探讨年龄对第二语言习得的影响
年龄因素和二语习得的关系及对语言学习的启示
年龄因素和二语习得的关系及对语言学习的启示作者：李亚黄芳来源：《青年文学家》2019年第18期摘; 要：年龄是影响二语习得的重要因素之一。
但是，年龄因素在二语习得中的研究结果并不一致，甚至出现一些互相矛盾的结论。
本文主要阐述年龄与二语习得的关系，儿童和成人二语习得的差异。
并且介绍了二语习得的有关理论，如关键期假说。
基于对理论的探讨，最后对孩子和成人的语言学习提出了一些建议。
关键词：年龄;二语习得;关键期假说;语言学习作者简介：第一作者李亚，女，1993年9月生，山东人，上海理工大学学生;第二作者黄芳，上海理工大学副教授。
[中图分类号]：H09; [文献标识码]：A[文章编号]：1002-2139（2019）-18--01一、引言部分学者赞同年龄是影响语言学习的重要因素这个观点。
一些二语习得的研究者提出了一系列不同性质的因素，如人格、态度、智力等等。
然而，与第一语言学习者相比，第二语言学习者在二语习得的过程中所缺乏的成功因素之一就是，二语学习者学习的时间晚于母语学习者。
许多心理学家，应用语言学家和教育工作者都非常关心年龄对二语习得的影响。
他们花了很多时间从不同的角度和不同的主题研究年龄与二语习得的关系。
他们大多认为孩子在4-6岁阶段开始学习第一语言，在这个时期更容易获得准确的发音和语调。
但在学习第二语言的年龄变化却很大，在第二语言习得（SLA）领域，学习非母语（L2）的具体方面可能受到开始学习的影响，这种影响称为“年龄因素”。
二、文献综述二语习得是一个比较热门的领域，年龄因素是二语习得研究的又一热门话题。
在过去的几十年里，这个领域有了很大的发展，其重点在于语言学习是否存在关键时期或敏感时期。
在国外也有对二语习得的研究相关文献，例如《第二语言习得指导介绍》，对我国英语教学和研究具有较好的指导意义。
我国徐元教授简要介绍了Lenneberg的关键时期假说，Selinker的石化现象和中介语理论。
此外，李阳阳教授和纪哲民教授还介绍了年龄与语言习得的关键时期假说，最佳年龄段和机会机遇之间的关系，他们指出，初学外语是一把双刃剑，既有优势又有潜在的风险。
年龄与二语习得
论文导读：年龄是影响第二语言(兼指外语)习得效果个体差异的重要因素之一。
但也是长期以来困扰二语习得研究的一个问题。
到了1967年心理语言学家Lenneberg发展了这一观点, 提出了著名的语言学习的关键期假说(critical period hypothesis,或译作临界期假说):自然语言习得只能发生在关键期,即两岁到青春期之前。
关键词：二语习得，年龄，关键期假说1. 引言年龄是影响第二语言(兼指外语)习得效果个体差异的重要因素之一，但也是长期以来困扰二语习得研究的一个问题。
许多心理学家、应用语言学家和教育家用大量的时间从不同的角度,选择不同的对象研究年龄和第二语言习得的关系,但研究的结果并不一致。
论文检测。
尽管如此，年龄研究从未间断过，甚至成为当今二语习得领域的热点之一，原因在于二语习得年龄的研究具有重要的理论和实践意义，它不仅有助于探讨人类大脑认知之谜，更是直接关系到二语教学模式的选择和学习策略的定位。
本文试图综述二语习得年龄研究的主要发现，同时探讨这些发现对目前的外语教学有什么启发。
2. 关键期假说的研究很久以前人们就注意到，童年是学习语言,无论是习得母语还是学习外语的最佳年龄。
这种现象使得美国神经心理学家Penfield 于1959年提出“白板理论”,认为在婴儿出生时大脑皮层的某些区域具有固定的功能,但有一块皮层最后将用于语言和感觉,在早期可以运用这片空白区域进行语言学习,几种语言可以轻易地被同时习得,认为4-8岁是学习外语的最佳起始年龄。
到了1967年心理语言学家Lenneberg发展了这一观点, 提出了著名的语言学习的关键期假说(critical period hypothesis,或译作临界期假说):自然语言习得只能发生在关键期,即两岁到青春期之前。
关键期假说在二语习得领域引发了无数研究和争论，支持和反对的论据都有。
20 世纪 60年代末 70 年代初，这场激烈争论的焦点是围绕儿童学习外语是否比成人存在优势。
浅谈二语习得年龄因素
当学习一个新单词时,他们常回忆与该单词相关的近义词、
反义词等,从而巩固并扩大了词汇量。)同时,成人能较容
易地处理复杂的语言形式和内容,所以对于学习第二语言
来说,已掌握了一定的先决条件。其次,成人具有丰富的
经历,更善于利用语言交际策略,能根据具体的语言环境
关键词:年龄因素;二语习得;外语教学
中图分类号: H319·3文献标识码: A 文章编号: 1671-380X (2011) 05-0172-02
On How the Age Factor Influences Second Language Acquisition
HUHong-zhi
(Liuzhou Teacher’s college, Liuzhou545004, China)
在一定的语言环境下就能达到语音纯正、外语听说水平较
高的效果。
(二)从语法习得方面来分析
年龄因素对二语语法习得的影响,研ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ表明在语法习
得中,成人与儿童需经历相似的阶段。但是,成人在二语
语法习得中具有一定优势,他们习得的效果比儿童要好。
首先,因为儿童偏向直观的、隐性的学习方式,而成人偏
向分析的、显性的学习方式,成人的逻辑、综合分析能力
浅谈二语习得年龄因素
胡红芝
(柳州师专外语系,广西 柳州 545004)
*
摘 要:在二语习得研究领域,年龄因素一直是语言学家们关注的焦点。本文首先介绍了年龄与二语习得关
系研究的现状,然后分析和论述了儿童与成人的二语习得比较研究,并结合学习语言的实际情况阐述了年龄因素
对外语教学实践带来的一些启示。
论年龄和第二语言习得的关系
成人与 儿童之 间存在心 理上 的差异 ，例 如成 人 可 能 更加 压 抑 ，他 们 可 能 在某 种 程度 上 抵制 社 会
学 习语言规 则 。但 也有人 认为 ，儿 童能像 习得 母语 样利用 “ 语言 习得机制 ”来学 习第 二语 言。就社
二语言的人达 到本族语者 的水 平 。但 短期研究 又表 明，成 年人在 习得 速度 方面 占优势 。有 证据显 示 ，
在 第二语言 习得 过程的 开始阶 段 。很 多成年人 在句 法 和词法学 习的早期 比儿 童进 步要快 。如果接触 到 的语言输入相 同，年轻 的成年 人 比年长 的成年人 学 得更快 。总之 ，不论是 正规语言学 习还 是 自然 语言 习得，那些从 儿童时期 开始学习另一种 语言 的人似 乎是 占据优势 的 。其次 ，就第二语 言习得 的成功 而 言 ，研 究者普遍 认为 ，接 触第 二语 言的时 间越 长 ， 就越可能获得接 近本族语 者的水平 。因此 ，接 触语
用 能力 ，而 年龄 则决 定所 获 得 的 语 言的 精确 性 程
度，尤其在语音方面 。
（ ）人 在 １ 一 Ｏ到 １ ２岁之 前 ，比 其它任 何 时 期
都更容 易习得语言
Ｌ ｎ ｅｅ （９ ７ ｅｎ ｂｒ １６ ）嘲首 先提 出学 习语 言 的最佳 ｇ 年龄是在２岁至青春 期之前 这段 时问 ，称 之为 关键
（ ）认知上的解释 二
Ｋ ａｈ ｎＯ 为 ，认知 的发展对 二语 习得有 否定 ｒｓｅｔ认 ｌ
的影 响。儿童和成 人 的二 语 习得可 能涉及 不 同的过 程 ，前 者使用语 言 习得机 制 ，如 同 习得第 一语 言一 样 习得 第 二 语 言 ，而 后者 使 用 一 般 的 问题 解 决 能 力 。成 人抽象 思维能力可 能非常有 利于成 人解 决抽 象 问题 ，但他们不 能使用 语言 习得 机制来 习得第 二 语言。
年龄因素对第二语言习得的影响论文
