰 practical weir事故闸门 emergency gate视准线法 collimation method收缩段 constringent section枢纽布置 layout of hydraulic complex输水建筑物 water conveyance structure竖式排水 vertical drainage数值分析 numerical analysis双层衬砌 double—layer lining双曲拱坝 double curvature arch dam水电站地下厂房 underground power house水电站建筑物 hydroelectric station structure 水垫塘 cushion basin水工建筑物 hydraulic structure水工隧洞 hydraulic tunnel水环境 water environment水库吹程 fetch水库浸没 reservoir submersion水库渗漏 reservoir leakage水库坍岸 reservoir bank caving水库淹没 reservoir inundation水力劈裂 hydraulic fracture水利工程 hydraulic engineering，water project 水利工程设计 design of hydroproject水利工程枢纽分等 rank of hydraulic complex水利枢纽 hydraulic complex水面线 water level line水能 hydraulic energy水平位移 horizontal displacement水体污染 water pollution水土流失 water and soil loss水位急降 instantaneous reservoir drawdown水压力 hydraulic pressu水闸 sluice水质 water quality水资源 water resources顺坝 longitudinal dike四边形单元 quadrangular element塑性破坏 failure by plastic flow塑性变形 plastic deformation塑性区 plastic range锁坝 closure dike锁定器 dog deviceTT型墩 T—type pier塌落拱法 roof collapse arch method塔式进水口 tower intake台阶式溢流坝面 step—type overflow face弹塑性理论 elastoplastic theory弹性基础梁 beam on elastic foundation弹性抗力 elastic resistance弹性中心 elastic centre弹性理论 theory of elasticity特殊荷载组合 special load combination体形优化设计 shape optimizing design挑距 jet trajectory distance挑流消能 ski-jump energy dissipation挑射角 exit angle of jet调压室 surge tank贴坡排水 surface drainage on dam slope通航建筑物 navigation structure通气孔 air hole土工复合材料 geosynthetic土工膜 geomembrane土工织物 geotexile土石坝 earth—rock dam土压力 earth pressure土质材料斜墙坝 earth-rock dam with inclined soil core 土质心墙坝 earth-rock dam with central soil core驼峰堰 hump weir椭圆曲线 elliptical curveWWES型剖面堰 WES curve profile weir外水压力 external water pressure弯矩平衡 moment equilibrium围岩 surrounding rock围岩强度 strength of surrounding rock 围岩稳定分析围岩压力 surrounding rock pressu帷幕灌浆 curtain grouting维修 maintenance尾水渠 tailwater canal温度缝 temperature joint温度计 thermometer温度应变 temperature strain温度应力 temperature stress温降 temperature drop温升 temperature rise污水处理 sewage treatment无坝取水 undamed intake无粘性土 cohesionless soil无压泄水孔 free-flow outletX下游 downstream现场检查 field inspection橡胶坝 rubber dam消力池 stilling basin消能防冲设计 design of energy dissipation and erosion control 消能工 energy dissipator校核洪水位 water level of check flood校核流量 check flood discharge斜缝 inclined joint斜墙 inclined core泄洪洞 flood discharge tunnel泄洪雾化 flood discharge atomization泄水重力坝 overflow gravity dam胸墙 breast wall悬臂梁 cantiever beam汛期 flood perioY压力计 pressure meter压缩曲线 compressive curve淹没系数 coefficient of submergence扬压力 uplift养护 cure液化 liquifaction溢洪道 spillway溢流面 overflow face溢流前缘 length of overflow crest溢流堰顶 overflow crest溢流重力坝 overflow gravity dam翼墙 wing wall翼墙式连接 wing wall type connection引航道 approach channel引水渠 diversion canal引张线法 tense wire method应力分析 stress analysis应力集中 stress concentration应力应变观测 stress-strain observation应力重分布 stress redistribution永久缝 permanent joint优化设计 optimizing design有坝取水 barrage intake有效库容 effective storage预压加固 soil improvement by preloading 预应力衬砌 prestressed lining原型 prototype约束条件 constraint condition允许水力坡降allowable hydraulic gradientZ增量法 increment method闸底板 floor of slui闸墩 pier闸孔 sluice opening闸孔跨距 span of sluice opening闸门槽 gate slot闸室 chamber of sluice闸首 lock head闸址 sluice site正槽溢洪道 chute spillw正常使用极限状态 limit state of normal operation 正应力 normal stress正常溢洪道 main spillw支墩坝 buttress dam止水 watertight seal止水装置 sealing device趾板 toe slab趾墩 toe pier滞回圈 hysteresis loop主应力 principal stress纵缝 longitudinal joint阻尼比 damped ratio作用 action作用水头 working pressure head最优含水率 optimum moisture content。
水利工程环境影响评价毕业论文英文文献翻译
英语原文:Methods and procedures for EIAEIA is the strategic for the active environmental management of basin development and the construction items. For water resources and power development, during basin-wide planning and feasibility study stage of projects environmental impact assessment should be prepared. Forbasin-wide planning document a chapter on environmental impacts assessment is necessary while for feasibility study of projects the environmental impact statement should be prepared.1 purposes of the assessmentThe purpose of EIA is to assess the environmental effects due to river basin development playing or proposed hydroelectric project .For the purpose of rationally utilizing natural resources, protecting the environment, improving environmental quality, and maintaining the ecological balance, the optimum plan can be screened out through the comparison of the technical, economical and environmental indices of the alternative plans of the project. Besides, the corresponding mitigation measures for the adverse effects and the improvement measures for the beneficial effects should be put forwards during various stages, such as planning, design, construction, and management. The work of EIA is very important, as EIA (s) is the fundamental document for decision making and policy arrangement for the project. The development of EIA makes it possible to changethe work of environmental protection from a status of passive control into a status of active prevention In addition, the most important point is that through the work of EIA the project