语言学名词解释汇总
描写语言学名词解释
描写语言学名词解释1. 语音学：语音学是研究人类语言声音的学科，主要研究语音的物理属性、发音机制、音变规律以及音系学的基础知识。
2. 音系学：音系学是研究语言中音位组合和音位变化的学科，主要研究语音系统、音位、音变规则以及音系的表达方式。
3. 形态学：形态学是研究语言中词汇结构的学科，主要研究词素、词的结构、词的变化和构词法等。
4. 句法学：句法学是研究语言中句子结构的学科，主要研究句子成分、句子结构、句法规则以及句子的变化等。
5. 语义学：语义学是研究语言中词汇和句子意义的学科，主要研究词义、句义、意义关系、意义变化等。
6. 社会语言学：社会语言学是研究语言与社会关系、语言变异及其原因和结果的学科，主要研究语言的分布、语言的社团差异、语言的演变等。
7. 语言演变：语言演变是指语言在历史发展过程中所发生的变化，包括语音、语法、词汇等方面的变化。
语言演变的原因和机制非常复杂，包括社会、文化、历史等多种因素的影响。
8. 语言习得：语言习得是指个体在语言环境中对语言的自然学习和模仿过程。
它包括对语音、语法、词汇和语用等方面的理解和运用。
9. 语言接触：语言接触是指不同语言或方言之间的接触和交流。
这种接触可以导致语言融合、借用词汇、语音和语法变化等现象。
10. 语言规划：语言规划是指政府或社会团体对语言资源的规划和管理，包括语言的地位、使用范围、保护和发展等。
11. 语言教育：语言教育是指对语言知识和技能的教授和培训，包括母语教育、第二语言教育、外语教育等。
12. 语言科技：语言科技是指利用计算机和人工智能技术对语言信息进行处理和分析，包括自然语言处理、机器翻译、语音识别等。
13. 语言文化：语言文化是指语言与文化之间的联系和互动，包括语言的起源、演变、分布和使用等，以及它们与文化传统的关系。
14. 语言政策：语言政策是指政府对语言使用的规定和管理，包括官方语言、少数民族语言、外语的使用和管理等。
15. 语言资源：语言资源是指语言作为一种社会文化资源所具有的价值和作用，包括语言的经济价值、文化价值和社会价值等。
语言学名词解释整理
Morphology形态学，研究词的内部结构和构造规则如colorful,由color和-ful两部分构成，由此概括出一条规则：名词词尾加上-ful可构成形容词Morpheme,语素，不能再简化的有意义的语言单位。
如boys,由boy和-s构成Morph语素的具体形态Allomorph语素变体英文单词illogical,imbalance,irregular和inactive有着共同的语素in-。
换句话说，im-,ir-是语素in-的变体。
Free morphemes能单独出现，独立构词的语素称为自由语素。
如work,boyBound morphemes不能独立出现，必须附着在其他语素后才能构词的语素。
如distempered中，dis-和-ed是黏着语素，temper是自由语素Bound roots不能独立出现，只能被词缀附着后出现如refer中的-fer,consist中的-sistContent morphemes包含语义内容的语素（包含简单词和能改变词根意义的词缀），如名词、动词、形容词、副词。
如workFunction morphemes通过联系一个句子中的其他词提供语法功能的语素如介词、连词、冠词 at，for，a,butInflectional曲折，生成同一语素的不同形式-s,-‘s,-ing,-en,-er,-est，-sDerivational派生，生成新词，通常可以改变词汇意义Cat,catyCompounding 合成如GirlfriendReduplication 重复Abbreviation or shortening 简写Blending 混合Motor+hotel=motelBreakfast+lunch=brunchAlternationMan menSuppletion 不规则Go wentSyntax句法Pragmatic ambiguityLexical ambiguityStructural ambiguitya. Can you tell me the time?We had the president for dinner.c. We need more intelligent administrators.Agent person who does the actionPatient thing that action happens toInstrument thing involved in action (but not agent)Theme thing that is in a state or location or undergoes change Experiencer animate being that has some kind of perceptual or mental experience Source where a change starts fromRecipient individual that comes into possession of somethingAnalytic Language 分析型语言分析性语言指句子多为自由语素(free morpheme)构成，每个字包含单一语素，自身拥有意义与功能。
语言学常考的名词解释有哪些
语言学常考的名词解释有哪些语言学是一门研究语言的学科，它涉及对语言的结构、语言习得、语言使用等方面的研究。
在语言学的学习中，名词解释是一个常见的题型，要求学生对语言学术语进行准确解释和阐述。
本文将探讨语言学常考的名词解释有哪些。
一、语音语音学是语言学的一个重要分支，它研究的是语言中的音素、音位、音系等。
语音学中的名词解释有声音、音位、音素等。
声音是指随着空气流动而产生的声波，是语言的基本要素之一。
它由声带振动产生，通过咽喉、鼻腔和口腔等发声器官的塑形作用而成为可以被听者感知的语音信号。
音位是指在某一语言中具有区别意义的音素单位。
不同的语言中，音位的数量和类型可能不同，比如汉语中的声调、英语中的元音和辅音等。
音素是构成语言中最小的语音单位，它是在一个语言中能识别出并区分意义的声音。
在不同的语言中，音素的数量和特点也不尽相同。
二、语法语法是语言学的核心内容之一，它研究的是语句的结构和组织规律。
语法中的名词解释有句子、词性、语法关系等。
句子是语言中的基本单位，它由词组成，有主语、谓语、宾语等成分，并且能够构成一个完整的意义。
句子可以分为陈述句、疑问句、祈使句等多种类型。
词性是指词语在句子中的语法功能和类别。
常见的词性有名词、动词、形容词、副词、介词等。
不同的词性在句子中扮演不同的角色，起到不同的作用。
语法关系是指词与词之间在句子中的联系和作用关系。
常见的语法关系有主谓关系、动宾关系、定语与被修饰词关系等。
通过语法关系，词语可以组成一个具有意义的句子。
三、语义语义是语言学的一个重要分支，它研究的是词语和句子的意义。
语义中的名词解释有词义、上下位关系、语用等。
词义是指词语所表示的概念或事物。
词义可以直接由词的形态和义素来表示，也可以通过上下文来理解。
一个词可能有多个词义，比如“车”可以指代交通工具，也可以指代编织器具。
上下位关系是词语之间的层级关系，其中上位词泛指某一概念，下位词则是具体到某一个类别。
比如，动物是上位词，猫、狗是下位词。
语言学的名词解释
语言学的名词解释
语言学：语言学是研究语言系统及其使用活动的科学研究。
语言学研
究手段包括语法、词汇、词汇学、发音、社会语言学、语言发展和变化等。
这些方面的研究将帮助人们更好地了解语言的构成和本质。
词汇学：词汇学是语言学的一个分支，旨在研究语言使用者有效地表
达自己的语言特性、语义和发音。
主要研究内容包括单词的拼写、含义、
发音、语法类型和词类。
语法：语法是语言使用的规则，涉及如何把句子或话语组织成正确的
形式。
它是研究语言结构和句子结构的科学，它涉及语言中的抽象概念，
如句子结构、词性、搭配、句子功能和语义等。
社会语言学：社会语言学是一种探讨语言与社会文化之间关系的学科，它研究如何使用语言以及社会文化如何影响使用语言的方式。
其主要研究
内容包括日常语言使用、语言变化、多元语言文化以及语言的政治、社会
和文化作用等方面。
发音：发音是指一种语言中每个语音的真正发音。
它研究语言中每个
语音如何组成、拼写、发音以及发声器官如何完成发音。
它不仅研究语言
中每个单词的发音，还研究语音与音素之间的关系，例如元音和辅音。
语言学纲要名词解释
语言学纲要名词解释1.语音四要素语音的四要素是指音高、音强、音长和音质。
从声学的角度粗略地说，音高是声音的高低，主要取决于声波基频频率的快慢（也即单位时间内振动周期的多少），音强是人们对声音强弱的感知，主要取决于声波振幅的大小。
音长是声音的长短，主要取决于声波持续的时间，音质是声音的特色，取决于声波中陪音的数量、频率和强度。