Age Factor in Second Language Aquisition1. IntroductionNowerdays, with the development of society and technology, our society has become more open. People, with different colors,who come from different countries and areas communicate with each other in various ways and methods. Language, of course, is one of the most important tools in our communication. As we all known, English is an international language in the whole world. Accordingly, in our country, English learning is very popular with not only students, but also the children, adults and even the retired old man. And according to many studies,age is one of the most important individual factors affecting foreign language learning, which is considered as a focus of applied linguistics and psycholinguistics. Almost all parents think that"Don't let their own children lose at the beginning. "In China,all the families believe that it is very important for the students to learn English in the childhood.And many parents even send their children to language schools at an early age in older to get a high score.In recent years,some scholars in China such as Gui Shichun, Wang Chuming, Dai Manchun, Dai Weidong have a heated discussion about the affection of age factors in foreign language teaching and learning. At the same time, the government have also paid more attention on English learning. Nowerdays,many reseachers have studied the factors affecting language learning, such as intelligence, aptitude, personality, motivation, attitudes, earner's preference, learner's beliefs and age of acquisition. But I just want to study the influence of age factor. Is it good enough for parents to let their children learn English at an early age? Do children have absolute advantages over adolescents and adults in second language acquisition? What are the respective advantages and disadvantages of children,adolescents and adults? With the above problems analyzed,this thesis focus on the influence of age factor on the Second Language Acquisition.2. Second Language Acquisition2.1 Definitin of Second Language Acquisition"Second language acquisition"refers to the subconscious or conscious processes by which a language other than mother tongue is learnt in a natural or a tutored or a classroom; it covers the development of phonology,lexis,grammar, pragmatics and other knowledge(Hu Zhuanglin,p.268). How children acquire their native languages and what is the relavance of this to foreign language learning has long been debated. Although evidence for the declining of second language learning ability with age is controversial, a common assumption is that children learn second languageseasily and fluently compared with old learners. This assumption stems from"critical period"(CP) ideas(Lennerberg,1967). It is commonly know that children with regular faculties and given normal circumstances will easily master their native languages. Unfortunately,perfect language mastery is rarely in the process of second language acquisition. One of the most obvious potential explanations for the lack of success of second language learners compared to first language learners is that the acquisition of second language begins at a later age than that of the mother tongue does. Thus, many scholars assume that age itself is a predicator of second language proficiency.A popular belief in this area is that younger learners have certain advantages over older learners in foreign language learning and many linguists and researchers share this belief. They believe that younger children learn second language more easily and quickly than older children (Ellis,2008;Larsen-Freeman,2008). However,some other researchers hold the the opposite point. They believe that younger learners do not show any advantage over older learners in second language learning, and they even can provide some evidence to prove scientifically that the opposite is true, i.e. older learners exhibit some advantages over younger learners (Snow&Hoefnagef-Hohle,1978).About the study