THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF ASSESSING COGNITIVE AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN B
H.H.Stern 语言教学的基本概念总结资料
语言教学的基本概念总结资料第一部分扫除障碍clearing the groundChapter oneL1L1 terms are used to indicate, first of all, that a person has acquired the language in infancy and early childhood and generally within the family. Secondly, the L1 terms signal a characteristic level of proficiency in the language. A person's first language is a basis for sociolinguistic identity. L1 language is also called the native language or primary language, consequently, it would be best to reserve the term “native language” for the language of early-childhood acquisition and “primary language” for the language of dominant or preferred use when the distinction has to be made, with the terms first language to cover both uses, allowing the context to make clear the distinction.L2The term second language has two meanings. First, it refers to the chronology of language learning. A second language is any language acquired later than the native language. This definition deliberately leaves open how much later second languages are acquired. At one extreme the second language learning process takes place at an early age when the native language command is still rudimentary. At the other, it may take place in adult life when the L1 acquisition process is virtually completed or slowed down. Or, it may take place at any stage between these two extremes. Secondly, the term second language is used to refer to the level of language command in comparison with a primary or dominant language. In this sense, second language indicates a lower level of actual or believed proficiency. Hence second means also ‘weaker’or ‘secondary’.BilingualismBilingualism can be used in two situations. When we say “ Canada is a bilingual country”, we are making a statement about the objectivity or legal status of two languages in that country. It does not necessarily mean that every individual in that country is bilingual. It may mean no more than that some people in Canada are native speakers of one language and other people are native speakers of the other language.The second use of the term, namely that of personal bilingualism, implies (a) notions of manner of language acquisition and (b) level of proficiency in the two languages. With regard to (a), it suggests a simultaneous language learning process in two languages which is analogous to first or native language acquisition in one language. With reference to the level of command, being bilingualism is usually understood to mean a high level of proficiency in two languages. In more technical discussions the use of the concept of bilingualism in this respect has changed. It has tended to be more broadly defined so that any proficiency level in more than one language can be referred to as bilingualism.Second versus foreign languageIn contrasting second and foreign language there is today consensus that a necessary distinction is to be made between a non-native language learnt and used within one country to which the term second language has been applied, and a non-native language learnt and used with reference to a speech community outside national or territorial boundaries to which the termforeign language is commonly given. A second language usually has official status or a recognized function within a country which a foreign language has not.The purposes of second language are quite different from foreign language. Second language is needed for the full participation in the political or economical life of the nation since it is the official language or educational language, while the foreign language learners hold a variety of purposes in mind, such as traveling or communicating with native speakers.A second language, because it is used within the country, is learnt with much more environmental support than a foreign language whose speech community may be thousands of miles away. A foreign language usually requires more formal instruction and other measures compensating for the lack of environmental support. By contrast, a second language is often learnt informally because of its widespread use within the environment.International language / intranational languageSecond and foreign language learning both imply a specified speech community or communities as a territorial reference or contact group. International or intranational language lack this characteristic. Thus, English in India which has the status of an official language but has no specified reference group, is learnt as a means of intranational communication. If English is learnt in many countries across the world, this is not only with reference to specified English-speaking territories, but as a means of international communication across national boundaries among speakers of other language. For this role the term international language has been proposed.Language learningThe psychological concept of learning includes not only learning of skills and acquisition of knowledge. It refers also to learning to learn and learning to think. Language learning is also widely concerned, it includes all kinds of language learning.From the perspective of the psychology of learning, learning has been approached in two main ways: (1) through theoretical and experimental studies and (2) through empirical studies in educational settings.With regards to the (1), broadly speaking, two groups can be distinguished. The first, derived from the British associationist school of philosophy, adopts a largely environmentalist view of man. Modern milestone in the development of this position are Watson’s behaviorism, Skinner’s operate conditioning, etc. Theories in this school of thought, so-called S-R theories, are characterized by emphasis on externally observable response to specific stimuli, an empirical and experimental approach, and the avoidance of subjective or mentalist concept. The psychology of learning, according to this viewpoint, therefore, is a study of learning phenomena which disregards the intentions, the thinking, the conscious planning and internal processes of the learner.The other trend of thought on learning is cognitive approaches to learning, of which an early representative was Gestalt psychology. It had laid emphasis on innate organizing principles in human perception, cognition, sensorimotor skills, learning, and even in social conduct. For Gestalt theory, it is impossible to represent human learning without concepts of subjective experience, such as the sudden click of understanding. Gestalt psychology was able to throw light on perceptual and cognitive learning by describing and demonstrating the subjective cognitive experiences of the learner with such concepts as ‘whole and part’, field, structure, andorganization.Without necessarily subscribing to all the concepts of the Gestalt school, some psychologists have developed a cognitive theory of learning. They lay emphasis on meaningful learning, meaning being understood not as a behavioral response, but as a conscious experience which emerges when potentially meaningful signs, symbols or concepts are related to and incorporated within a given individual’s cognitive structure.As far as the empirical studies of learning are concerned, psychology has also investigated learning problems from the applied side in practical learning situations. Critics have deplored the wide gap between the classroom learning theory and the theoretical and laboratory study of learning.Categories of the psychology of learning, commonly applied to formal educational activities, refer to (a) characteristics of the learners and individual differences among learners, (b) different kinds of learning, (c) the learning process and (d) outcomes of learning.(a)Among learner characteristics, factors that are frequently presented in the literature include: (1)the influence of age and maturity on mental development and learning; (2)the influence of heredity and environment on abilities and achievement; (3) specific aptitudes for particular learning tasks, for example, musical aptitude, language learning aptitude, etc. (4) the influence of home and community on motivations and attitudes.(b)What is being learnt has been frequently expressed as three psychological categories. They areconceptual and verbal learning, skill learning and affective and social learning.(c)As for the process of learning, a number of distinctions have been introduced. One is on thetime-scale of learning: early learning in contrast with the later learning; learning processes may further differ in the degree of awareness or volitional control on the part of the learner: the conscious learning and the latent learning,, the distinction introduced by Krashen between language learning and language acquisition refers to this identification. The contrast between mechanical learning and cognitive learning refers to the degree of conceptual understanding of the learning task by learners.(d)Lastly, the needs of assessing the outcome of learning have led to the development of tests ofachievement and proficiency. Techniques of measurement and evaluation, which psychometrics has contributed to educational psychology, have an obvious relevance for the assessment of language learning.Learning and acquisitionThe American applied linguist Krashen uses the term “acquisition’to describe second language learning which is analogous to the way in which a child acquires his first language, that is naturally, without focus on linguistic form, and learning as conscious language development particularly in formal school-like settings.A disadvantage of Krashen’s terminology is that it runs counter to the terms used in psychology which, as we have noted, comprise Krashen’s acquisition and learning as different ways of learning.Language teachingIt can be defined as the activities which are intended to bring about language learning. All that need to be pointed out is that language teaching is more widely interpreted than instructing alanguage class. Formal instruction or methods of training are included, but so is individualized instruction, self-study, computer-assisted instruction, and the use of media, such as radio or television.Chapter two: theory and practiceDefinition of theoryThe word theory is used in three fairly distinct but related senses. When we speak of theory of art, or educational theory, the term theory is used in the first and widest sense (T1). It refers to the systematic study of the thought related to a topic or activity, for example, art, music, or education.Second, under T1, it is possible to subsume different schools of thought or theories (T2), each with their own assumptions, postulates, principles, models and concepts. What we often loosely referred to as language teaching method. Lastly, in the natural and human sciences the concept of theory is employed in a more rigorous third sense(T3) as “ a hypothesis or set of hypotheses that have been verified by observation or experiment’’. The theory of evolution is a case in point.Criteria for a good theoryWe can identify the following criteria as relevant to theory development in language teaching (1) usefulness and applicabilitySince a theory of second language