第三章 跨文化营销的主要障碍
浅析跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因
浅析跨文化交际中的文化障碍一、什么是跨文化交际障碍在跨文化交际中，发音不正确，语法有错误或词汇量不足均有可能导致双方的误解或出现交际障碍。
然而，发音正确，懂得语法并掌握相当数量的词汇之后，非本族语者在同本族语者交流时仍然会产生障碍：要么不能准确表达自己的思想；要么对对方的话题缺乏反应；要么说话口气过于肯定或是显得盛气凌人等。
这些行为往往被本族语者视为没有修养的表现，或者被当成对人格的有意冒犯和侮辱，从而引起误解甚至仇恨，最终导致交际失败。
这种在跨文化交际过程中出现的障碍，语言学家称之为跨文化语用失误。
文化冲击是人们对于另一种不熟悉的文化环境的心理反应。
所有进入异文化环境的人都会遇到文化冲击所造成的障碍，但程度因人而异。
通俗地说，一个人从一地迁移到另一地，原来自己熟悉的一套符号、习俗、行为模式、社会关系、价值观念等被另一套新的自己不熟悉的符号、习俗、行为模式、社会关系、价值观念所替代，因而在心理上产生焦虑，在情绪上不安定，甚至沮丧。
在严重的情况下，会产生各种心理和生理方面的疾病，有的会精神失常甚至自杀。
这就是文化休克。
语言是文化环境中的产物，又是文化的载体。
作为记录人类历史和人类思想的工具，每一种语言都有其独特的文化特色。
汉语和英语产生于不同的文化环境，所承载的文化也不相同。
因此，两种语言在表达方式上有不少差异。
二、跨文化交际的障碍1、思维模式不同东西方人对外界人认知模式存在着差别，因而他们在思维模式方面存在着明显区别。
而思维模式差异会造成交际行为、鱼片结构、编译码方式、交际风格等方面的不同。
东方人的模式以直觉、整体、圆式特征；而西方人的思维模式则以逻辑、分析、线性为特点。
因此，中国人的话语或语篇结构呈圆式。
他们说话、写文章不采取直线式或直接切题的方法，而习惯于绕弯子，有一个从次要到主要，从相关信息到话题的发展过程。
他们往往把对别人的请求、自己的想法、对别人的意见等内容或关键问题保留到最后，或含蓄而不露。
跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策
跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因及对策施慧英摘要：在跨文化交际和合作中常常产生文化冲突，导致跨文化交际障碍，究其原因大多是由于不同文化在价值取向、思维方式、社会规范、生活方式等方面存在着差异，交际者对这些差异缺乏敏感性，又无意识地进行语用迁移所致。
因此，要减少跨文化交际障碍，必须增强交际者的跨文化意识，培养他们的跨文化交际能力。
关键词：跨文化交际障碍；跨文化意识；培养中图分类号: 文献标识码: 文章编号:一、跨文化交际障碍产生的主要原因（一）文化差异1、价值取向不同根据美国人类学家Barnett Pearce，Verrion Cronent等的理论，人们的行为规则、思维方式、处世哲学、道德标准等无不受价值观影响。
人们在社会化的过程中，无意识地习得了本文化的价值系统，成为他们的处世哲学、道德标准和行为规范。
然而，每一种文化都有特有的价值体系、判断标准。
在一种文化中被看作是正常之举，在另一种文化中可能被认为是离经叛道的。
西方文化的特点是个人价值之上；而东方文化的特点是集体价值之上。
在以集体取向的中国文化中，人们推崇谦虚礼让，提倡相互支持和对集体的责任，追求“随遇而安”；而在个人取向的西方文化中，“随遇而安”则被看作是缺乏进取精神，人们崇尚个人奋斗、独立性、追求自我实现、放任个性、自我肯定、自由发展、要求个人空间、高度重视个人权力、保护个人隐私（年龄、婚姻、收入、地址、经历、信仰等在西方社会都属于个人隐私）。
因此，不同文化的价值取向给跨文化交际设下了重重障碍。
2、思维模式不同东、西方人对外界认知模式存在着差别，因而他们在思维模式方面存在着明显的区别。
而思维模式差异会造成交际行为、语篇结构、编译码方式、交际风格等方面的不同。
东方人的思维模式以直觉、整体、圆式为特征；而西方人的思维模式则以逻辑、分析、线性为特点。
因此，中国人的话语或语篇结构呈圆式。
他们说话、写文章不采取直线式或直接切题的方法，而习惯于绕弯子，有一个从次要到主要，从相关信息到话题的发展过程。
跨文化交流的障碍与解决
跨文化交流的障碍与解决跨文化交流是指不同文化背景的人们在交流时所面对的挑战和机遇。
随着全球化的加速，跨文化交流变得日益重要，但同时也面临着诸多障碍。
本文将探讨跨文化交流中的障碍以及可能的解决方案。
跨文化交流的障碍1. 语言障碍语言是文化交流的关键，但不同国家和地区的语言差异往往成为交流的障碍。
即使说同一种语言，方言和俚语的使用也可能导致误解。
2. 文化误解每种文化都有其特定的价值观和行为规范。
例如，在某些文化中，直接表达意见被认为是诚实，而在其他文化中，太过直接的交流反而可能被视为不礼貌。
3. 非语言沟通的差异非语言沟通，如手势、姿态和面部表情，在不同文化中可能具有不同的意义。
例如，在某些文化中，眼神接触被视为自信，而在其他文化中可能被视为冒犯。
4. 习惯与礼仪的差异不同文化对待时间、空间和社交礼仪的态度也各不相同。
一些文化重视时间的准时，而另一些文化可能更注重人际关系的重要性。
5. 先入为主的观念人们往往根据自身的文化背景和经验来判断他人的行为。
这种先入为主的观念可能导致误解和偏见，阻碍了有效的跨文化交流。
跨文化交流的解决方案1. 学习语言和文化学习对方的语言及其文化背景是解决语言障碍的有效方法。
通过语言课程、文化讲座和交流项目，人们可以更好地理解对方的文化，从而减少误解。
2. 增强跨文化沟通能力组织跨文化沟通培训，提高参与者的文化敏感性和沟通技巧，让人们学会如何调整自己的言辞和行为，以更好地适应不同文化的交流需求。
3. 重视非语言沟通了解和尊重非语言沟通在不同文化中的意义，有助于减少沟通中的误解。
比如，在交流过程中，注意对方的身体语言，适时调整自己的非语言表达。
4. 培养开放的心态培养开放的心态，愿意接受并尊重他人的文化和观点，有助于克服先入为主的观念。
通过积极倾听、提出问题和分享经验，可以促进更深入的理解。
5. 提供跨文化支持在企业和组织中，提供跨文化支持，如咨询服务或文化适应培训，帮助员工更好地融入多元文化环境，提高跨文化交流的效率。
跨文化交际中的主要障碍及对策
跨文化交际中的主要障碍及对策摘要：随着经济全球化的发展，中国与外界的交往日益频繁，跨文化交际问题受到了外语界乃至整个社会前所未有的重视。
不同的民族有着不同的文化，不同的文化必然存在有文化的差异，因此可能会导致种种的交际失误。
所以，研究跨文化交际中的障碍问题，以及如何有效地解决，清除这种障碍对于中国的外语教学和社会经济文化生活具有极为重要的现实意义。
本文从跨文化交际的内涵和意义入手，分析和探讨了跨文化交际中存在的主要障碍，并通过对跨文化交际实例的分析，阐述了障碍产生的原因和消极影响，最后提出了如何克服这些障碍，实现有效的跨文化沟通的基本策略。
通过掌握这些策略，可以逐步提高我们的跨文化意识，成功地进行跨文化交际。
关键词：跨文化交际；障碍；策略CONTENTSIntroduction: (1)1.Intercultural Communication (1)1.1 Communication (1)1.1.1 Definition of Communication (1)1.1.2 Components of Communication (1)1.1.3 Characteristics of Communication (2)1.2 Culture (3)1.2.1 Definition of Culture (3)1.2.2 Components of Culture (3)1.2.3 Characteristics of Culture (3)1.3 Intercultural Communication (4)1.3.1 Definition of Intercultural Communication (4)1.3.2 The Development of Intercultural Communication (5)1.3.3 The Study of Intercultural Communication (5)2. Obstacles to Intercultural Communication (6)2.1 Assuming Similarity (7)2.1.1 Definition of Assuming Similarity (7)2.1.2 The Performance of Assuming Similarity (7)2.1.3 The Forming Reason of Assuming Similarity (8)2.2 Stereotypes (9)2.2.1 Definition of Stereotypes (9)2.2.2 The Performance of Stereotypes (9)2.2.3 The Impact of Stereotypes (10)2.3 Ethnocentrism (11)2.3.1 Definition of Ethnocentrism (11)2.3.2 The Performance of Ethnocentrism (11)2.3.3 The Impact of Ethnocentrism (13)3. Strategies for Coping With The Obstacles (14)3.1 Knowing Yourself (14)3.1.1 Know Your Culture (14)3.1.2 Know Your Personal Attitudes (15)3.1.3 Know Your Communication Style (15)3.2 Knowing the Cultural Settings (16)3.2.1 Timing (16)3.2.2 Physical Setting (17)3.2.3 Customs (17)3.3 Developing Empathy (18)3.3.1 Definition of Empathy (18)3.3.2 Hindrances to Empathy (18)3.3.3 Improving Empathy (19)4. Conclusion (20)Bibliography (22)IntroductionWe are now in a world, which is sometimes referred to as a “global village”. With the rapid development of international trade, improved technologies of communication and the tendency of globalization，more and more exchanges are taking place internationally in almost every line, which may call for a better study on intercultural communication in order