could develop more comprehensive benefits and eliminate the adverse effect.2 The classification of the assessmentAccording to the temporal and spatial dimensions the environmental impact assessment can be classified into two categories. From temporal dimension it can be further classified as the retrospective environmental impact assessment for exiting projects, the present environmental impact assessment for project under construction and the prospective environmental impact assessment for projects under planning. Generally speaking, the environmental impact assessment refers almost all to the prospective EIA. From spatial dimension it can be classified as assessment for individual project, for a system of projects, and even for all the projects included in the river basin planning. The depth of work for environmental assessment should be compatible with stage of planning and design. In the river basin planning stage, the environmental assessment should be made for the whole basin, and a preliminary suggestion for mitigation measures of the adverse effects should be proposed. If necessary, reports on special topics should be provided for significant impacts. In the feasibility study stage, the environmental assessment for each of important parameters and comprehensive chapter of environmental protection should beprovided o give a detailed description for demonstration the environmental effect of project and implementing the mitigation and improvement measures for the adverse effects,. In technical design stage, an additional study should be made for the remaining key problems. In the stage of construction, the environmental prot6ection planning and the practicing schedule for the construction area and the reservoir region should be included.3 Methods and proceduresIn practice, methods are closely interconnected with procedures. According to the process of EIA. The methods used can be divided into two categories. One is for assessing the environmental change and impact of each individual parameter, and the other is for assessing the impact of the whole project. After assessment, appropriate mitigation measures can be established, and comprehensive indices and indicators for the whole project can be derived so as to facilitate the comparison of alternative project designs. The assessment procedures consist of five main steps:Impact identification, impact prediction, impact evaluation, mitigation and protective measures, and monitoring programs. Among the five steps the impact identification, impact prediction and impact evaluation are most important. For each step there are different methods and considerations.Impact identificationThe steps taken to identify environmental parameters likely to have impacts are as follows:? Understanding the characteristics of the project, such as backwater curve, change of hydraulic and hydrological regime (such as change of discharge and silt distribution).? Selection of an existing similar project and carrying out retrospective environmental assessment for reference.? Investigation and description of the status of the existing environmental setting and base line.? Use of checklists of interaction matrices for impact identification. ? Proposing the parameters with likely impacts or the unknown parameters for further impact prediction.The purposes of this are to identify the significant environmental modification, and to estimate the probability that the impact will occur. Impact prediction begins with quality identification, then simple methods are used for quantification and finally multi-factor modeling is used for detailed quantification. Some of the methods might be classified as follows:1 Mathematical modeling of empirical formula (such as the reservoir and so on).2 Investigation and measurement (such as through investigation of the scope of distribution of terrestrial flora and fauna within the inundated zone to predict the impact on them, the same method is used for prediction of the impact on historic and archaeological sites).3 An alysis of the effects of changes in the hydraulic and hydrological regime (such as through the study of change of flow and silt patterns to predict the areas influenced or affected by flood, water-logging and salinity downstream, or through the change of habitats of flora and fauna to predict the future condition of the different species).4 Analogy or comparison with existing projects (such as the use of comparison to identify the change in water temperature qualitatively).Impact evaluation1. Environmental impact of each individual environmental parameter. One mustinvestigate the change in environmental quality, propose the remedial measures for adverse effects, calculate the relationship between benefits and costs, and see whether the environmental change is beneficial and acceptable. The methods consist of: ? A comparison of environmental indices or indications between the situations with and without the project.? Establishing the value function graphs for each individual parameter and seeing whether the environmental quality is improved or not (0-10 can be used to show the