teaching is primarily a theory of practical activities. It should be useful, effective or applicable. It proves its usefulness by making sense of planning, decision making, and practice. It should help decision making both on the broader policy level and at the level of classroom activity. The crucial test of language teaching theory is its effect.InterlanguageAn interlanguage is an emerging linguistic system that has been developed by a learner of a second language (or L2) who has not become fully proficient yet but is only approximating the target language: preserving some features of their first language (or L1) in speaking or writing the target language and creating innovations. An interlanguage is idiosyncratically(特殊物质的, 特殊的, 异质的) based on the learners' experiences with the L2. It can ossify in any of its developmental stages. The learner creates an interlanguage using different learning strategies such as language transfer, overgeneralisation and simplification.Interlanguage is based on the theory that there is a "psychological structure latent in the brain" which is activated when one attempts to learn a second language. Larry Selinker proposed the theory of interlanguage in 1972, noting that in a given situation the utterances produced by the learner are different from those native speakers would produce had they attempted to convey the same meaning. This comparison reveals a separate linguistic system. This system can be observed when studying the utterances of the learners who attempt to produce a target language norm.To study the psychological processes involved one should compare the interlanguage of the learner with two things:Utterances in the native language to convey the same message made by the learnerUtterances in the target language to convey the same message made by the native speaker of that language.Interlanguage yields new linguistic variety. Interlanguage is the basis for diversification of linguistic forms through an outside linguistic influence. Dialects formed by interlanguage are the product of a need to communicate between speakers with varying linguistic ability, and with increased interaction with a more standard dialect, are often marginalized or eliminated in favor of a standard dialect. In this way, interlanguage may be thought of as a temporary tool in language or dialect acquisition.Stephen Krashen & SLAStephen Krashen is professor emeritus at the University of Southern California, and is a linguist, educational researcher, and activist. Krashen has contributed to the fields of second language acquisition (SLA), bilingual education, and reading. He is credited with introducing various influential concepts and terms in the study of second language acquisition, including the distinction between acquisition and learning, the Input Hypothesis, Monitor Theory, the Affective Filter, and the Natural Order Hypothesis.The term "language acquisition" became commonly used after Stephen Krashen contrasted it with formal and non-constructive "learning." However, "second language acquisition" or "SLA" has become established as the preferred term for this academic discipline.Though SLA is often viewed as part of applied linguistics, it is typically concerned with the language system and learning processes themselves, whereas applied linguistics may focus more on the experiences of the learner, particularly in the classroom. Additionally, SLA has mostly examined naturalistic acquisition, where learners acquire a language with little formal training or teaching.The monitor theory 监控理论It was put forward by Krashen in the late 1970s. The theory consists of the following five hypotheses:①The acquisition-learning hypothesis The theory claims that adult learners of a second language have two ways of developing their competence —acquisition and learning. The basic distinction between language acquisition and language learning is whether the learner pays a conscious attention to the rules of the target language. Acquisition refers to the subconscious process in which learners develop their language proficiency. Learning refers to the conscious process in which learners acquire the knowledge of rules of the target language.②The monitor hypothesis Different functions— According to Krashen, acquisition is responsible for the fluency of the utterances produced by speakers while learning is responsible for the accuracy of the speeches or passages. Three conditions — In order to perform this monitor function, language learners have to satisfy at least threeconditions: sufficient time to monitor his production, to have his focus on form, and to have clear knowledge of the rules of the target language.③The natural order hypothesis Same order —The hypothesis claims that foreign language learners acquire the rules of the target language in the same order no matter where, when and how they are learning the language. Speed —In Krashen’s point of view, language teaching cannot change the natural order of language acquisition. It can only facilitate the speed of acquisition.④The input hypothesis Language input and language acquisition—According to Krashen, the only way for people to acquire a language is by understanding messages or receiving comprehensive input. They move from their current level to the next level by understanding input. They move from i, their current level, to i+1, the next level along the natural order, by understanding input containing i+1. That is to say, language is acquired by people’s comprehension of input that is slightly beyond their current level.⑤The affective filter hypothesis Purpose —It attempts to explain the variation in speed of language acquisition among individuals of the same group. The three affective factors which determines the speed of success —motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. Influence of the three factors —learners with high motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety will do much better than those that are unmotivated, lacking in self-confidence and concerned too much with failure. That is to say, learners with a low affective filter will get more input than learners with a high affective filter.Error analysisError analysis in SLA was established in the 1960s by Stephen Pit Corder and colleagues (Corder, 1967). Error analysis was an alternative to contrastive analysis, an approach influenced by behaviorism through which applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners' first and second languages to predict errors. Error analysis showed that contrastive analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more valuable aspects have been incorporated into the study of language transfer. A key finding of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the new language.Error analysts distinguish between errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are not. They often seek to develop a typology of errors. Error can be classified according to basic type: omissive, additive, substitutive or related to word order. They can be classified by how apparent they are: overt errors such as "I angry" are obvious even out of context, whereas covert errors are evident only in context. Closely related to this is the classification according to domain, the breadth of context which the analyst must examine, and extent, the breadth of the utterance which must be changed in order to fix the error. Errors may also be classified according to the level of language: phonological errors, vocabulary or lexical errors, syntactic errors, and so on. They may be assessed according to the degree to which they interfere with communication: global errors make an utterance difficult to understand, while local errors do not. In the above example, "I angry" would be a local error, since the meaning is apparent.From the beginning, error analysis was beset with methodological problems. In particular, the above typologies are problematic: from linguistic data alone, it is often impossible to reliably determine what kind of error a learner is making. Also, error analysis can deal effectively only with learner production (speaking and writing) and not with learner reception (listening and reading). Furthermore, it cannot account for learner use of communicative strategies such as avoidance, in which learners simply do not use a form with which they are uncomfortable. For these reasons, although error analysis is still used to investigate specific questions in SLA, the quest for an overarching theory of learner errors has largely been abandoned. In the mid-1970s, Corder and others moved on to a more wide-ranging approach to learner language, known as interlanguage.Error analysis is closely related to the study of error treatment in language teaching. Today, the study of errors is particularly relevant for focus on form teaching methodology.Pedagogical grammarPedagogical grammar serves as an intermediary or link between linguistics and pedagogy. Drawing on work in several fields such as linguistics, psychology and second language acquisition theory, pedagogical grammar is of a hybrid nature, which usually denotes grammatical analysis and instruction designed for the needs of second language students. In its expanded view it involves decision making processes on behalf of the teacher which requires careful and time-consuming interdisciplinary work. This process is influenced by the teachers’ cognition, beliefs, assumptions, and attitudes about the teaching of grammar.Noblitt bases his conception of a pedagogical grammar on a fivefold analysis: a pedagogical grammar requires descriptive and contrastive data and concepts, an ordering of the information in terms of skills( listening, speaking, reading, and writing) and in terms of levels of achievement (elementary, intermediate, and advanced), and evaluation procedures, bearing in mind objectives and educational settings for which the pedagogical grammar in intended.What is the relationship between the linguistics and language teaching?The relationship between linguistics and language teaching has moved through different phases. In spite of the early interest in phonetics around the turn of the 20th century, the language teaching remained unaffected until the interwar period. Equally, the linguists ignored the application of linguistics in the pedagogical activities.From about the 1940s to 1960s, there is a confident application of linguistics in the teaching practice. Linguists in the forties in America were fully aware of their role in language teaching. Bloomfield suggested a professional and almost technical approach in teaching the language. The set of the approach was (1) a structural analysis of the language, forming the basis for graded material, (2) presentation of the analysis by a trained linguist, (3) several hours of drill per day with the help of a native speaker and in small classes, and (4) emphasis on speaking as the first objective. The structuralism forms the linguistic basis of the audiolingual method which was prevailing in the 40s and 50s.The new perspective of language offered by transformational generative grammar led to a violent rejection of structuralism and everything it stood for. It shook the foundations of structuralism in linguistics and