2.音素音素是人类语言从音质角度切分的最小的线性语音单位。
它是从语音的自然属性出发定义的，是针对所有人类语言的，是仅依据音质区别而得出。
如：看（kan）可以划分出“k、a、n”三个音素。
音素又分为元音音素和辅音音素。
3.音位音位是某一个具体语言（或方言）中有区别词的语音形式功能的最小的线性语音单位。
它是从语音的社会属性出发定义的，是针对某一种具体语言的，是仅依据有无区别该语言中的词的语音形式之功能（进而也区分了字词的意义）而得出的，它可以是音质上有区别，也可以是音高、音强、音长有区别。
区别词的语音形式也可以粗略的说成“区分意义”。
如：普通话中“关上啊！[kuan ?ɑ? ?A],表示韵腹的三个主要元音是三个不同的音素（前a、后ɑ、央A）,三者随便替换，也不起语音形式的作用，所以这三个音素可以归为一个音位/a/。
4.音位变体处于互补关系中的相似的音素彼此不对立，即不起区别词的语音形式的作用，我们可以把它们归并到一个音位。
如果他们被归并为一个音位，则处于互补关系中的各个音素就被看成为同一个音位在不同位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，所以我们把它们叫做音位变体，如：英语中的/p/就包含[p][p?]两个变体。
从来不在相同的语音位置出现的若干音素处于互补关系，不具有区别词的语音形式的功能叫做音位的条件变体。
如普通话中的[a][?][ɑ]。
[a]出现在开尾韵韵腹的位置上。
“大[ta]、加[t?ia] ”； [?]出现在i和n的前面（限于开合撮三呼）“爱[??]岸[?n]”；[ɑ]出现在u和?的前面“老[lɑ?]、亮[liɑ?]。
语言学名词解释
Chapter 1: Introduction1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.11.performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13.design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to no logical connection between meaning and sound.15. productivity: Users can understand and produce sentences that they have never heard before.16. duality: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and the higher lever of meaning.17. displacement: Language can be used to refer to the contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker no matter how far away from the topic of conversation in time or space.18. cultural transmission: Language is culturally transmitted. It is taught and learned from one generation to the next, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2: Phonology1. phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.2. phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in t he world’s languages.3. articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. howa speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.4. auditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language. 12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.17. monophthong : the individual vowel.18. diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one.19. phone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language.20. phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds.21. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments.22. phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.23. phonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.24. complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.29. suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence.30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Chapter 3: Morphology1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.3. closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes themeaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to forma new word.11. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case.12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.13. compound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single words14. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.Chapter 4: Syntax1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. 14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.15. subcategorization: The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded iscalled matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure. (05)26. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.Chapter 5: Semantics1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationshipbetween the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows. e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some more tea.Chapter 6: Pragmatics1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.2. context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers.3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features.4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a particular context.5. utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle, which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking.7. constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable.8. performatives: Pe rformatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.9. locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexicon and phonology.10. illocutionary act: The act of expressing the speaker’s i ntention and performed in saying something.11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequence or the change brought about by the utterance.12. representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.13. directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.18. conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.Chapter 7: Language Change8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.9. protolanguage: The original form of a language family, which has ceased to exist.10. Language family: A group of historically related languages that have developed from a common ancestral language.Chapter 8: Language And Society1. sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation and language use in social contexts.2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at leastone speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms.3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same geographical region.5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular social class.6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.7. idiolect : A person’s dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements, regarding regional, social, gender and age variations.8. linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believed that three social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor of discourse and mode of discourse.10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concerned with how communication is carried out.13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language of a community or nation, usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.15. Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language of people, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on a regular basis.16. Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a group of speakers used in this daily life.17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C) 18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each having a definite role to play.19. Lingua Franca : A variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people, who speak different native languages or dialects20. code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialects within the same sentence or discourse.Chapter 10: Language Acquisition1. language acqui sition: It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normalhuman child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language.3. Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech，caretaker talk.5. Critical Period Hypothesis: The hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formal instruction successfully and effortlessly.6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.8. telegraphic speech: Childre n’s early multiword speech that contains content words and lacks function words and inflectional morphemes.9. content word: Words referring to things, quality, state or action, which have lexical meaning used alone.10. function word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons of religion, politeness etc.12. atypical development: Some acquisition of language may be delayed but follow the same rules of language development due to trauma or injury.Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.3. second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language ina country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.4. foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.15. cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of thattarget language.17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.18. input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.19. intake: the input which is actually helpful for the learner.20. Input Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in second language learning, it’s necessary f or the learner to understand input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. Eventually the ability to produce language is said to emerge naturally without being taught directly.21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners are hardly aware of their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.23. comprehensible input: Input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s pre sent linguistic competence.24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.25. motivation: motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign language for instrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc.27. integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture.28. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language for external purposes.29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.Chapter 12 : Language And Brain1. neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.2. psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with the processes of language acqisition, comprehension and production.7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.13. spoonerism: a slip of tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let’s have chish and fips instend of Let’s have fish and chips.14. priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether the string of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.15. frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently used words than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is calledfrequency effect.16. lexical decision: an experiment that let participants judge whether a string of letter is a word or not at a certain time.18. priming effect: Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the target is presented, response time is shorter that it otherwise would have been. This is called the priming effect.。
语言学必考名词解释
ngue:refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityLangue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.2.Design feature:are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.3.Synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind4.Arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.5.Duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary. Level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.6.Displacement: one design feature of human language, which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.petence:language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.8.Prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.Prescriptive:a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, . laying down rules for language use.9.Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.10.Assimilation:the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.11.Connotation:a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.12.Reference:the use of language to express a proposition, meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.Reference:the use of language to express a proposition,. to talk about things in context.13.Sense:the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context.14.Linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, . language determines thought.15.Parole:the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).16.Interlinguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language, language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.17.Transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language. When structures of the two languages are similar, we can get positive transfer of facilitation; when the two languages are different in structures, negative transfer of inference occurs and results in errors.18.