on age factors affecting second language acquisition,Carroll(1980) provided neurological basis for critical period hypothesis from aspect of earlier exposure, whose experiment indicates that the earlier exposure to second language,more or less, is of significance to the success of second language acquisition. That is, the early exposure to second language will bring quite different quality to later language learning in both natural and conscious settings.2.2 Current Situation of Second Language AcquisitionMany studies pay much attention to the age factor in second language learning at home and abroad. The relationship between age factor and second language acquisition has become more and more hot and popular.As for second languge acquisition. Penfield and Roberts(1959:130) first introduced the Critical Period. According to Penfield and Roberts, a child's brain is more plastic compared with that of an adult. And in 1967, Lenneberd introduced the Critical Period Hypothesis to second language acquisition, which could account for children's faster and more successful attainment over adults in second language acquisition.The research of age factor in foreign language learning also attracts much attention of the scholars in China.But it seems that many of them are on the opponent side. Professor Gui Shichun(1992:54-56) questioned the popular concept of "the younger, the better". Recently, in Guangdong Province, Professor Dong Y anping(2003:39-47) proposed that it was not necessary to start English teaching programs for young children in kindergartens and Grade 1 of primaryschools. At the same time, a variety of English learning phenomena have sprung up in China:in 2001, the Education Ministry decided that pupils begin English learning from Grade Three in cities and condition-permitting rural areas; in Shanghai all the pupils have been required to learn English from Grade One since 2003; English training courses for kids mushroom all over the country and at the same time, English textbooksand tapesforkids becomebest-sellers. English languagehas turnedintoa secondlanguage inChina.3. Factors Affeting Second Language AcquisitionIn our life and experience, almost all normal children can succeed in their first language acquisition on condition that they get a normal upbring. However, it is quite different in second language learning.Actually, different characteristics of learners will lead to different results in second language learning. And everyone has his own personality. In addition to personality, other factors are also relevant to language learning. These include intelligence, motivation, aptitude, learners 'preferences and learners' belief.3.1 IntelligenceThe level of learners' intelligence have an influence or second language learning. Over the past years, through using some intelligence tests or different methods, and then using the scores measure the intelligence of the learners. Researchers suppose that intelligence may be connected with second language ability. Recently, more and more studies have proved this. However, it is not the only factor. There are many students who are very successful in second language learning without high intelligence scores.3.2 PersonalityThere are many personality characteristics have been considered to be related to second language learning such as extroversion and inhibition. Many believed that extroversion is well suited to second language learning. However, this conclusion does not always get enough support. That is to say, in many studies, many learners who haven't got high scores on measuring extroversion are still successful in the second language learning.In terms of