to help those intercultural activities result in better effects.I. Intercultural Communicationmunication1.1.1. Definition of CommunicationIt is difficult to find a single definition of human communication. Being concerned with the intercultural dimensions of communication, we assent to the definition advanced by Rubin and Stewart:”Human communication is the process through which individuals—in relationships, groups, organizations, and societies—respond to and create messages to adapt to the environment and one another （Rubin and Stewart 1998）.”Communication—our ability to share our ideas and feelings—is the basis of all human contacts. Whether we live in a city in the USA, a village in India, a commune in Israel, we all participate in the same activity when we communicate. The results and the methods might be different, but the process is the same.1.1.2. Components of CommunicationAll communication contains six basic components. First is the source. A source is a sender of information. He or she could send a message with or without knowing his or her actions were communication.The second component is encoding, which describes the producing of a symbolic message. Encoding is an internal activity in which verbal and nonverbal symbols are selected and arranged. It is the process of translating an already conceived idea into a message appropriate for transmission to a receiver.The third component, a message, is the production of encoding. The message is aset of verbal and nonverbal symbols that represents the feelings and ideas of the sender. It also includes symbolic messages that the sender is totally unaware of having sent.Channel is the fourth communication component. The channel provides that necessary connection between the communication participants. The primary channels are sound and sight. The degree to which an individual relies on one channel or another is often a product of culture.Receiver is the fifth component. The receiver is the person or persons who come into contact with the message. Receivers may be those for whom the sender intended or they may be others who, for whatever reasons, come into contact with the message.Decoding is the sixth component. In the decoding process, the receiver interprets what he or she believes the source meant by the message transmitted. This operation is akin to the source’s act of encoding since it is also an internal activity—an activity often referred to as information processing.1.1.3. Characteristics of CommunicationCommunication is a dynamic process. It means that communication is an ongoing activity. It is like a motion picture, not a single snapshot. A single word or action does not stay frozen when we communicate; it is immediately replaced with yet another word or action. Once a word or an action is employed, it cannot be retracted. What is said cannot be unsaid. And what is done cannot be undone.Communication is symbolic. Humans are symbol-making creatures. We are able to generate, receive, store, and manipulate symbols. We employ symbols to share our internal states. Our words and actions are other sets of symbols through which we convey our messages, ideas and feelings to other people.Communication has a consequence. This characteristic implies that when we receive a message, something happens to us. It also means that all of our messages, in one degree or another does something to someone else. We cannot send messages without influencing other people. This is not a philosophical or metaphysical theory but a biological fact. It is impossible not to respond to the sounds and actions of others.1.2.Culture1.2.1.Definition of CultureThere are more than one hundred definitions of the English word culture offered by researchers from different perspectives. Samovar and Porter evolved a definition from the perspective of intercultural communication:Culture is the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notion of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving （Samovar and Porter 1991）.Culture is mental programming, it tells us from early childhood what matters, what to prefer, what to avoid, and what to do. It gives us assumptions about the ideal beyond what individuals may experience. It establishes codes for behavior and provides justification and legitimization for that behavior.ponents of CultureIn spite of the lack of agreement on one definition on culture, most scholars, Chinese and foreign, seem to agree that culture includes three major aspects. Almaney and Alwan submitted three categories of culture elements:Cultures may be classified by three large categories of elements: artifacts (which include items ranging from arrowheads to hydrogen bombs, magic charms to antibiotic, torches to electric lights, and chariots to jet planes); concepts (which include such beliefs or value systems