by implication of audiolingualism in language teaching.Transformational generative grammar recognizes the language as a rule-governed system, therefore, learning a language involves internalizing the rules. Structural linguistics only treats a language as a collection of habits. In language teaching, therefore, it sanctions imitation, memorization, mechanical drills, ect. Chomsky accused the linguists of sharing the myth that linguistic behavior is habitual and that a fixed of stock of patterns ia acquired through practice and used as a basis for analogy. The new version of Chomsky’s theory leads to the disorienting impact of linguistics to language teaching from 1965 to 1970.The sudden ideological changes reopened the entire question of the contribution of linguistics to language teaching. A shift was taken place from applying linguistics directly to treating linguistics as a resource to be drawn on for the benefit of pedagogy with complete independence of mind. The conviction that linguistic studies cannot be applied to language pedagogy without modification led to the formulation of the concept of pedagogical grammar as an intermediary or link between linguistics and pedagogy.Now that we have traced the development of the relations between linguistics and language teaching we will attempt to draw some lessons for the development of our own view of language within a language teaching theory. We will investigate the relationship under the distinction of application and implication and recognize a twofold connection: (1) A language teaching theory incorporates a theory of language, (2) The description of particular language is brought to language teaching.With regard to the theory of language in teaching, a language teaching theory expresses answers to questions about the nature of language. We should identify view of language implicit in language teaching theories from the following 5 aspects:a.analytical and non-analytical approaches to languageA basic question to ask is to what extent the language teaching theory treats the language analytically and therefore adopts a linguistics point of view, or whether it presents the language non-analytically.When we treat language non-analytically, the teaching approaches avoids deliberate study of the language, but the rationale underlying this teaching approach still implies a view of nature of language.As we treat language as an object to be studied, practiced, or manipulated in any way, we must conceptualize it or at least to a certain extent.b. the complexity of languageLinguistic theory has not presented us with a simple and unified picture of language. The second question to ask is : what aspects of language does our language teaching theory include or exclude, and among those that are included, which of these are espically emphasized?We can ask ourselves to what extent the language teaching theory gives priority to phonology, grammar, vocabulary or discourses aspects. Going on from these, we can further ask how it handles these different components of language. Does it deal with them entirely as language forms or structures? Or does it teach them as meanings? And does it place language features into a social context and thus relate the language to the real world?c. the humpty-dumpty effectit is one thing to isolate and analyse different aspects of language, it is quite another to bring the different aspects of the language together. The categories which linguists have devised in order to study an aspect of language more effectively can become troublesome barriers. To overcomethese, linguistics has not only concerned itself with analysis but has also aimed to make a synthesis between the different parts of language. In the same way, the language teacher wishes to teach language as a whole.d. rule versus creativitya language teaching theory, like a linguistic theory, should take into account the regularities( rules, patterns, structures, habits) as well as the possibility of making use of the regularities in varied, novel, and sometimes unique ways as demanded by a given situation.e. a theory of language --- a necessary artifactthe final question to ask is of a more general nature: what are the main characteristics of the view of language in this language teaching theory? Since the language is comprehensive by nature, both the linguistics and teaching should concern the complexity of language and convey it. However, it is impossible to justice to the whole of language, a language teaching theory inevitably demand choices based on an interpretation of language. That is to say, all language teaching theories are artifacts which highlight some aspects of language at the expense of the others.When we come to the description of languages, there is often a discrepancy between descriptive information on a second language and the needs of pedagogy. Therefore an intermediate device, the pedagogical grammar , has been suggested and the following conceptual steps which link theoretical and descriptive linguistics with the development of a language curriculum can be indicated.The descriptive relationship can be divided into six steps. Theoretical linguistics at step I is concerned with the development of general categories and research strategies for studies of particular language. Research at step II can be visualized as detailed studies of linguistic features of particular languages. These studies form the descriptions of given language at step III. The descriptions provide the basis for a pedagogical grammar at step IV. The pedagogical grammar forms the linguistic resource for curriculum development which takes place at step V, with the teaching of language aspect at step VI.Maintaining the dual relationship between linguistics and language teaching is important for language pedagogy, but it is a complex undertaking. The continuing developments in linguistic theory and in language pedagogy as well as the constant changes in the language themselves, demand the permanent study of language and languages and a review of the relations between linguistic theory and language pedagogy.What is communicative competenceCommunicative competence is a linguistic term which refers to a intuitive mastery that the native speaker possesses to use and interpret language appropriately in the process of interaction and in relation to social context.This concept was coined by Hymes in 1972 to constitute a challenge to Chomsky’s linguistic competence which is confined to internalized rules of syntax and abstracts from social rules of language use. Communicative competence no doubt implies linguistic competence but its main focus is the intuitive grasp of social and cultural rules and meanings that are carried by any utterance.The complexity of the entire rule system makes it impossible for anyone except the native。
介绍新闻学的英文作文
介绍新闻学的英文作文Title: An Introduction to the Study of Journalism。
Journalism, as a discipline, stands at the forefront of disseminating information, shaping public opinion, and holding power to account. In the contemporary era, where information flows incessantly through various media channels, the study of journalism becomes increasingly pertinent. In this essay, we delve into the essence of journalism, its significance, and its evolving landscape.At its core, journalism is the practice of gathering, assessing, creating, and presenting news and information to audiences. It serves as a bridge between events and the public, aiming to provide accurate, timely, and relevant information. The principles of journalism, encompassing objectivity, fairness, accuracy, and impartiality, underpin its integrity and credibility.The study of journalism is multidimensional,encompassing theoretical frameworks, practical skills, and ethical considerations. Students delve into the history of journalism, tracing its evolution from early forms of communication to modern-day multimedia platforms. They examine the role of journalism in society, its functions, and its impact on shaping public discourse.Furthermore, students acquire practical skillsessential for the practice of journalism. They learn theart of news gathering, mastering techniques such as interviewing, researching, and fact-checking. Additionally, they develop proficiency in various forms of journalistic writing, including news reports, feature articles, and investigative pieces. In the digital age, students also gain expertise in multimedia storytelling, utilizing tools ranging from photography and videography to data visualization and social media engagement.Ethical considerations are paramount in journalism, as practitioners navigate complex moral dilemmas and uphold professional standards. Students critically analyze ethical principles governing journalistic practice, grappling withissues such as bias, sensationalism, and conflicts of interest. They cultivate a sense of responsibility towards truth-telling and public accountability, recognizing the pivotal role of journalism in fostering informed citizenship.The landscape of journalism is undergoing profound transformations in the digital era. The rise of online platforms and social media has democratized the dissemination of information, enabling citizen journalism and diverse voices to thrive. However, this democratization is accompanied by challenges, including the proliferation of misinformation, erosion of traditional business models, and threats to press freedom.Amidst these challenges, the study of journalism remains indispensable. It equips students with the skills, knowledge, and ethical compass necessary to navigate the complexities of the media landscape. Moreover, it fosters critical thinking, media literacy, and civic engagement, empowering individuals to actively participate in shaping the future of journalism and democracy.In conclusion, journalism occupies a central role in society, serving as a watchdog, a storyteller, and a catalyst for change. The study of journalism offers students a profound understanding of its principles, practices, and implications. As we confront the opportunities and challenges of the digital age, the study of journalism remains as relevant and vital as ever.。
educational psychology 教育心理学
What is educational psychology? The application of psychology to education by focusing on the development, evaluation and application of theories and principles of learning and instruction that can enhance lifelong learning.
Evaluation： NhomakorabeaAnti-humanistic in its failure to account for human ability to take actions for themselves and its refusal to acknowledge human freedom and choice. Behaviorism gives insufficient weight to contextual factors such as the social, economic and political conditions and forces that promote or constrain action. It also fails to consider other determinants in learning, such as inherited intelligence and personality.
Anti-intellectual. In higher learning, behaviorist techniques may not be effective in promoting deep learning, which is related to personal understanding and meaning-making. In adult, further, and higher education, it is also difficult to apply behaviorist principles, because they often fail to take account of creative processes and of incidental, unexpected and self-initiated learning.