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.19.Hyponymy: a relation between tow words, in which the meaning of one word (the superordinate) is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)20.Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme (eg. <Th>is an allophone of /t/in English. When /t/occurs in words like step, it is unaspirated<t>.Both<Th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.21.Error analysis: is the process of determining the incidence, nature, cause and consequence of unsuccessful language22.Utterance: spoken word, statement, or vocal sound action of saying or expressing something aloud the simple utterance of a few platitudes uninterrupted chain of spoken or written language23.Interference: a process more commonly known as negative transfer, which occurs when an L1 patter is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.24.Predication analysis:is a way to analyze the meaning of sentences. A sentence, composed of a subject and predicate, is a basic unit for meaning analysis is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence25.Cohesion: refers to the way in which text “hang together”;to the resources within language that help relate ideas and information and make links between different parts of a text26.Polysemy: words have two or more than two senses27.Speech act: refers to an action performed by the use of anutterance.28.Linguistics:generally, it is defined as the scientific studyof the language29.Phonetics: is the study of production of speech sounds30.Semantics: is generally defined as the study of the meaningof linguistic units. to be more specific, the meaning with which linguistists are concerned is defined as linguistic semantics语言学考试范围1. Does the traffic light have duality Explain the reasons.2. IC analyzes the sentence structure with brackets or a tree diagram.Lovely Jane ran away.3.What are Leech’s seven types of meaningConceptual meaning. Connotative meaning. Social meaning.Affective meaning. Reflected meaning. Collocative meaning.Thematic meaning4.What are the differences between modern linguisticsand traditional grammar5.Explain surface structure and deep structure.6.What are the major views concerning the study ofmeaning7.What are the four maxims of the CP8.Analyze the structure of a syllable. Give one exampleto illustrate.9.Explain the two terms “sense” and “reference” andwhat is their relationship10.What are the differences between errors andmistakesWhat are the major views concerning the study of meaning What are the major views concerning the study of meaning (1) The naming theory命名论----One of the oldest notions converning meanings, and also a very primitive one, was the naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or label for things.命名论是最原始的语义理论，该理论是把词看作所指事物的名称。
语言学理论名词解释
语言学理论名词解释导言1.语言学：以语言作为研究对象的一门独立科学。
2.专语语言学：以某一种具体的语言为研究对象的语言学。
它包括共时语言学和历时语言学两种。
总之，专语语言学只研究某一种语言。
3.共时语言学：语言研究的一种方法，从一个横断面描写研究语言在某个历史时期的状态和发展。
4.历时语言学：语言研究的一种方法，集中研究语言在较长历史时期中所经历的变化。
5.普通语言学：以人类一般语言为研究对象，研究人类语言的性质、结构特征、发展规律，是综合众多语言的研究成果而建立起来的语言学，是语言学的重要理论部分。
6.语文学：是为给古代文化遗产——政治历史文学等方面的经典书面著作作注释，目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。
7.“小学”：中国传统的语文学，围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究，从而诞生了分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学，因此又被人们称为经学的附庸。
8.应用语言学：研究语言学的应用的学科，实际上是一种交叉学科，是相关学科的学者将语言学的基本原理同有关学科结合起来研究问题而产生的新的学科。
9.历史比较语言学：语言学中一个重要的部门，它以历史比较法为基础，研究语言的亲属关系。
它为现代语言学的建立奠定了坚实的基础，是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。