as right or wrong, God and man, ethics, and the general meaning of life); and behaviors (which refer to the actual practice of concepts or beliefs) （Rogers and Steinfatt 1999）.There is an excellent example of how these three aspects might be reflected within a culture. Whereas money is considered an artifact, the value placed upon it is a concept, but the actual spending and saving of money is behavior.1.2.3.Characteristics of CultureCulture is learned. Culture is not something we are born with. From infancy on, members of a culture learn their patterns of behavior and ways of thinking until they have become internalized. People learn to think, act, feel and believe what their culture considers proper. For instance, humans need food. But what to eat, when, where and how to eat is learned. That’s why we use chopsticks while westerners prefer knife and fork, and why we like rice while Americans prefer bread.Culture is subject to change. Cultures, once formed, are stable, but are at the same time changing with the development of human society. It seldom remains constant. It is not difficult at all for us to think of examples of how social and historical events bring changes in our culture. The founding of new China, the implementation of the policy of opening to the outside world and China’s WTO entry, are all good examples.Culture is interrelated. It means that culture is composed of interrelated facets. When you touch one place of a culture, everything else is affected. The outbreak of SARS in spring 2003 in China is an illustrative example. It made its effects felt in medical systems, tourism, lifestyle, family life, government policies, environment protection and many others.Culture is invisible. Most of culture is hidden, like the part of the iceberg under water. Culture exists in the subconscious mind of people. People not only learn the cultural behaviors below the level of consciousness but also perform them almost habitually. Therefore they aren’t aware of the fact that their actions are governed by their own culture, or cultural rules.1.3.Intercultural Communication1.3.1. Definition of Intercultural CommunicationIn general terms, intercultural communication occurs when a member of one culture produces a message for consumption by a member of another culture. The formal definition given by Rogers and Steinfatt is that intercultural communication is the exchange of information between individuals who are unalike culturally（Rogers and Steinfatt 1999）.This is a very broad definition, involving any type of cultural differences betweencommunication participants. They may differ in nationality, region, race, religion, status, occupation, gender, age, and many others. However, my priority of this paper is given to communication across different national cultures.1.3.2. The Development of Intercultural CommunicationIntercultural communication studies arose in the United States around the corner of the late 1950s. As an interdisciplinary subject, it has been significantly influenced by anthropology, linguistics, communication, psychology and other disciplines. In recent years, it has extended its study range from writing to thinking, from family to society, from myth to religion, from behaviors to values.In China, intercultural communication began to be seen as an independent discipline for study in the early 1980s. It was first introduced into China by some English teachers and has made remarkable progress over the years. The main reason for the university English teachers’enthusiasm in the study of intercultural communication is the shift from traditional methodology to the communicative approach in EFL in China in the late 1970s and early 1980s.As a matter of fact, intercultural communication is not a new thing, but something that has always taken place. A typical example is the famous “Silk Road” in Chinese history through which peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe interacted with each other.Nowadays, we don’t have to go abroad to interact with people of other cultures. Even at home, we can watch overseas movies, attract overseas tourists, and employ overseas teachers, and so on. Intercultural communication has become more frequent, more abundant and, therefore, more significant than ever before.1.3.3. The Study of Intercultural CommunicationIntercultural communication is becoming an important part of our daily work and life. We will conduct more and more intercultural communication, the problem we are facing is how to do it, and how to do it well. A good knowledge of a foreign language, mainly English—the most widely used language in the world today, is of course indispensable. But only the language does not ensure successful interculturalcommunication. Therefore, intercultural communication competence has become an important quality for