英语教学理论实践报告(3篇)
第1篇IntroductionThis report aims to analyze and reflect on the application of English teaching theories in a real classroom setting. The focus will be on the integration of constructivist learning theory, task-based language teaching (TBLT), and the use of technology in English language instruction. The report will outline the theoretical framework, describe the implementation process, and evaluate the effectiveness of the teaching methods employed.Theoretical Framework1. Constructivist Learning Theory: This theory posits that learning is an active process where learners construct knowledge through interaction with their environment and social interactions. Key principles include:- Student-centered approach: The focus is on learners, who are encouraged to take responsibility for their learning.- Active engagement: Learners are actively involved in the learning process, rather than passively receiving information.- Collaboration: Learning is enhanced through collaboration and interaction with peers.2. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT): TBLT emphasizes the importance of authentic tasks in language learning. The main principles are:- Authentic tasks: Tasks should reflect real-life situations and purposes.- Focus on meaning: Language learning is driven by the need to communicate meaning, rather than focusing on form.- Product-oriented approach: The emphasis is on the product of the task, rather than the process.3. Technology in English Language Instruction: The integration of technology in language learning can enhance engagement and provide opportunities for personalized learning. Some key aspects include:- Interactive learning platforms: These platforms facilitate communication and collaboration among learners.- Multimedia resources: The use of videos, audio, and interactive activities can make learning more engaging.- Assessment tools: Technology can be used to provide immediate feedback and track learner progress.Implementation ProcessThe teaching and learning process was implemented in a secondary school in China, involving two classes of 30 students each. The following steps were followed:1. Lesson Planning: Each lesson was carefully planned, incorporating constructivist principles, TBLT activities, and the use of technology. The lesson objectives, activities, and assessment methods were clearly outlined.2. Classroom Management: To ensure an effective learning environment, classroom management strategies were employed. These included setting clear expectations, maintaining a positive tone, and encouraging participation.3. Interactive Activities: The use of TBLT activities, such as role-plays, group discussions, and problem-solving tasks, was encouraged. These activities were designed to promote student-centered learning and collaboration.4. Technology Integration: Various technologies were used to enhance the learning experience. These included interactive whiteboards, online learning platforms, and multimedia resources.5. Assessment: Formative and summative assessments were used to evaluate learner progress. These included quizzes, class participation, and project-based assessments.EvaluationThe effectiveness of the teaching methods was evaluated based on the following criteria:1. Student Engagement: The level of student engagement was observed through participation in class activities, completion of tasks, and interaction with peers.2. Learning Outcomes: The achievement of lesson objectives was assessed through formative and summative assessments.3. Feedback: Feedback from both students and teachers was collected to identify strengths and areas for improvement.ResultsThe results of the evaluation indicate that the integration of English teaching theories and practices had a positive impact on the learning process:1. Increased Student Engagement: The use of interactive activities and technology enhanced student engagement, as evidenced by increased participation and enthusiasm.2. Improved Learning Outcomes: The achievement of lesson objectives was generally high, with students demonstrating a good understanding of the content.3. Positive Feedback: Both students and teachers provided positive feedback on the teaching methods and resources used.ConclusionThis report highlights the importance of integrating English teaching theories and practices in the classroom. The use of constructivist learning theory, TBLT, and technology has proven to be effective inpromoting student-centered learning and enhancing language acquisition. By continuously reflecting on and adapting teaching methods, educators can create a more engaging and effective learning environment for their students.第2篇Introduction:The field of English education has been constantly evolving, with numerous teaching theories and methodologies being proposed to enhance the effectiveness of language instruction. This report aims to analyze the implementation of English teaching theories in classroom practice, focusing on the application of communicative language teaching (CLT), task-based language teaching (TBLT), and the use of technology in language learning. Through a reflective analysis of my own teaching experience, this report will discuss the challenges faced, the benefits observed, and the areas for further improvement.I. Introduction to Teaching Theories1. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)Communicative Language Teaching is an approach that emphasizes communication as the primary goal of language learning. It encourages learners to engage in real-life language use and focuses on fluency rather than accuracy.2. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)Task-Based Language Teaching is a method that organizes classroom activities around specific tasks, which are designed to help learners achieve communicative goals. Tasks should be authentic, meaningful, and engage learners in the use of language.3. Technology in Language LearningThe integration of technology in language learning has become increasingly popular, as it provides opportunities for interactive andpersonalized learning experiences. This includes the use of multimedia, online resources, and educational software.II. Implementation of Teaching Theories in Classroom Practice1. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)In my classroom, I implemented CLT by creating activities that encouraged students to communicate in English. For example, I organized role-playing exercises, group discussions, and debates, which allowed students to practice their speaking and listening skills. Additionally, I designed projects that required students to work collaboratively and present their findings in English, promoting their writing and presentation skills.Challenges:- Some students were hesitant to participate in group activities, particularly those who were more introverted.- Assessing students' communicative abilities was challenging, as traditional assessment methods may not accurately reflect their proficiency.Benefits:- Students showed increased confidence in using English in real-life situations.- The interactive nature of CLT helped improve students' motivation and engagement in the learning process.2. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)To implement TBLT in my classroom, I designed tasks that focused onreal-life situations and required students to use English to complete them. For instance, I assigned students to create a travel itinerary, write a business letter, or prepare a presentation on a current event.Challenges:- Task design and implementation required careful planning and consideration of the learners' needs and abilities.- Some students struggled to complete tasks independently, as theyrelied heavily on their peers for guidance.Benefits:- Students developed a deeper understanding of the language as they applied it to real-life contexts.- The tasks helped improve students' problem-solving and criticalthinking skills.3. Technology in Language LearningI integrated technology into my classroom by using multimedia resources, online platforms, and educational software. For example, I used interactive whiteboards to display vocabulary lists, videos, and quizzes, and encouraged students to access online resources for additional practice.Challenges:- Not all students had access to the necessary technology, which created a digital divide in the classroom.- Some students were resistant to using technology, as they preferred traditional teaching methods.Benefits:- Students were motivated by the novelty and interactivity oftechnology-based activities.- The use of technology allowed for personalized learning experiences,as students could access resources at their own pace.III. ConclusionThe implementation of English teaching theories in classroom practicehas proven to be a valuable approach to enhance language learning. Byintegrating communicative language teaching, task-based language teaching, and technology, I have observed significant improvements in students' language proficiency, motivation, and engagement. However, challenges such as student hesitancy, task design, and technology access remain. As an educator, it is crucial to continue reflecting on and adapting teaching strategies to meet the diverse needs of learners and optimize their language learning experience.第3篇Introduction:The field of English teaching has evolved significantly over the years, with various theories and approaches being developed to enhance the learning experience of students. This report aims to provide an overview of a selected English teaching theory, its underlying principles, andits practical application in a classroom setting. The report will focus on the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach, discussing its theoretical framework and illustrating its implementation through a case study.I. Theoretical Framework of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)1.1 Definition and OriginsCommunicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an approach to language teaching that emphasizes communication as the primary goal of language learning. It was developed in the late 1970s by researchers such as Richard, Nation, and Swain, with its origins in the European Community Program and the need for language learners to be able to communicate effectively in real-life situations.1.2 Principles of CLTThe principles of CLT are based on the following key concepts:- Communication: The focus is on meaningful communication rather than the mere acquisition of grammatical structures.