第一章语言的社会功能1.语言：是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类作为必不可少的思维工具和最重要的交际工具来使用的一种音义结合的符号系统。
2.说话：运用语言跟人们交流思想的行为，本身不等于语言。
3.言语：是对语言的运用，它有两个意思：一是指人的说和写的过程，是人的一种行为，叫言语活动，也叫言语行为；一是指人说出来的话，写出来的东西，也叫言语作品。
4.交际工具：人类交际活动所使用的工具。
语言是人类最重要的交际工具。
此外，身势等伴随动作是非语言的交际工具；旗语之类是建立在语言、文字基础上的辅助性交际工具；文字是建立在语言基础之上的一种最重要的辅助交际工具；5.思维：是认识现实世界时的一种动脑筋的过程，也指动脑筋时进行比较、分析、综合以认识现实的能力。
语言学名词解释
语言学常识----语言学名词解释名词解释。
1、语言学：①～是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；②从方法上分为历史…、比较…、历史比较…、描写…；从研究对象上可分为个别…和普通…；③19世纪初的历史比较学标志着语言学的诞生。
2、语文学：…是为给古代文化遗产——政治历史文学等方面的经典书面著作作注释，目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。
3、小学：指我国古代传统的文学学、音韵学和训诂学,虽然我国古代没有语文学，但一般认为…属于语文学的范围。
4、训诂：是解释字义和研究它的演变的一门学科，其目的是从词义方面来解释古书的文字。
5、专语语言学：以某种具体的语言为研究对象的语言学称为…。
＊共时语言学和历时语言学：根据语言体系的稳固和变化,把语言研究分为共时的和历时的研究,共时…研究的是在特定时期内相对稳固的语言体系,如对现代汉语的研究;历时…研究的则是描写语言体系的历史演变,如对汉语发展史的研究。
＊普通语言学：是对人类语言从理论方面进行研究的一门学科，它探索各种语言所共有的规律以及各种语言在结构上的共同特点。
＊历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学称为…。
＊比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的叫…。
6、表层结构和深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。
7、语言：是从言语中概括出来的音义结合的词汇系统和语法系统。
＊言语：是说的行为和结果。
＊说话：是人们运用语言工具表达思想所产生的结果。
8、语言层级性（二层性）：语言是一种分层装置。
语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。
语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的音节；上层分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。
语言学名词解释
Define the following terms:1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. .4. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.5. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.6. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.7. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.8. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.9. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.10. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.11. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.12. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds13. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.14. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker15. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.16. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication17. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,18. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication.19. Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently20. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.21. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But itis an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.22. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.23. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.24. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.25. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages26. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.27. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.528. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning. 529. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.33. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.34. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections35. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.36. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.37. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. 38. Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.39. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.40. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.41. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.42. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.43. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.44. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.45. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.46. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.47. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".48. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers toa word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.49. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .50. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.51. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.52. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.53. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.54. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualised.55. Reference: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience56. Synonymy :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.57. Polysemy :Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.58. Homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.59. homophones :When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones60. homographs :When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.61. complete homonyms.:When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.62.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.63. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.64. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was pro-posed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features.65.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its grammatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.66. predication :The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.67. argument : An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence.68. predicate : A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.69. two-place predication : A two-place predication is one which contains two arguments.37. pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.38. Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speak-er and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 39. utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence ina real situation of communication, or simply in a context.40. sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is of-ten considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.41. Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable ;42. Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act. 43. locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.44. illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.45. perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act per-formed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.46. Cooperative Principle: It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviors. The content is : Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.。
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语言学名词解释汇总1．语言学：①是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；②从方法上分为历史、比较、历史比较、描写；从研究对象上可分为个别和普通；③19世纪初的历史比较学标志着语言学的诞生。
2．语文学：是为给古代文化遗产——政治历史文学等方面的经典书面著作作注释，目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。
3．小学：指我国古代传统的文字学、音韵学和训诂学，虽然我国古代没有语文学，但一般认为属于语文学的范围。
4．训诂：是解释字义和研究它的演变的一门学科，其目的是从词义方面来解释古书的文字。
5．专语语言学：以某种具体的语言为研究对象的语言学称为专语语言学。
共时语言学和历时语言学：根据语言体系的稳固和变化，把语言研究分为共时的和历时的研究，共时语言学研究的是在特定时期内相对稳固的语言体系，如对现代汉语的研究；历时语言学研究的则是描写语言体系的历史演变，如对汉语发展史的研究。
普通语言学：是对人类语言从理论方面进行研究的一门学科，它探索各种语言所共有的规律以及各种语言在结构上的共同特点。
历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变，研究它的变化规律的语言学称为历史语言学。
比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律。
6．表层结构和深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。
7．语言：是从言语中概括出来的音义结合的词汇系统和语法系统。
言语：是说的行为和结果。
说话：是人们运用语言工具表达思想所产生的结果。
8．语言层级性（二层性）：语言是一种分层装置。
语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。
语言可分为两层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的音节；上层分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。
语言的线条性：是指在交际过程中，语言符号或者作为符号的形式的声音，只能一个跟着一个依次出现，随着时间的推移而逐渐延伸，绝不能在同一时间里说出两个符号或两个声音。