successful individuals in today’s China.In the process of studying intercultural communication, we can understand Chinese culture better from new perspectives and learn to be aware of many cultural differences of other countries.If we are better intercultural communicators, we might do things cross culture more confidently. If each of us can better understand others who are culturally different, it will be more productive under circumstances concerned. If individuals can attain a higher degree of intercultural communication competence, they will presumably become better government officials, entrepreneurs, teachers and so forth when they are having intercultural communication activities.We study intercultural communication to communicate effectively with people from different cultures. Through the study of intercultural communication we can gain insight into different cultures. Meanwhile, it can broaden our horizons and open our minds to different perspectives and experiences. The study of intercultural communication can also awaken our cultural sensitivity and help the cultivation of an open attitude and the development of a healthy personality.II.Obstacles To Intercultural CommunicationAs we mentioned in Part One, communication is the exchange of information. The understanding of the message, verbal or nonverbal, is largely based on the communication participant’s cultural background and varies accordingly for each person.However, due to different social backgrounds, social systems, ways of thinking, norms of behaviors and customs, people may have difficulties and obstacles in communicating successfully with each other. Identification of these problems will help us to avoid or to reduce obstacles in intercultural communication. Here in this part some major obstacles to successful intercultural communication are to be discussed.There are many obstacles to intercultural communication indeed. From HuWenzhong’s point of view, who is a famous scholar in intercultural communication, the following three seem to be the most outstanding ones. They are assuming similarity, stereotypes and ethnocentrism. We are going to discuss about them in the following writing.2.1 Assuming Similarity2.1.1. Definition of Assuming SimilarityThe assumption of similarity is one of the biggest barriers in intercultural communication. It refers to the assumption that people are more similar to you than they actually are or that another person’s situation is more similar to your own situation than it in fact is （Alder 1996）. For instance, a Chinese assumes his or her Japanese colleagues are more like Chinese than they actually are. Based on this assumed similarity, people often act inappropriately and ineffectively in intercultural communication.When you assume similarity between cultures you can be caught unaware of important differences. When you have no information about a different culture, you might assume there are no differences so you behave as you would in your own culture. However, each culture is different and unique to some degree.2.1.2. The Performance of Assuming SimilarityIn The Art of Crossing Cultures，Craig Storti (1990)thinks that in the process of intercultural communication, people generally experience several stages:1) Expecting others the same as themselves2) Facing gap between reality and expectation, thus resulting in cultural conflicts3) Feeling anger and fear4) Deciding to turn backThe following is an example to illustrate it. Li Ying, a Chinese student who went abroad for the first time was invited to attend a party by his American friends. He arrived on time, only to find that many people were late and dressed in a very casual way. At the party, there was only some drink and simple food, but no decent dishes.Few people there knew him, and he at last found Mark, his friend, and began to talk with him. They talked about only ten minutes before Mark said that he had to talk with another friend and left. Li Ying was very disappointed. Then, the host introduced him to a couple of people and left too. Two hours later, Li Ying left the party. When he was back at home, he was still hungry, so he had to cook some noodles himself. He decided not to take part in this kind of party again.This party was an unsuccessful intercultural communication for Li Ying. Why did he fail? It has something to do with his original ideas. In his opinion, people should arrive on time at party and should wear formal clothes, the host should prepare a lot of food and make a good arrangement for him, and Mark should talk with him all the time. Li Ying had a typical Chinese expectation for a western party. At a western party, the friends and the host, have their own things to do. Li Ying thought it was the same situation as in China and did not see the difference between Chinese and American