degree of the environmental quality, where 0 that indicates the environment quality is the worst, and 10 the best).? Proposing remedial measures for adverse effects and calculating costs. ? Reassessing the environment quality after the remedialmeasure is taken. ? Estimating the differences in adverse effect between the situations with and without mitigation measures.? Calaculating the benefits of measures? Anaktzing the relationship between benefits and costs, to see whether the impact on the parameter is acceptable, and to see effectiveness of measures. Comprehensive assessment of the project The purpose of comprehensive assessment is to evaluate the index of impact of the whole project to compare all the options and to select the optimum plan. Cost- benefit and adverse effects of the project are calculated to conclusion for every project. Methods of environmental evaluation system, multi-criteria analysis or cost-benefit analysis might be used. Just like ad hoc methods, checklists, matrices, overlays, networks, cost-benefit analysis, simulation modeling, and system analysis, etc. The superiorities and deficiencies of all the main can be assessed by six indices. The procedures for basin environmental impact assessment are same as those for a water resources project, but the methods are not so perfect now. A method is based on the quantified indices of environmental impacts, subject to satisfying of the multipurpose of development as its constraints and the minimum of total adverse impact (as people displaced) as objectives, by the dynamic programming technique and the matrixapproach etc., to layout the plan and determine the scale of each water project. For example, Dongjiang River Basin (in Guandong Province) planning, the weighted region controlling approach and keyelements controlling approach have been used for fuzzy assessment. Another approach used by individual organization is: ? Considering all projects or components of components of the whole basin as a unit or several suitable units to assess the whole environmental impacts on the upper part (above the lowest cascade) of the basin.? Computing the total indices of the conjunctive operation of all projects of the basin such as the changing of hydrologic and sedimentation regime, etc. to assess the whole environmental impacts on the middle, lower reaches, and the estuary. ? Preparing the EIA of single key project or its coordination with other projects in order to prevent the negation of the key project by environmental impacts to influence the feasibility of the whole plan. Research of the important points for EIA 1 Levels of the environmental systems.The environment is a complicated system. For EIA the totality of environment should be divided into several levels of sub-systems. Usually under the totality of environment it is divided into four levels of sysrt4ema, namely environmental categories, environmental components, environmental parameters, and environmental measurements. In China the environmental categories are further classified as natural environment and social environment. Under the item of natural environment it is again subdivided into many environmental components such as local climate of reservoir area, which again consists of the environmental parameters such as precipitation. Wind and fog as their sublevel. For evaluation of thechange of precipitation many values of environmental measurements such as internal moisture, external moisture, and their relationships to precipitations are utilized. 2 Geographic study areasThe area affected by a project is determined on the scale, character, and location of the project. In addition to the regions directly affected by the project, effects on certain neighboring regions, on the whole basin, on a neighboring basin, and even on the estuary should be considered. The affected area is not the same for each plan and for each environmental factor, but the affected areas for all alternative plans should be coordinated. In other words, the area of study should include the whole area affected as well as some additional area for putting the effects into perspective. In the case of a water quality parameter, such as temperature, the area affects into perspective. In the area and the reaches downstream, where the temperature of the water is estimated to change at least 1.0 .3 Time frame for comparisonsIn a planning investigation, the time frame for making comparisons of environmental effects should be the same as the time frame for makingeconomic evaluations. Ordinarily, projections are made based on the future with and without project conditions for the time levels of under construction, completion and in operation (25 years after completion).外文译文:水利工程环境影响评价环境影响评价是评价由于人类的活动(如兴建大坝工程等)所引起的环境改变及其影响，它是区域开发和建谈项目环境管理的一种战略防御手段。