语言的任意性：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，音义之间交没有必然的、本质的联系，也就是它们之间的结合是不可论证的，是约定俗成的。
语言的依存性：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约定俗成后，音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。
9．语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。
语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。
语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是不一样的。
与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。
10．思维：是人脑能动地反映客观现实的机能和过程。
根据思维活动的不同形态可分为三种类型：直观动作思维、形象思维、抽象思维。
11．社会：指生活在一个共同的地域中，说同一种语言，有共同的风俗习惯和文体传统的人类共同体，即一般所说的部落、部族和民族。
社会现象：指那些与人类共同体的一切活动——产生、存在和发展密切联系的现象。
12．符号：是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号、标记。
语言符号：又是由音义结合构成的，代表或指称现实现象的符号。
13．组合关系：词和词组合起来的语言链条关系叫组合关系。
聚合关系：在语言链条的某一环节上能够互相替换的词具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，这种关系叫聚合关系。
14．语音：是由人类器官发出的能载负一定意义的声音；是人们赖以实现信息交际过程的物质材料。
15．音素：人类语言从音质角度划分的最小的语音单位。
音标：记录音素的标写符号。
国际音标：由《国际语音协会》1888年8月制订公布，被各国语言工作者采用的，不带民族特色的记录语音的语音符号。
16．基音、陪音：声音大都是由许多频率不同的纯音构成的复合波，其中频率最低的那个纯音叫基音，其他的叫陪音。
乐音、噪音：基音的频率和陪音的频率之间总是保持一种整数倍的比例关系的声音，它的波形总是有规律的叫乐音；不具备整数倍关系，波形不规则的叫噪音。
共振峰：一个音的陪音经过共振腔时，一部分引起共振腔里空气的共振，从而得到强化的一簇陪音聚集而成的高峰叫共振峰。
16．主动发音器官和被动发音器官：在发音器官中，有些如唇、舌、声带等是能够活动的叫主动发音器官；有些如口腭等不能活动的叫被动发音器官。
17．音位：具体语言或方言里最小的能区别词的语音形式和意义的语音类型单位。
音（质）段音位：以音素为材料，从音质角度来分析的音位叫音（质）段单位。
非音（质）段音位：有区别词的语音形式的作用的音高、音重、音长叫非音质（段）单位。
音位体系：一种语言的音位总是以一定的方式互相独立而又互相联系，构成一个完整的体系，叫音位系统。
音位变体：属于同一音位的几个音素是这个音位的变异形式，叫音位变体。
对立和互补：是语言里音与音之间的两种重要关系，是考察一个音素在具体语言中的作用的根据。
彼此对立的音素，起着区别词的语音形式的作用；彼此相似而互补的音素，可能被语言社会当作同一个语音使用。
音位条件变体：各个音位变体出现条件受环境等条件的制约，叫音位条件变体。
音位自由变体：音位之间的相互替换是自由的，没有条件限制，叫音位自由变体。
18．语流音变：音位和音位组合的时候，或者由于受邻音的影响，或者由于说话时快慢、高低、强弱的不同，可能发生不同的变化，这种变化叫语流音变。
常见的语流音变有同化、异化、弱化、脱落。
同化：语流中两个邻近的不同的音，其中一个受到另一个的影响而变得跟它相同或相近，叫同化。
异化：语流中两个邻近的相同或相近的音，其中一个受到另一个的影响而变得不同或不相近，叫异化。
弱化：语流中一个较强的音由于所处的地位或受邻音的影响而变成一个较弱的音，叫弱化。
脱落：语流中有些较弱的或不重要的音在发音时丢失了，或者为了发音的方便而省去某些音，叫脱落。
19．音节：由音位组成的语音中最小的结构单位，也是听觉上能够自然辨别出来的最小语音单位。
音质：也叫音色，指声音的品质或个性。
区别特征：有区别音位的作用的发音特征叫区别特征。
元音舌位图：四个极点围成一个四边形叫元音舌位图，变更口腔的形状所能发出的绝大部分元音都在这个图的范围之内。
四、呼：韵母按开头的元音发音口形可分为四呼。
齐口呼：以/i/为主要元音或介音；合口呼：以/u/为主要元音或介音；撮口呼：以/y/为主要元音或介音；开口呼：没有韵头而以/a、o、e/为韵母的主要元音。
20．语（词）素：语言中音义结合的最小单位，是不能独立运用的构词要素。
词：语言中能独立运用的最小单位。
词汇：一种语言中所有的词和成语等固定用语的总汇叫词汇。
基本词汇：词汇体系中，标志着与人们世世代代的日常生活有密切关系的事物的词以及表示事物关系的常用虚词的总汇叫基本词汇；基本词汇是词汇中的主要部分，具有常用性、稳固性、能产性等特点。
一般词汇：词汇中基本词汇以外的词构成一般词汇，其特点是变化迅速，缺少历史稳固性。
词根：词的核心部分，词的意义主要是由它体现出来的。
（词根和词缀叫构词语素）词干：一个词除去词尾的部分叫做词干。
词缀：只能粘附在词根上构成新词的语素，它本身不能单独构成词。
词尾（变词语素）：加在词的末尾，只能改变一个词的形式，而不能构成新词。
词组：实词与实词之间具有直接联系的相对独立的词群叫词组。
句群：是由句子与句子组成的，具有相对独立性和完整性的，语法中的最大单位。
单纯词：由一个词根语素（有的语言里加上词尾）构成的词叫单纯词。
合成词：由两个或两个以上的构词语素组成的词叫合成词。
复合词：词根语素按一定的规则组合起来构成的合成词叫复合词。
派生词：由词根语素和词缀组合起来构成的词叫派生词。
组合的递归性：因为语法的组合结构一层套一层，所以同样的结构规则尽可以重复使用而不致造成结构上的混乱叫组合的递归性。
独体字和合体字：只有一个构字成分的字是独体字；有两个或两个以上构字成分的字是合体字。
通用词/专用词：不受语体限制，能在各种语体通行无阻的词叫通用词；专用于不同语体的词叫专用词。
表情词/非表情词：只指称事物，表达概念并不附带说者对词所代表的事物的态度叫非表情词；附带说者态度的叫表情词。
21．语法意义：由词的语法关系产生的意义叫语法意义。
词汇意义：由人们对现实现象的反映以及由此带来的人们对现实现象的主观评价，叫词汇意义。
理性意义：以现实现象为基础，不涉及人们主观态度的词义，叫理性意义。
本义：词的有历史可查的最初的意义叫词的本义，它是产生其他意义的基础。
基本意义：词在语言长期使用中所固定下来的、最常见、最主要的意义叫基本意义。
派生意义：由本义衍生出来的意义叫派生意义。
隐喻和换喻：引申的两种方式。
隐喻建立在两个意义所反映的现实现象的某种相似的基础上；换喻的基础是两类现实现象之间存在着某种联系。
转义：以词的本义来比喻另一事物，因而双转生出另一种意义，这就叫转义。
单义词和多义词：一个词的意义可以只概括反映某一类现实现象，也可概括反映相互有联系的几类现象，前者叫单义词，后者叫多义词。
同义词和反义词：几个声音不同而意义相同或基本相同的词叫同义词；语言中意义相反的词叫反义词。
22．语言意义：指语言体系中所固有的意义，特点是抽象、概括、多义、相对稳定。
言语意义：指在特定的交际环境中，人们在使用语言交流思想时双方所理解的特定意义和临时意义，特点是个别、单义、多变。
23．语法形式：表达语法意义的外部形式。
语法范畴：由词的变化形式所表示的意义方面的聚合叫语法范畴。
语法方式：把表达语法意义的语法形式概括成的类别叫语法方式。
24．语法：是词法和句法的汇集，包含词的构形、构词规则和词组合成句、名组合成句群的规则。
构词法：指在词根基础上按一定的构词规则创造新词的方法。
构形法：指以一个词为中心的多种变形来表示某种语法意义的方法。
24．词类：具体说是具有相同语法功能的一类词的集合，抽象地说是一组分布环境的总和。
形态（词形变化）：同一个词与不同的词组合就不同的变化，这些不同的变化形成一个聚合叫形态（词形变化）。
内部屈折：指词内部的语音形式的变化。
25．显性意义：通过词形变化、辅助词和词序所反映出来的各种语法关系叫显性意义，分为陈述、支配、修饰、平行关系。
隐性意义：指隐藏在显性意义后面的各种语法关系，通常表现为“施事—动作和动作—施事”等关系。
26．上限结构和下限结构：单句与单句组合成复合句叫上限结构；下限结构即单句，包括非主谓句和主谓句，人称句和非人称句，名词句、动词句和形容词句。
27．直接成分：句子分析中，每一层中直接组合起来构成一个更大的语法单位的两个组成成分叫直接成分。