styles in social intercourses. The lack of intercultural communication awareness and experience resulted in the failure.2.1.3. The Forming Reason of Assuming SimilarityWhen communicating with people from other cultures, the individual, assuming similarity when differences exist, is likely to treat them as” my people” and assume there is only way of doing things: that is “my” way.It is understandable that people would think the others should have roughly the same ideas as they have. As a matter of fact, each member of a society is culture bound and culture specific. Everyone in a society is unconsciously socialized into his or her society, influenced unconsciously by his or her own cultural values, world views and norms. We think the way we do, we behave the way we do, we feel the way we do. However, we must accept the facts that as cultures differ, we are unalike, and being unalike, we seldom know how people of different cultures think, behave, and feel.As we naively assume that people of other cultures are like us, we tend to automatically use the norms or rules underlying our thinking, behaving and feeling as standards to judge, evaluate and interpret the behavior or message, both verbal andnonverbal, of people of different cultures, and in doing so, misunderstanding is inevitable.People should constantly remind themselves of different cultural backgrounds and different customs. We must learn to observe the different cultures and compare the new culture with our own; only by doing so, we can gradually improve our intercultural awareness.2.2 Stereotypes2.2.1. Definition of StereotypesStereotypes are also one of the major obstacles to effective intercultural communication. The word “stereotyping” was first used by journalist Walter Lippman in 1922 to describe judgments made about others on the basis of their ethnic group membership. Today, the term is more broadly used to refer to judgments made on the basis of any group membership.Stereotypes are the perceptions or beliefs we hold about groups or individuals based on previously formed opinions and attitudes. Rapport and Overing underscore this point when they note that “stereotypes allow simplistic and fantastic claims to be made about a group’s manifold memberships, claims which are all more ambiguous and gross the higher the societal level to which the collective label is applied（Rapport and Overing 2000）.”2.2.2. The Performance of StereotypesThe world we confront is too big, too complex, and too transitory to know it in all its detail. Therefore, human beings have a psychological need to categorize and classify. Stereotypes, because they tend to be convenient and expeditious, help us with classification.In stereotyping people, it is believed that all the people of a given group share the same characteristics. They simplify perception of people from different cultures. Therefore, differences existing between or among people of that group is minimized or ignored.We often meet people from different cultures, about whom we have very little knowledge. It is easy to take the short cut and employ stereotypes. For instance, if we perceive all the Chinese as polite, Americans as generous, British as cold and standoffish, or blacks as athletic, sportsmen as dimwits, blondes as empty-headed and Japanese women as best caretakers, we are stereotyping.In this manner，people tend to say, “A ll Chinese are…” or “He is an English man; therefore he must…” Such conclusions take little energy, and are free from any further serious thinking about that specific character. That may lead people to ignore the specific characteristics of an individual with a different cultural background. This is a kind of communication trap we should avoid.A tragedy in US history resulted from the stereotypes. During World War II , anti-Japanese propaganda convinced many people in the United States that the Japanese were cunning, tricky and willing to fight to the death to win. The negative stereotype was mainly formed by news accounts carried by the media about the war. However, it created an atmosphere in 1942 in which the US federal government put 110,000 citizens of Japanese ancestry into internment camps. Japanese-Americans were forced to leave their homes, with their businesses, and their possessions behind because the stereotype portrayed them as threats to their own country（Rogers and Steinfatt 1999）.2.2.2. The Impact of StereotypesAdler reminds us of the harmful effect that stereotypes have on intercultural communication when she notes:”Stereotypes become counterproductive when we place people in the wrong groups, when we incorrectly describe the group norm, when we inappropriately evaluate the group or category, when we confuse the stereotype with the description of a particular individual, and when we fail to modify the stereotype based on