- Fluency: Emphasis is placed on fluency in language use, allowing learners to practice and develop their speaking and listening skills.- Accuracy: While fluency is crucial, accuracy in language use is also important, and it should be developed through natural communication.- Functionality: Language learning should be relevant to the learners' needs and purposes.- Interaction: Interaction among learners and between learners and teachers is essential for language development.- Autonomy: Learners should be encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning and develop strategies for self-study.II. Practical Application of CLT in a Classroom Setting2.1 Case Study: Secondary School English ClassroomThe following case study illustrates the practical application of CLT in a secondary school English classroom.2.1.1 ContextThe classroom consists of 30 students aged 13-14, who are in their first year of secondary school. The students come from diverse backgrounds, and their proficiency levels vary. The teacher aims to introduce the new unit on travel and tourism, focusing on the theme of "Describing Places."2.1.2 Pre-ActivityThe teacher starts the lesson by showing a short video clip of famous tourist destinations. The students are asked to watch the video and identify the key features of each place. This activity is designed to stimulate their interest in the topic and provide them with a visual context for the upcoming lessons.2.1.3 Introduction to CLT TechniquesThe teacher introduces the CLT techniques that will be used during the lesson, such as pair work, group discussions, and role-plays. Thestudents are informed that they will be actively involved in thelearning process and encouraged to express their ideas and opinions.2.1.4 Activities- Pair Work: The teacher assigns a partner to each student and provides them with a set of pictures of different tourist destinations. The students are asked to describe the places to their partners, focusing on their appearance, activities, and facilities. This activity promotes fluency and accuracy in speaking.- Group Discussion: The students are divided into small groups and asked to discuss their favorite tourist destination. They are encouraged touse the vocabulary and grammar structures learned in the previous lessons. This activity fosters interaction and autonomy among the students.- Role-Play: The teacher creates a scenario where the students act as travel agents. They are given a list of clients who want to plan their next vacation. The students must describe various destinations to their clients, taking into account their preferences and needs. This activity allows the students to practice their communication skills in arealistic context.2.1.5 Reflection and AssessmentAt the end of the lesson, the teacher conducts a brief reflectionsession with the students, asking them to share their experiences and reflect on what they have learned. The teacher also assesses thestudents' performance through observation and feedback on their speaking, listening, and interaction skills.III. ConclusionThe Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach has proven to be effective in promoting language learning and communication skills among students. By focusing on meaningful communication, fluency, and interaction, CLT encourages learners to actively engage in the learning process and develop their autonomy. The case study presented in thisreport demonstrates the practical application of CLT in a classroom setting, highlighting the benefits of this approach for both teachers and students.In conclusion, it is essential for English language teachers to be aware of different teaching theories and approaches, such as CLT, and adapt them to their classroom needs. By implementing these theories effectively, teachers can create a more engaging and interactive learning environment, ultimately enhancing the language proficiency of their students.。
语言学概论 试卷3
一、在下列每小题的四个备选答案中，选出一个正确答案，并将其字母标号填入括号内。
1.Syntax studies two kinds of rules: syntagmatic and ____. ( )A. paradigmaticB. collocationalC. collogationalD. semantic2.The father of modern linguistics is ____. ( )A. ChomskyB. ChimpskyC. SaussureD. G. Leech3. A native speaker’s intuition about the sounds and sound patterns of his language is ____knowledge. ( )A. phoneticB. phonemicC. phonologicalD. allophone4. A ____ relation refers to the sequential characteristic of speech. ( )A. syntagmaticB. paradigmaticC. pragmaticD. vertical5.Which of the following examines word formation and the internal structure of words? ( )A. syntaxB. semanticsC. morphologyD. phnology6.If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment, they are said to be in ____distribution.( )A. parallelB. freeC. complementaryD. constrative7. A surface structure corresponds most closely to the _____ arrangement of words as they are pronounced. ( )A. parallelB. paradigmaticC. hierarchicalD. linear8. The words that sound different but have the same or nearly the same meaning are called_____ ( )A. synonymsB. antonymsC. hyponymsD. polysemics9. Semantic ambiguity can be divided into two types: lexical ambiguity and _____ ambiguity ( )A. meaningB. structuralC. sequentialD. conventional10. Usually sentence meaning is abstract and decontexualized, while utterance meaning is ____ and context-dependent. ( )A. opaqueB. unclearC. concreteD. subject二、填空题。
《英语测试的理论与实践》
❖ 4、值得注意的是，较之往年，2002年的高考英语试题有了明显的变 动：它完全摒弃了诸如词汇与结构选择填空、句型转换、正误判断与 改错等传统题型，减少了翻译题所占的比重，增加了听力能力的测试。 这些变动并非偶然，而是我国中学阶段英语教学改革在测试领域的一 个具体体现，也是教育部《全日制义务教育、普通高级中学英语课程 标准》颁布后高考英语测试的一次变革。
第一阶段 前科学语言测试或传统语言测试阶段 (The Pre-scientific Language Testing 或
Traditional Language Testing Phase)
❖ 20世纪四十年代以前 ❖ 语言被当作是包括语法、词汇、语音的一套知识体
系。
❖ 测试中对技巧、技能的考查没有量度依据，测试结 果主要根据教师的主观判断。
❖ 试题常包括短文写作(Essay Writing)、翻译 (Translation)、语法分析(Grammatical Analysis)
❖ 忽视听力、口语 ❖ 测试法为短文写作-翻译法(Essay-writing
Translation Approach)
第二阶段 心理测量-结构主义语言测试或现代语言测试阶段 (The Psychometic-structuralist Language Testing 或
提出结构主义教学法，如听说法。结合心理语言学领域的心理测 量学(psychometrics)的方法。 ❖ 结构主义语言学：语言是一套符号系统，可以分解为语音、词汇、 语法等。 ❖ Lado – Language Testing：语言能力分为语音、句法、词汇、文 化；用听说读写方式可测试。 ❖ 可设计出分点式测试(discrete-point test)，认为试题应该每题只考 查一个考点，其主要题型有选择填空、词汇填空、语法填空、完 成句子、改错等。
REFERENCES - FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANXIETY
ReferencesArnold, J. (ed.) (1999) Affect in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Bailey, P., Daley, C.E. and Onwuegbuzie, A.J. (1999) Foreign language anxiety and learning style, Foreign Language Annals, 32(1), 63-76.Campbell, C.M. and Ortiz, J.A. (1991) Helping students overcome foreign language anxiety: A foreign language anxiety workshop. In E.K. Horwitz and D.L. Young (eds) Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research to Classroom Implications (pp.153-159). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.Caruso, C.L. (1996) Foreign language anxiety and selected learner variables in adolescent language learners. Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison.Cheng, Y., Horwitz, E.K. and Schallert, D.L. (1999) Language anxiety: differentiating writing and speaking components, Language Learning, 49(3), 417-446.Cope-Powell, J. (1991) Foreign Language classroom anxiety: Institutional responses. In E.K. Horwitz and D.L. Young (eds.) Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research to Classroom Implication (pp.169-176). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.Crookall, D. and Oxford R. (1991) Dealing with anxiety: Some practical activities for language learners and teacher trainees. In E.K. Horwitz and D.L. Young (eds) Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research to Classroom Implications (pp.141-150). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.Eliason, P.A. (1995) Difficulties with cross-cultural learning styles. In Reid, J.M. (ed.) Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom (pp.19-33). Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers.Foss, K.A. and Reitzel, A.C. (1991) A relational model for managing second language anxiety. In E.K. Horwitz and D.L. Young (eds) Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research to Classroom Implications (pp.129-140). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Ganschow, L. et al(1994) Differences in language performance among high-average, and low-anxious college foreign language learners, Modern Language Journal, 78(l), 41-55.Horwitz, E.K. (1985) Using student beliefs about language learning and teaching in the foreign language methods course, Foreign Language Annals, 18 (4), 333-340. Horwitz, E.K. (1986) Preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of a foreign language anxiety scale, TESOL Quarterly, 20, 559-562.Horwitz, E.K. (1988) The beliefs about language learning of beginning university foreign language students, Modern Language Journal, 72(3), 283-294.Horwitz, E.K., Horwitz, M.B. and Cope, J. (1986) Foreign language classroom anxiety, Modern Language Journal, 70 (2), 125-132.Horwitz, E.K. and Young, D.L. (eds.) (1991) Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research to Classroom Implications. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.Kinsella, K. (1995) Understanding and empowering diverse learners in t he ESL classroom. In Reid, J.M. (ed.) Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom (pp.170-194). Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers.MacIntyre, P.D. (1995a) How does anxiety affect second language learning? A reply to Sparks and Ganschow, Modern Language Journal, 79 (1), 90-99.Koch, A.S. and Terrell, T.D. (1991) Affective reactions of foreign language students to Natural Approach activities and teaching techniques. In E.K. Horwitz and D.L. Young (eds) Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research to Classroom Implications (pp.109-126). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.Krooenber g, N. (1995) Meeting language learners’ sensory-learning style preferences. In Reid, J.M. (ed.) Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom (pp.74-86). Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers.MacIntyre, P.D. (1995b) On seeing the forest and the trees: A rejoinder to Sparks and Ganschow, Modern Language Journal, 79(ii), 245-248.MacIntyre, P.D. and Gardner, R.C. (1989) Anxiety and second-language learning: Toward a theoretical clarification, Language Learning, 39(2), 251-275.MacIntyre, P.D. and Gardner, R.C. (1991a) Language anxiety: Its relationship to other anxieties and to processing in native and second languages, Language Learning, 41(4), 513-534.MacIntyre, P.D. and Gardner, R.C. (1991b) Methods and results in the study of anxiety and language learning: A review of literature, Language Learning, 41 (1), 85-117.MacIntyre, P.D. and Gardner R.C. (1994) The subtle effects of language anxiety on cognitive processing in the second language, Language Learning, 44 (2), 283-305.MacIntyre, P.D., Noels, K.A. and Clement, R. (1997) Biases in self-ratings of second language proficiency: The role of language anxiety, Language Learning, 47(2), 265-287. McCoy, I.R. (1979) Means to overcome the anxieties of second language learners, Foreign Language Annals, 12, 185-189.Nelson, G.L. (1995) Cultural differences in learning styles. In Reid, J.M. (ed.) Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom (pp.3-18). Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers.Onwuegbuzie, A.J., Bailey, P. and Daley, C.E. (1999) Factors associated with foreign language anxiety, Applied Psycholinguistics, 20, 217-239.Onwuegbuzie, A.J., Bailey, P. and Daley, C.E. (2000) The validation of three scales measuring anxiety at different stages of the foreign language learning process: The input anxiety scale, the processing anxiety scale, and the output anxiety scale, Language Learning, 50(1), 87-117.Oxford R.L. (1999) Anxiety and the language learner: New insights. In J. Arnold (ed.) Affect In Language Learning (pp. 58-67). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Price, M.L. (1988) Anxiety and the foreign language learner: correlates of foreign language anxiety. Doctoral dissertation, University of Texas at Austin.Price, M.L. (1991) The subjective experience of foreign language anxiety: Interviews with highly anxious students. In E.K. Horwitz and D.J. Young (eds), Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research to Classroom Implications (pp.101-108). New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.Reid, J.M. (1987) The learning style preferences of ESL students, TESOL Quarterly, 21 (1), 87-105.Reid, J.M. (1990) The dirty laundry of ESL survey research, TESOL Quarterly, 24(2), 323-338.Reid, J.M. (ed.) (1995) Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom. New York: Heinle and Heinle Publishers.Reid, J.M. (ed.) (1998) Understanding Learning Styles in the Second Language Classroom. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.Rossi-Le, L. (1995) Learning styles and strategies in adult immigrant ESL students. In Reid, J.M. (ed.) Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom (pp.118-125). Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers.Ryan, K. & Bohlin, D.E. (1999) Building Character in Schools: Practical Ways to Bring Moral Instruction to Life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.Sparks, R.L. and Ganschow, L. (1991) Foreign language learning differences: Affective or native language aptitude differences? Modern Language Journal, 75 (1), 3-16. Sparks, R.L. and Ganschow, L. (1993) The impact of native language learning problems on foreign language learning: Case study illustrations of the linguistic coding deficit hypothesis, Modern Language Journal, 77 (1), 58-74.Sparks R.L. and Ganschow L. (1995) A strong inference approach to casual factors in foreign language learning: A response to MacIntyre, Modern Language Journal, 79 (2), 235-244.Stebbins, C. (1995) Culture-specific perceptual-learning style preferences of postsecondary students of English as a second language. In Reid, J.M. (ed.) Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom (pp.108-117). Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers.Steinberg, F.S. and Horwitz, E.K. (1982) The effect of induced anxiety on the denotative and interpretive content of second language speech, TESOL Quarterly, 20, 131-136.Williams, M. and Burden, R.L. (1997) Psychology for Language Teachers: A social constructivist approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Young, D.J. (1990) An investigation of students’ perspectives on anxiety and speaking, Foreign Language Annals, 23 (6), 539-553.Young, D.J. (1991) Creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: What does language anxiety research suggest?, Modern Language Journal, 75(iv), 426-439.Young, D.J. (1992) Language anxiety from the foreign language specialist’s perspective: Interviews with Krashen, Omaggio, Hadley, Terrell and Rardin, Foreign Language Annals, 25 (2), 157-172.Foreign Language AnxietyHorwitz and Young (1991) define foreign language anxiety in two different ways. First “as a manifestation or transfer of other types of anxiety … in the language learning context” (Horwitz, Tallon, and Luo, 2010, p. 95), and seco ndly as an anxiety that is specific to situation. Unfortunately, there is a negative relationship between second language grade achievement and foreign language anxiety (Horwitz, 2001). Additionally, this type of anxiety can hinder communication while learning the new language which is essential in obtaining proficiency (Kleinmann, 1977; MacIntyre & Garndner, 1991a, 1991b; Macntyre & Charos, 1995). Many believe that the anxiety surrounding foreign language may be due to a fear of misportraying authenticity (Horwitz, 2000, 2009; Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope, 1986). In other words, a student may be afraid of “sounding weird” in their attempts to reproduce a foreign language.ReferencesHorwitz, E. K. (2000). It ain’t over til it’s over: On foreign language anx iety, first language deficits, and the confounding of variables. Modern Language Journal, 84, 256-259).Horwitz, E. K. (2001). Language anxiety and achievement. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, 112-126.Horwitz, E. K. (2009). Cultural identity and language anxiety: How self-concept and cultural expectations interact with performance in a second language. In P. Cheng & J. X. Yan (Eds.), Cultural identity and language anxiety, (pp. 57-69). Guanxi, China: Guangxi Normal University Press.Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. Modern Language Journal, 70, 125-132.Horwitz, E. K., Tallon, M., & Luo, H. (2010). Foreign language anxiety. In J. C. Cassady (Ed.), Anxiety in schools: The causes, consequences, and solutions for academic anxieties (pp. 95-115). New York, NY: Peter Lang.Horwitz, E. K., & Young, D. J. (1991). Language anxiety: From theory and research to classroom implications. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.Kleinmann, H. H. (1977). Avoidance behaviour in adult second language acquisition. Language Learning, 27, 93-107.MacIntyre, P. D., & Charos, C. (1995, June). Personality, motivation and willingness to communicate as predictors of second language communication. Paper presented at the annual conference of the Canadian Psychological Association, Charlottetown, PEI.MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1991a). Methods and results in the study of anxiety in language learning: A review of the literature. Language Learning, 41, 85-117.MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1991b). Investigating language class anxiety using the focused essay technique. Modern Language Journal, 75, 296-304.。
语言反拨效应研究理论框架构建-心理语言学论文-语言学论文
语言反拨效应研究理论框架构建-心理语言学论文-语言学论文——文章均为WORD文档，下载后可直接编辑使用亦可打印——摘要：反拨效应作为考试后效的重要组成部分, 引起了测试界的广泛关注, 研究成果不断涌现。
反拨效应实证研究离不开理论框架的指导, 理论框架的构建也会促进实证研究的发展。
通过文献梳理, 笔者发现现有反拨效应理论假设或模型还存在一些不足:不能全面系统地反映考试反拨效应运行机制, 没有凸显涉考者对考试的认识在反拨效应形成过程中的调节作用, 尚未有一个基于其他学科视阈的反拨效应理论框架。
有鉴于此, 在借鉴认知心理学和社会心理学的认识论并参考现有反拨效应理论模型基础上, 本文尝试构建反拨效应研究理论框架, 期望为未来反拨效应实证研究提供理论参考。
关键词：反拨效应; 理论框架; 认知心理学; 社会心理学;Abstract：As an important part of test consequence, washback has attracted wide attention from language testing field and research results have increased considerably. Conducting empirical research ofwashback needs the guidance of theoretical framework, and developing theoretical frameworks will promote empirical research. An overview of the relevant literatures has shown that there still remain some problems of the existing washback models: specifically, the existing model could hardly give a full and systematic depiction of the washback working mechanism; the mediating role of stakeholders perceptions played in washback generation is neglected or not attached more importance; there still lacks of a washback framework based on the perspective of the other disciplines. Therefore, drawing on the epistemologies in cognitive psychology and social psychology, based on some existing washback models, this paper attempts to develop a theoretical framework, which is supposed to provide a theoretical reference for future washback empirical studies.Keyword：washback; theoretical framework; cognitive psychology; social psychology;0、引言构建反拨效应理论框架首先需要对反拨效应概念进行界定, 那么什么是反拨效应(washback) ?Pearson (1988:98) 把反拨效应作为一种隐喻用来描述教学和考试的关系, 并解释了这个词的起源:公共考试影响教师、学习者和父母的态度、行为和动机, 并且考试经常会在课程结束后才进行, 其方向朝后, 因此叫反拨效应。
初中英语词汇教学研究的参考文献
初中英语词汇教学研究的参考文献Vocabulary plays a crucial role in language learning and teaching, especially in the context of English as a foreign language. As students progress through their education, the importance of vocabulary acquisition becomes increasingly evident. In the middle school years, students are at a critical stage in their language development, and it is essential for educators to implement effective vocabulary teaching strategies to support their learning. This research article aims to provide a comprehensive review of the current literature on middle school English vocabulary teaching, offering valuable insights for educators and researchers in the field.1. Theoretical Framework。