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DamThe first dam for which there are reliable records was build or the Nile River sometime before 4000 . It was used to divert the Nile and provide a site for the ancient city of Memphis .The oldest dam still in use is the Almanza Dam in Spain, which was constructed in the sixteenth century. With the passage of time,materials and methods of construction have improved. Making possible the erection of such large dams as the Nurek Dam, which is being constructed in the . on the vaksh River near the border of Afghanistan. This dam will be 1017ft(333m) high, of earth and rock fill. The failure of a dam may cause serious loss of life and property; consequently, the design and maintenance of dams are commonly under government surveillance. In the United States over 30,000 dams are under the control of state authorities. The 1972 Federal Dams Safety Act (PL92-367)requires periodic inspections of dams by qualified experts. The failure of the Teton Dam in Idaho in June 1976 added to the concern for dam safety in the United States.1 Type of DamsDams are classified on the type and materials of construction, as gravity, arch, buttress ,and earth .The first three types are usually constructed of concrete. A gravity dam depends on its own weight for stability and it usually straight in plan although sometimes slightly curved.Arch dams transmit most of the horizontal thrust of the water behind them to the abutments by arch action and have thinner cross sections than comparable gravity dams. Arch dams can be used only in narrow canyons where the walls are capable of withstanding the thrust produced by the arch action. The simplest of the many types of buttress dams is the slab type, which consists of sloping flat slabs supported at intervals by buttresses. Earth dams are embankments of rock or earth with provision for controlling seepage by means of dam may be included in a single structure. Curved dams may combine both gravity and arch action to achieve stability. Long dams often have a concrete river section containing spillway and sluice gates and earth or rock-fill wing dams for the remainder of their length.The selection of the best type of dam for a given site is a problem in both engineering feasibility and cost. Feasibility is governed by topography, geology and climate. For example, because concrete spalls when subjected to alternate freezing and thawing, arch and buttress dams with thin concrete section are sometimes avoided in areas subject to extreme cold. The relative cost of the various types of dams depends mainly on the availability of construction materials near the site and the accessibility of transportation facilities. Dams are sometimes built in stages with the second or late stages constructed a decade or longer after the first stage.The height of a dam is defined as the difference in elevation between the roadway, or spillway crest, and the lowest part of the excavated foundation. However, figures quoted for heights of dams are often determined in other ways. Frequently the height is taken as the net height is taken as the net height above the old riverbed.on damsA dam must be relatively impervious to water and capable of resisting the forces acting on it. The most important of these forces are gravity (weight of dam) , hydrostatic pressure, uplift, ice pressure, and earthquake forces are transmitted to the foundation and abutments of the dam, which react against the dam with an equal and opposite force, the foundation reaction. The effect of hydrostatic forces caused by water flowing over the dam may require consideration in special cases.The weight of a dam is the product of its volume and the specific weight of the material. The line of action of dynamic force passes through the center of mass of the cross section. Hydrostatic force may act on both the upstream and downstream faces of the dam. The horizontal componentH of the hydrostatic force is the force or unit width of damhit is2/2HrhhWhere r is the specific weight of water and h is the depth of water .The line of action of this force is h/3 above the base of thedam .The vertical component of the hydrostatic force is equal to the weigh of water vertically above the face of the dam and passes through the center of gravity of this volume of water.Water under pressure inevitably finds its way between the dam And its foundation and creates uplift pressures. The magnitude of the uplift force depends on the character of the foundation and the construction methods. It is often assumed that the uplift pressure varies linearly from full hydrostatic pressure at the upstream face (heel)to full tail-water pressure at the downstream face (toe).For this assumption the uplift force U isU=r(h1+h2)t/2Where t is the base thickness of the dam and h1and h2 are the water depths at the heel and toe of the dam,respectively. The uplift force will act through the center of area of the pressure trapezoid.Actual measurements on dams indicate that the uplift force is much less than that given by Eq.(2)Various assumption have been made regarding the distribution of uplift of Reclamation sometimes assumes that the uplift pressure on gravity dams varies linearly from two-thirds of full uplift at the heel to zero at the toe. Drains are usually provided near the heel of the dam to permit the escape of seepage water and relieve uplift.译文：坝据可靠记载，世界上第一座坝是公元前4000年以前在尼罗河上修建的。