our actual observations and experience （Alder 1996）.”Stereotypes are harmful because they impede intercultural communication in at least four ways:First, stereotypes fail to specify individual characteristics. That is to say,stereotypes assume that all members of a group have exactly the same traits. As Atkinson, Morten, and Sue note,” They are rigid preconceptions which are applied to all members of a group or to an individual over a period of time, regardless of individual variations（Atkinson，Morten and Wing Su 1982）.”In other words, they don’t recognize internal differences within a group, and do not recognize exceptions to its general rules or principles.Second, stereotypes also keep us from being successful as communicators because they are over-simplified, over-generalized, and exaggerated. They are based on half-truths, distortions, and often untrue premises. Therefore, they create inaccurate pictures of the people with whom we are interacting. As Guirdham posits,” Stereotype distort intercultural communication because they lead people to base their messages, their way of transmitting them, and their reception of them on false assumptions （Guirdham 1999）.”Third, stereotypes tend to impede intercultural communication in that they repeat and reinforce beliefs until they often become taken for “truth.”The stereotype of women as “homemakers”often keeps women from advancing in the workplace. Women were stereotypes as a rather one dimensional group for many years.Finally, stereotypes can serve as “self-fulfilling prophecies.” Gudykunst reiterates this idea when he notes,” Stereotype can create self-fulfilling prophecies. Individuals tend to see behavior that confirms their expectations, even when it is absent （Gudykunst 2001）.”Once the stereotype is in place, there is a tendency to perceive the stereotyped person engaging in behavior that corroborates your stereotype—even when the behavior is not present.2.3 Ethnocentrism2.3.1. Definition of EthnocentrismThe third major obstacle to effective intercultural communication to be discussed here is ethnocentrism. The word “ethnocentrism”is derived from two Greek words: ethnos, or “nation”; and kentron, or “center.”Sumner，used to be credited with introducing the term to the study of culture, defined ethnocentrism as “the technicalname for the view of things in which ones own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it （Sumner 1940）.”In other words, ethnocentrism refers to understanding and measuring other culture according to its own cultural concepts and standards, including people’s behavior, communication, social customs, values and other management models. Because of ethnocentrism, we tend to view our own cultural values and ways of doing things as more real, or as the “right”.2.3.2. The Performance of EthnocentrismPeople communicate to have an effect on others. They want people to believe as they believe, to look at the world as they do, to know things as they want others to know. Many of these communication objectives involve intent to influence the behaviors of others, to persuade them to a certain point of view. When some members of a culture negatively judge another culture by using standards of their own culture, believing that their own culture is superior, the members are thought to be ethnocentric.The existence of ethnocentrism is not limited to recent historic times. The early Greeks used the term barbarians to refer to those people living around them who did not speak Greek. Because they did not speak Greek, the ancient Persians and Egyptians were considered by the Greeks to be inferior.In today’s world, people will not openly claim that their own culture is superior to other cultures. But people unconsciously tend to make judgments based on their own value systems. All cultures seem to have a tendency to be superior. For instance, ethnocentrism is often expressed in the way people draw their maps. The Chinese were convinced that China was the center of the world. The British drew the Prime Meridian of longitude to run through Greenwich, near London. Europeans drew maps of the world with Europe at the center, and North Americans with the New World at the center.As a major obstacle to intercultural communication, ethnocentrism may take one form or another. “The Generalized Ethnocentrism Scale” by Neuliep and McCroskeyin Intercultural Communication by Rogers and Steinfatt lists twelve forms of ethnocentrism:1)Most other cultures are backward compared to my culture.2)My culture should be the role model for other cultures.3)Other cultures should try to be more like my culture.4)Most people from other cultures just don’t know what’s good for them.5)I have little respect for the values and customs of other cultures.6)Most people would be happier if they lived like people in my culture.7)People in