The theoretical framework of vocabulary teaching in middle school English education is multifaceted, drawing on various linguistic and pedagogical theories. The importance of vocabulary knowledge in language acquisition is emphasized in both cognitive and sociocultural theories. According to the cognitive perspective, vocabulary is fundamental to language comprehension and production, while sociocultural theories highlight the role of social interaction and context in vocabulary learning. Additionally, the significance of vocabulary size and depth, as well as the relationship between vocabulary and reading comprehension, has been extensively explored in the literature.2. Effective Vocabulary Teaching Strategies。
英语的教学实践读书笔记(3篇)
第1篇Introduction:As a language teacher, I have always been on the quest for effective teaching methods and strategies to enhance the learning experience of my students. I recently came across a book titled "Teaching Practice of English" which provided me with valuable insights and practical techniques to improve my teaching skills. In this reading note, I will discuss the key concepts and ideas presented in the book, and how they can be applied in the classroom.1. Understanding the Learning Process:The book emphasizes the importance of understanding the learning process and how students acquire language. It highlights the role of different cognitive processes such as perception, memory, and comprehension in language learning. By understanding these processes, teachers can tailor their teaching methods to cater to the individual needs of their students.2. Creating a Positive Learning Environment:One of the key aspects of effective teaching is creating a positive and supportive learning environment. The book suggests several strategies to achieve this, such as:a. Building rapport with students: Establishing a strong relationship with students helps in creating a comfortable and conducive learning atmosphere. This can be achieved through regular interactions, showing genuine interest in their lives, and being approachable.b. Encouraging student participation: Actively involving students in the learning process fosters a sense of ownership and motivation. The book suggests techniques like group work, discussions, and role-playing to encourage active participation.c. Providing feedback: Constructive feedback is essential for students to understand their strengths and areas for improvement. The bookemphasizes the importance of specific, timely, and positive feedback to boost students' confidence and motivation.3. Utilizing a Variety of Teaching Techniques:The book highlights the need for teachers to employ a variety of teaching techniques to cater to different learning styles and preferences. Some of the techniques mentioned include:a. Language games and activities: Engaging students in language games and activities not only makes learning fun but also helps in reinforcing language skills. The book provides numerous ideas for games andactivities that can be used in the classroom.b. Technology integration: Incorporating technology into the teaching process can make learning more interactive and engaging. The book suggests using tools like interactive whiteboards, educational apps, and online resources to enhance the learning experience.c. Project-based learning: Encouraging students to work on projects allows them to apply their language skills in real-life contexts. The book provides guidelines on how to design effective project-based learning activities.4. Assessing Learning Outcomes:The book emphasizes the importance of assessing learning outcomes to measure the effectiveness of teaching strategies. It suggests various assessment methods, such as formative and summative assessments, to evaluate students' progress. Some assessment techniques mentioned include:a. Quizzes and tests: Regular quizzes and tests help in assessing students' understanding of the subject matter. The book provides tips on how to design effective quizzes and tests.b. Portfolios: Portfolios allow students to showcase their work over a period of time, demonstrating their progress and achievements. The book suggests guidelines on how to create and evaluate portfolios.c. Self-assessment and peer-assessment: Encouraging students to assess their own work and provide feedback to their peers can promote self-awareness and critical thinking skills. The book provides strategies for implementing self-assessment and peer-assessment in the classroom.Conclusion:"Teaching Practice of English" has provided me with a wealth of information and practical strategies to enhance my teaching skills. By understanding the learning process, creating a positive learning environment, utilizing a variety of teaching techniques, and assessing learning outcomes, I believe I can become a more effective language teacher. I will continue to apply the concepts and ideas from this book in my teaching practice, and I am confident that it will positively impact the learning experience of my students.第2篇Introduction:As a future English teacher, I recently finished reading "Teaching English as a Foreign Language" by H. Douglas Brown. This book provides comprehensive guidance on the theory and practice of teaching English as a foreign language (EFL). Through this reading, I gained valuable insights into the principles of EFL teaching and developed a deeper understanding of effective teaching strategies. This reading note aims to summarize the key points of the book and reflect on their practical implications for my future teaching practice.I. Theoretical Framework:1. The nature of language and language learning: The book emphasizesthat language is a complex system of symbols used for communication. Language learning involves the development of both receptive and productive skills, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing.2. Language proficiency: Brown introduces the concept of language proficiency, which encompasses four main components: accuracy, fluency,complexity, and appropriacy. These components should be addressed in EFL teaching to ensure students achieve overall language proficiency.3. Language teaching methods: The book explores various languageteaching methods, such as the audio-lingual method, situational language teaching, and communicative language teaching. Each method has its advantages and limitations, and the choice of method should be based on the specific needs and goals of the students.II. Teaching Strategies:1. Error correction: Brown highlights the importance of error correction in EFL teaching. While it is crucial to correct students' errors, the method and timing of correction should be carefully considered to avoid discouraging students and hindering their language development.2. Task-based language teaching: This approach focuses on designingtasks that allow students to use the language in real-life contexts. By engaging in meaningful activities, students can improve their language skills and develop critical thinking abilities.3. Grammar teaching: Grammar is an essential component of language learning. The book suggests using a functional approach to grammar teaching, which emphasizes the practical use of grammar rules in real-life communication.4. Vocabulary teaching: Vocabulary is the foundation of language learning. Brown recommends using various techniques, such as word formation, context-based learning, and lexical sets, to help students expand their vocabulary.III. Classroom Management:1. Creating a positive learning environment: The book emphasizes the importance of creating a supportive and engaging classroom atmosphere. This involves establishing clear expectations, encouraging participation, and fostering mutual respect among students.2. Differentiated instruction: Recognizing that students have diverse learning styles and abilities, the book suggests using differentiatedinstruction to cater to individual needs. This may include providing additional support for struggling students or offering advancedactivities for high-achievers.3. Assessment and feedback: Regular assessment is crucial for monitoring student progress and identifying areas for improvement. The book recommends using a variety of assessment methods, such as formative and summative assessments, and providing constructive feedback to help students reflect on their learning.IV. Reflection and Conclusion:Reading "Teaching English as a Foreign Language" has provided me with a solid foundation in EFL teaching theory and practice. I have gained valuable insights into the principles of language learning, effective teaching strategies, and classroom management. As I embark on my teaching career, I will strive to apply these principles in my daily practice, focusing on creating a supportive and engaging learning environment, utilizing appropriate teaching methods, and fostering student language proficiency.In conclusion, "Teaching English as a Foreign Language" is an invaluable resource for anyone interested in EFL teaching. By understanding the theoretical framework and implementing effective teaching strategies, I believe I can make a positive impact on my students' language learning journey.