my culture have just about the best lifestyles of anywhere.8)Lifestyles in other cultures are not as valid as those in my culture.9)I do not cooperate with people who are different.10)I do not trust people who are different.11)I dislike interacting with people from different cultures.12)Other cultures are smart to look up to my culture（Rogers and Steinfatt 1999）2.3.3. The Impact of EthnocentrismOne culture teaches its members, in a variety of ways, how to judge others and what to use as criteria for those judgments. The danger of such evaluation is that they are often false, misleading, and arbitrary. It is truly a naive view of the world to believe and behave as if the members of the culture and the very culture have discovered the true and only set of norms.It is natural to look at things from one’s own point of view and to read an event as if it were the same everywhere in the word. And it is easy to feel proud of one’s own culture, country, organization or group. But many problems arise if one simply thinks one’s way is the best way, or the only way in intercultural communication. Because of its habitual nature, ethnocentrism is hard to overcome and often causes miscommunication in intercultural contacts.The more ethnocentric the communicators are, the less they are able to realize and accept the cultural variables. Extreme ethnocentrism leads to rejection of the richness。
跨文化交流的障碍与对策
跨文化交流的障碍与对策引言在全球化的背景下，跨文化交流显得愈发重要。
然而，文化的多样性也给交流带来了许多障碍。
本文将探讨跨文化交流中常见的障碍，并提出相应的对策，以促进不同文化之间的理解与合作。
跨文化交流的障碍1. 语言障碍语言是文化的重要载体，然而，不同语言之间的差异可能导致误解和沟通不畅。
例如，某些词汇在特定文化中具有特殊含义，而在另一文化中可能毫无意义。
（在这里可以插入具体的例子）。
2. 非语言沟通的差异非语言沟通在交流中起着至关重要的作用，但不同文化的非语言表现方式可能截然不同。
例如，手势、面部表情、眼神接触等，往往在不同文化中有不同的解读。
（例如，某个手势在一种文化中是友好的，而在另一种文化中可能被视为冒犯）。
3. 文化价值观的差异文化价值观的差异往往导致对实施的期望和回应的不一致。
例如，在某些文化中，集体主义高于个人主义，而在另一些文化中，个人成就被视为更加重要。
（可以引用一些具体的文化背景）。
4. 先入为主的偏见在跨文化交流中，持有刻板印象和偏见可能导致交流的障碍。
当个人对另一个文化持有负面的看法时，这种先入为主的偏见可能会影响交流的结果。
（可以举例说明某些普遍的刻板印象）。
跨文化交流的对策1. 学习对方的语言和文化为了克服语言障碍，最有效的方法是学习对方的语言和文化。
尽管学习一门新语言可能需要时间和精力，但这将极大地促进彼此的理解。
（可以提到一些学习语言的资源和方法）。
2. 增强非语言沟通的意识在跨文化交流中，了解和尊重非语言沟通的差异至关重要。
通过观察和学习对方文化的非语言沟通方式，可以避免很多误解。
（可以建议一些具体的观察和学习方法）。
3. 开展文化适应培训组织一些文化适应培训，使员工和学生了解不同文化的价值观和行为规范。
（可以具体说明培训的内容和形式）。
这些培训能够帮助参与者克服文化差异，促进和谐的沟通氛围。
4. 培养开放的态度在跨文化交流中，持有开放的态度对促进理解和尊重至关重要。
了解跨文化沟通中的文化障碍
了解跨文化沟通中的文化障碍跨文化沟通是不同文化之间进行有效交流的过程。
由于不同国家和地区拥有不同的语言、价值观和行为方式，跨文化沟通可能会面临一些文化障碍。
这些障碍可能会导致误解、歧视和其他问题的发生。
因此，了解并克服跨文化沟通中的文化障碍是非常重要的。
一、语言障碍语言障碍是跨文化沟通中最常见的障碍之一。
当人们使用不同的语言进行交流时，语言的差异可能会导致信息的误解。
不同国家的语言除了基本的词汇和语法差异外，还包括文化特定的语言使用方式，如口头表达和非语言表达的重要性等。
解决这一障碍的方法包括学习对方的语言，或者使用一种通用的语言进行交流，如英语。
二、价值观和信仰差异不同国家和地区的人们拥有不同的价值观和信仰体系。
这些差异可能导致在跨文化沟通中的误解和冲突。
例如，一个国家可能重视个人主义，而另一个国家则更注重集体主义。
在商务谈判中，不同的价值观可能导致合作伙伴在目标和方法上存在分歧。
为了克服这个障碍，我们需要对对方的价值观和信仰有足够的了解，尊重对方的立场，并寻找共同的利益点。
三、非语言行为非语言行为是跨文化沟通中的另一个重要障碍。
不同国家的人们可能对非语言行为有不同的理解和使用方式。
例如，身体姿势、面部表情和眼神接触等在不同文化中可能具有不同的含义。
这可能导致误解和不必要的紧张。
为了应对这个障碍，我们需要了解对方的非语言行为的含义，并适应对方的习惯。
四、沟通风格不同国家和地区的人们倾向于使用不同的沟通风格。
有些文化更注重直接表达，而有些文化则更注重间接暗示。
在商务会议中，不同的沟通风格可能导致信息的不完整传递或误解。
为了克服这个障碍，我们需要适应对方的沟通风格，并善于解读隐藏的信息。
五、文化差异思维模式不同国家和地区的人们可能有不同的思维模式和决策方式。
例如，一些文化可能更重视短期利益，而另一些文化则更重视长远规划。
在商务合作中，这种差异可能导致冲突和不合作。
为了克服这个障碍，我们需要理解对方的思维模式，并灵活地调整自己的决策方式。
跨文化交际的障碍
引起文化冲突。 3、感到愤怒、恐惧。 4、决定退缩回去。
二、障碍之二：刻板印象
刻板印象是对于某些个人或群体的属性的一
套信念。这些属性可能是正面的，也可能是 负面的。
实际上，形成刻板印象和形成概念或将事物
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
分类是联系在一起的。
在观察异国文化时只注意那些与自己的刻板
印象温和的现象，而忽略其他。它妨碍我们 与具有不同文化背景的人们相处，不利于顺 利开展文化交际。
力越低）
三、障碍之三：民族中心主义
所谓民族中心主义就是按照本民族的观念和
标准去理解和衡量他族文化中的一切，包括 人们的行为举止、交际方式、社会习俗、管 理模式以及价值观念等。
四、文化休克
文化休克主要有6个方面的表现：
1、由于不断进行必要的心理调整而引起的疲
惫 2、由于失去朋友、地位、职业和财产而引起 的失落感 3、不能接受属于新文化的成员或者被这些成 员拒之门外
4、在角色、对于角色的期望、价值观念、感
情自我认同方面感受到得混乱。 5、在觉察文化差异后感到的惊奇、焦虑、甚 至厌恶和气愤。 6、由于不能对付新环境而产生的无能为力的 感觉。
解释文化休克的比较新的理论
1、负面事件理论
2、社会支持减少论 3、价值分歧伦（价值观念差别愈大、适应能
?1由于不断进行必要的心理调整而引起的疲惫惫?2由于失去朋友地位职业和财产而引起的失落感?3不能接受属于新文化的成员或者被这些成员拒之门外?4在角色对于角色的期望价值观念感情自我认同方面感受到得混乱
跨文化交际的障碍
一、障碍之一：认识上的误区
1、期望对方与自己一样。
2、实际情况并非如此，现实与预期差距很大
跨文化交流中的语言障碍及应对方法
跨文化交流中的语言障碍及应对方法在全球化的时代，跨文化交流变得越来越常见。
无论是商务合作、学术交流还是旅游观光，人们都需要面对不同语言和文化的挑战。
语言障碍成为了跨文化交流中的一个重要问题。
本文将探讨语言障碍的原因以及应对方法，帮助人们更好地进行跨文化交流。
一、语言障碍的原因1. 语言差异不同国家和地区拥有不同的语言，这是跨文化交流中最明显的障碍。
即使是使用共同语言的国家，也会因为方言、口音等因素造成交流困难。
例如，英语是国际通用语言，但英国英语和美国英语在发音、词汇和语法等方面存在差异，这可能导致误解和沟通障碍。
2. 文化差异语言与文化紧密相连。
不同文化背景下，人们对于词汇、语法和语义的理解会有所不同。
例如，在中国，礼貌用语非常重要，人们会使用更多的客气语，而在美国，直接坦率的表达更受欢迎。
这种文化差异可能导致交流中的误解和不适。
3. 语言能力语言能力的差异也是语言障碍的一个重要原因。
有些人可能掌握了一定的基础词汇和语法，但在实际交流中仍然感到困难。
这可能是因为缺乏实际应用的机会，或者对于语言的学习态度不正确。
此外，语言学习的能力也因个体差异而异，有些人天生具备较强的语言学习能力，而有些人则需要更多的时间和努力。
二、应对方法1. 学习对方语言学习对方语言是最直接也是最有效的方法。
掌握一些基本的词汇和表达方式，可以帮助我们更好地理解和表达自己。
可以通过参加语言课程、自学或者与母语为对方语言的人交流来提高自己的语言能力。
此外，利用语言学习软件和在线资源也是一个不错的选择。
2. 了解对方文化除了学习语言，了解对方文化也是非常重要的。
文化背景决定了人们的价值观和行为方式。
了解对方的文化习俗、礼仪和价值观可以帮助我们更好地理解对方的言行举止，避免因文化差异而引起的误解和冲突。
3. 培养跨文化交际能力跨文化交际能力是指在与不同文化背景的人交流时，能够灵活适应、理解和尊重对方的能力。
这包括学会倾听、提问、观察和解读非语言信号等技巧。
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美国人的自我优越感（Kohls,1996）
登陆月球证明科学技术美国领先于他国 移居美国的人，应该放弃他们原有的生活方式，并尽快融入美国 社会。 亚洲人的许多作风相当落后 世界上大部分人口都还相当落后，因为他们从来未试着开发自己 的国家 英语应该成为世界语 越南人和许多东亚人不重视生命的价值 美国人很慷慨地教导别人怎样把事情做好 少数人需要服从多数人的价值观与风俗习惯 如果每一个人都能按照美国人的做法，这个世界一定会变得更好 原始部落的人们，根本就还没有达到文化的较高层次 （陈国明，跨文化交际学，2009,55）
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中国人常见的“自我膨胀”说
五千多年的历史，证明中国人和中国文化无与伦比 美国历史短浅，没有文化根基 中国菜，色香味俱全。美国菜，色香味俱差。 人人若能想华人之所想，行华人所行，举世比无争，和 谐安乐。 洋人重科技，不重人性，因此人际关系淡漠，人伦不密 ，人气不足 华人刻苦耐劳，忍辱负重。非裔美国人、拉丁人、白种 美国人，都勤劳不足，疏悟有余。 （陈国明，2009,159）
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陌生人理论
1908年，德国社会学家西姆米尔首先提出了“ 陌生人”的概念：不同文化群体的人彼此之间 是陌生人。 我们平常会对孩子们说，千万不要与陌生人说 话，因为我们不认识他们，所以他们很危险。
8
定型观念、偏见与归因错误
定型观念（stereotype,定式观念、刻板印象）是指一个群 体成员对另一群体成员的简单化的看法。 定型观念代表了一种过于简化的意见，一种具有影响力的态 度和一种不加鉴别的判断。 定型观念也可分为自定型和他定型。一个群体对自己的观念 为自定型，对其他群体的定型为他定型。 定型观念中不符合事实的部分就可以说是“偏见”。“歧视 ”是偏见的行为倾向，对一个群体、文化、民族、种族的消 极性偏见的行为倾向就是群体歧视、文化歧视、民族歧视和 种族歧视。 我们一般认为“美国人开放”、“英国人保守”、“法 国人浪漫”、“德国人严谨”
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一、文化维度理论(霍夫斯泰德)
文化维度理论是跨文化理论中至今最具影响力 的一个理论，由荷兰管理学者郝夫斯特 (Hofstede，1980，1991)提出。 “霍夫斯泰德”——《文化的后果》1980；《 文化与组织》1991。 1980年，荷兰心理学家文霍夫斯泰德(Geert Hofstede）在对IBM公司50种职业、66中国籍的 雇员作出的11.6万份问卷进行分析的基础上， 归纳出比较不同文化价值观差异的四个维度：
3
语言障碍
跨文化沟通中最显而易见的障碍就是语言的障碍。没有 掌握对方语言的时候需要翻译。而翻译的困难主要是在 于所表达的语言意义的流失： 1.语言在同一文化中都具有多种意义 2.翻译有可能作为字面上的意思直译，会产生歧义 3.作为翻译的人，必需熟悉两种语言中的文化背景
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案例：
GM公司于20世纪50年代中期向市场出示的新款汽车 “NOVA”，其西班牙语翻译为“NO GO”。由此， 在墨西哥等中南美GM公司这种品牌汽车的销售严重受 挫。 韩国现代汽车品牌“Hyun Dai”中Dai的英国发音是 同“Die”一样，为此，现代汽车为美国的消费者制作 了把“Hyun Dai”改为“Hyun Day”的教育广告项 目。由此避免了语言发音带来的不必要麻烦。 跨文化营销，切忌不要简单地把国内市场上通用的品牌 名直译为英文，以至于造成国际市场的负面影响。
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简单而错误的归因：“我对他错、我比他好”
1.同一类事情，我做得好，是由于自己是好， 本来就好，如传统文化、英明领导、精英的奉 献精神、民众的奉献精神；反过来，如果他做 得好，是他运气好，时机被他掌握了。 “我族”悲情，从强到变得弱小，由弱小再次 强大 他者对我们永远不安好心，始终是爱恨交加， 担心忧虑，遏制没商量。
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自我中心论与我族中心主义
自我中心论：人类非理性行为背后的最大动因是人类的 自我中心论，即人类天生倾向于“从自己的角度出发看 待一切事物，以自我为中心”。这是形成合理性思维的 最大障碍。自我中心论会让人被错误蒙蔽。自我中心论 的具体细节： 因为我相信它，所以它是正确的 我认为我的信仰都是正确的，即使我没有检验过他 的根据 因为我一贯相信它，所以它是正确的 因为它符合我的利益，所以它是正确的
2.回避不确定性
回避不确定性：一种文化在多大程度上可以容忍或避免未来生活 的多变性、模糊性和不确定性等，或是人们以何种态度面对未来 可能发生的事。 人们忍受模糊(低不确定性规避)或者感到模糊和不确定性的威胁( 高不确定性规避)的程度。低不确定性规避文化中的人们敢于冒险 ，对未来充满信心；而高不确定性规避文化中的人则相反。 根据霍夫斯泰德在1991年的研究，回避不确定性程度较高的国家 和地区有：希腊、葡萄牙、危地马拉、乌拉圭、比利时、日本、 法国、西班牙、阿根廷、土耳其、韩国、墨西哥、以色列、哥伦 比亚、委内瑞拉等。 回避不确定性程度较低的国家和地区有：新加坡、牙买加、荷兰 、瑞典、爱尔兰、英国、马来西亚、印度、菲律宾、美国、加拿 大、挪威、澳大利亚、瑞士、芬兰、伊朗等。
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1.权利距离
权利距离较小的文化 人与人之间的不平等降低到最低程度 拥有不同影响或权威的人之间应该相 互依赖 权利距离较大的文化 接受人与人之间不平等的状况 社会影响或权威较低的人应该依赖和 服从于影响较大或较有权威的人
家长平等对待子女 学生平等对待学生
分权十分普遍 教育程度高的人有较小的权威主义观 念 等级制度主要是服务于便利的目的 上下级之间的收入差别较小 理想的领导是足智多谋的民主主义者 人们对特权和地位的象征表示不满
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高情境和低情境的沟通障碍
著名社会学家爱德华．霍尔（Edward Hall）在1976年提出在跨 文化的沟通中还有一些非语言的语言障碍，其中最大的差异就是 高情境沟通文化（high-context culture）与低情境沟通文化 (low-context culture)。 高情境沟通文化重视的是人际交往和沟通过程中的“情境”，而 不是“内容”。注重建立社会信任，高度评价关系和友谊，关系 的维持相对来说较长久。对含蓄的信息非常敏感，也能体会它的 含义，个体从早年就学会准确解释这些含蓄的信息。 低情境沟通文化重视的是人际交往和沟通过程中的“内容”，而 不是“情境”。不太重视个人之间的关系，“深入了解对方”似 乎是没有必要的，人与人之间的关系持续的时间短，沟通常常是 直接的，早期就被教育要准确清晰地表达自己的意思。
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思维差异与归因误差
康德说人类理性判断其实有两种：一种是分析 性的判断，也就是寻找事物逻辑的一致性；另 一种是综合性的判断，也就是判断事物之间相 似的程度。 心理学实验：给你看两张图，第一张牛和鸡， 第二张是草。你认为牛应该是和草在一起还是 应该和鸡在一起？ 中国人牛跟草，美国人牛跟鸡
第三章 跨文化营销的主要障碍
主讲：陈传红
E-MAIL: phdchen@ 中南民族大学 管理学院
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主要内容
第一节 跨文化沟通的主要障碍 第二节 营销环境中的文化差异：价值层面
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第一节 跨文化交流的主要障碍
语言障碍 高情境和低情境沟通风格 自我中心论与我族中心主义 陌生人理论 定型观念、偏见与归因错误
一、文化维度理论(霍夫斯泰德)
不同文化价值观差异的四个维度： 权利距离（power distance）
人们对社会或组织中权力分配不平等的接受程度
回避不确定性（uncertainty avoidance）
对事物不确定性的容忍程度
男性化-女性化（masculinity-feminity） 个人主义/集体主义（individualism/collectivism）
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克服跨文化障碍的基本方法
强化文化自觉、降低文化成见 尽量准确地评价他者 区别真假文化冲突 立体看世界 建立“第三种文化”
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第二节 文化的差异：价值层面
价值观（values）是有关价值（value）的信念和理想，是不同文 化在生活实践中形成的相对稳定、包含情感和认知成分的观念集 合。 表明人们相信什么，想要什么，坚持追求和实现什么 作为价值选择的内心定位、定向系统，价值观一旦形成，就支配 着人们的信念、态度、看法和行动，对每一个成员的思考和活动 起着规定性和或指令性的作用，其影响宽泛而稳定。 价值观能够帮助人们去了解正确、错误、真实、虚假的标准，也 帮助人们界定什么是值得献出生命的，什么是应当保护的，什么 是危险的，什么是值得学习的，什么是荒谬的。 人们既然接受了赖以生活的价值体系，就不可能同时在其生活的 另一部分按照相反的价值体系来思考和行动，否则就势必陷于混 乱和不便（本尼迪克特） 价值观可以理解为文化群体的力量或弱点的根源。
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基本归因误差与文化差异
1991年的时候，一个北大校友叫卢刚的在美国校园枪杀5个人，然 后开枪自杀。事后报道说：卢刚在美国的博士学习基本结束，即将 毕业，因为到时没有想某大公司推荐他，而推荐了另一同是来自中 国的同学而强烈不满，决意报复。被其枪杀的五人中包括他的导师 、两同事、“被导师看中的”中国同学，还有一位副校长。 调查研究：假设所有条件都一样，但是把地点移到中国，你认为卢 刚会不会杀人？ 中国人认为，卢刚不会杀人，但美国人认为他还会杀人。 再找一个相似的美国杀手，问同样的问题还是同样的结果。 文化差异，中国人对情景变化更敏感，会认为卢刚的问题主要环境 造成的，相信很多客观的周围世界对我们的影响。美国人会更多认 为是他自己的问题，是一个独立个体造成的灾难，他们会考虑是否 这个个体精神失常了，会评述说他不能为自己的大错寻找任何借口 ，不能推卸自己的责任。
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第二节 文化的差异：价值层面
学者们从不同的视角出发，对价值观的识大相径庭。 目前主要的文化价值差异理论： 一、文化维度理论(Geert Hofstede 霍夫斯泰德) 二、六大价值取向理论（克拉克洪和斯乔贝特） 三、个体主义-集体主义理论(蔡安迪斯) 四、文化架构理论(强皮纳斯)