第3篇Introduction:As a teacher, it is crucial to continuously learn and improve teaching methods to provide effective and engaging English lessons. This reading note focuses on the book "Teaching Practice of English" by [Author's Name], which provides valuable insights and practical strategies for English language teaching. The following sections summarize the key points and reflect on their relevance to my own teaching practice.1. Understanding the Learners:The book emphasizes the importance of understanding the learners' backgrounds, needs, and learning styles. It suggests that teachers should invest time in getting to know their students, including their cultural, linguistic, and social contexts. By doing so, teachers can tailor their teaching methods to meet the diverse needs of the learners.Reflection:In my own teaching practice, I have found that understanding mystudents' backgrounds and learning styles is essential. By conducting initial assessments and engaging in class discussions, I can identify their strengths and weaknesses. This knowledge allows me to adapt my teaching methods and provide appropriate support to each student.2. Creating Engaging Lessons:The book highlights the significance of creating engaging lessons that stimulate students' interest and motivation. It suggests incorporating various activities such as group work, role-plays, and authentic materials into the lesson plans. Additionally, the use of technology and multimedia can enhance the learning experience.Reflection:Incorporating engaging activities into my lessons is something I strive for. By using interactive whiteboards, online resources, and collaborative tasks, I aim to create an interactive and dynamic classroom environment. However, I realize that it is crucial to strike a balance between technology and traditional teaching methods to cater to different learning styles.3. Developing Language Skills:The book emphasizes the importance of developing all four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. It suggests incorporating activities that focus on each skill and provide opportunities for students to practice and improve. Moreover, it emphasizes the significance of authentic language use and real-life contexts.Reflection:In my teaching practice, I focus on developing all four language skills.I incorporate listening exercises, speaking activities, reading comprehension tasks, and writing assignments into my lessons. To ensure authentic language use, I encourage students to engage in real-life discussions and write essays on current topics. However, I recognize the need to provide more explicit instruction and practice for specific language structures and vocabulary.4. Assessment and Feedback:The book emphasizes the importance of ongoing assessment and feedback in the learning process. It suggests using formative assessments to monitor student progress and provide timely feedback. Additionally, ithighlights the significance of self-assessment and peer-assessment in promoting student reflection and metacognition.Reflection:Assessment and feedback are integral parts of my teaching practice. I use quizzes, tests, and homework assignments to assess student understanding and progress. I provide constructive feedback that focuses on both strengths and areas for improvement. However, I acknowledge the need to diversify my assessment methods and provide more opportunities for self-assessment and peer-assessment.5. Professional Development:The book emphasizes the importance of ongoing professional development for teachers. It suggests participating in workshops, attending conferences, and engaging in reflective practice to enhance teaching skills and knowledge. Additionally, it encourages collaboration with colleagues and sharing of best practices.Reflection:Continuous professional development is crucial for my growth as a teacher. I actively seek opportunities to attend workshops and conferences to learn about new teaching strategies and technologies.Additionally, I engage in reflective practice by analyzing my teaching effectiveness and seeking feedback from colleagues. However, I realize the need to establish a more structured professional development plan to ensure consistent growth.Conclusion:"Teaching Practice of English" by [Author's Name] provides valuable insights and practical strategies for English language teaching. By understanding the learners, creating engaging lessons, developing language skills, focusing on assessment and feedback, and engaging in professional development, teachers can enhance their teaching practice. Reflecting on the book's key points has helped me identify areas for improvement and inspired me to continue exploring innovative teaching methods.。
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THE BILINGUAL RESEARCH JOURNALWinter 1996, Vol. 20. No. 1, pp. 93-131
THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OFASSESSING COGNITIVE AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENTIN BILINGUAL CHILDREN WITH QUALITATIVE METHODS
Virginia GonzalezPatricia Bauerle & Maria Felix-HoltUniversity of Arizona
AbstractThis study has the objective of using qualitative data to support theoreticaland practical implications of important methodological problems affectingthe assessment of bilingual children's cognitive and language development.Three instruments were used for accurately identifying gifted students amongseventeen Hispanic bilingual kindergartners (first, second, and thirdgeneration Mexican-Americans) from low socioeconomic backgrounds. (1)a Home Language Survey, (2) a locally-designed Teachers' and Parents'Rating Scale of Creativity, and (3) the Qualitative Use in English andSpanish of Tasks (QUEST) measuring cognitive and language developmentin bilinguals (Gonzalez, 1991, 1994, 1995). Using chi-square tests and casestudies, six interacting patterns were found indicating the influence of firstand second language, verbal and non-verbal assessment procedures, multiplemeasurements and informants, individualizing assessment, and evaluators'personalities on the assessment of bilingual children's cognitive andlanguage development.
This article examines the assessment of cognitive and languagedevelopment in bilingual children with a twofold purpose: (1) at thetheoretical level, we aim to critically review some of the most importantmethodological problems, and to derive some theoretical and practical94 BILINGUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL/Winter 1996implications from a qualitative analysis perspective; and (2) at theapplied level, we aim to accurately identify gifted bilingual Hispanickindergarteners employing the Qualitative Use of English and SpanishTasks (QUEST) developed by Gonzalez (1991, 1994, 1995). Thisqualitative assessment method measures the interface between cognition,culture, and language in bilingual children; and it can accuratelydifferentiate second-language learning from genuine giftedness.Since currently we are still dealing with methodological problemswhen assessing bilingual children, a large metropolitan school district inthe Southwest, with more than 50% language-minority children, adoptedQUEST experimentally. This instrument was adopted for overcomingthe underrepresentation of Hispanic bilingual children in giftededucation programs, generating discrimination problems with legal andsociopolitical implications in the community. This adoption wassuccessful as supported by data presented in this study from 17bilingual children who were evaluated using QUEST.To accomplish this twofold purpose, a critical literature review ofmajor methodological problems affecting the assessment of bilingualchildren, and qualitative analysis of results using chi-square tests andmultiple and single case studies were used for generating six patternsthat will be illustrated using excerpts (for a complete case study analysisof the implementation of QUEST, see Gonzalez, Bauerle, and Felix-Holt, 1994a). In the discussion of these six patterns emphasis will begiven to theoretical and applied implications when assessing cognitiveand language development in bilingual children.Thus, this study offers a contribution to the state of the art of ourunderstanding of the influence of living in bilingual/bicultural milieus oncognitive development because the six patterns found provide: (1)theoretical implications for overcoming methodological problems, and(2) practical implications for guiding further research on how to measurebilingual children's cognitive and language development for reachingaccurate assessment and placement decisions.
Methodological Problems Affecting the Assessment of BilingualChildren
The methodological problems that will be critically reviewed in thisarticle focus on the issue of controlling for external factors influencing Gonzalez, et. al/ASSESSMENT OF BILINGUAL CHILDREN 95the valid and reliable assessment of bilingual low-income children.These important methodological problems have not yet been solved: thesolutions often proposed, such as using translated versions ofstandardized tests, are inappropriate. It is critical to solve thesemethodological problems as currently validity and reliability arepresumed to pertain to the educational, social, ethical, and moralconsequences of using assessment instruments for accurately assessingand placing bilingual children (AERA, APA & NCME, 1985; Messick,1989).Given that state-of-the-art standardized instruments lack validity forbilingual children, a number of authors (e.g., Frasier, 1991; Gonzalez,1991; Loyola, McBride, & Loyola, 1991; OIler, 1991) have suggestedways to overcome present methodological problems: (1) to assess duallanguage proficiency; (2) to rely on non-verbal culturally appropriatetests rather than on verbal intelligence tests; (3) to use multiplemeasurements across cultural-linguistic contexts; (4) to improve theconstruct validity of assessment decisions by using individualizedqualitative methods; and (5) to stimulate evaluators' awareness of theinfluence of their prior knowledge, conceptualizations of constructsmeasured, and cultural/linguistic backgrounds on assessment decisionsof bilingual children. These suggestions given by major researchers,transformed into research questions, will be critically analyzed in light ofliterature below.Does language of assessment influence bilingual children'sperformance? Gonzalez (1991,1994) constructed a model that explainedcognitive and language development of bilingual children as a tripleinteraction between cognition, language, and culture. That is, she arguedthat living in bilingual and bicultural milieus influences cognitivedevelopment, and that cognitive development in turn influences first(L1) and second (L2) language proficiency. Gonzalez (1991, 1994,1995)demonstrated that using verbal and non-verbal classification tasksincluding stimuli groupings representing cultural semantic categoriesreflected in linguistic gender assignments gave bilingual children theopportunity to express different levels of conceptual abilities in relationto L1 and L2. Moreover, she found a difference in bilingual children'sconceptual development in relation to the referent content category withchildren performing better on the verbal classification tasks for