inhibition,it discourages the progress in language learning because the learners' courage of taking risk can be reduced by the inhibition personality. In fact, personality characteristics still conclude others such as empathy, talkativeness, self-esteem, dominance and responsiveness. However, the clear relationship between learners' personality and second language learning hasn't been found out because it is complicated. As an English teacher,we prefer the active and lively students in the class since they have good performance. So this kind of students who can get more attention from the teachers often has more opportunities to practiceand express.3.3 AptitudeAptitude can be considered as a kind of talent which is made up of different kinds of abilities. The followings are some examples:(1) The ability to recognize the meaning of the words in the sentences.(2) The ability to remember new words. This kind of ability is much more concerned with the learners' vocabulary ability.(3) The ability to analyze the grammar of the material. There are many grammatical rules. So the ability of analyzing the grammar can affect the learners' language learning.(4) The ability to translate. Translation is very important in language learning and using. Any students who has a good knowledge of translation can do a better job in reading, speaking and even writing.3.4 MotivationThrough the studies of second language acquisition, the learners' attitude and motivation also plays an important role in learning a second language. And the good and positive attitude and motivation will be more likely to succeed in second language learning than the opposite. Motivation can be studied in two main parts: learners' communicative needs and their attitudes towards the second language community.Therefore, if the learner wants to use the second language efficiently, they must have an abtive attitude and master opportunities to practice. Besides, the personal growth,cultural enrichment and instrumental motivation are all concluded in motivation, which are also concerned with the success of the second language learning.However, the researchers cannot find out how the motivation affects on the learners during their second language learning.3.5 Learners’ PreferenceAs for the learning material and learning methods, every learner has his own preference. Some learners say that they cannot learn something before they have seen it, while others seem to know something as long as they talked it once or twice.When learners show his preference for some materials or topics which we disagree with the learning method, we should encourage the learners to use their available ways to achieve the success rather than stop them.3.6 Learners’ BeliefAlthough not all the language learners may have their individual consciousness of the language learning, all of them have their strong beliefs which influence their learning methods.Therefore, the learners' belief is also an important factor in second language learning.4. Age Factors and Second Language Aquisition4.1 The Affects of Age Factors4.1.1 The Affects of Age Factors on Rate of Second Language AcquisitionOne popular belief about second language acquisition is that the younger, the better. Recently, certain research reports claim to counter this early Critical Period Hypothesis and state that age and language acquisition is inconsistent. Not all younger performs to be superior.Opposite to the Critical Period Hypothesis, Krashen, Long and Scarcella(1979) draw a different conclusion: (1)adults are superior to children in rate of acquisition, and(2)older children learn more rapidly than younger children(Krashen, et al, 1979). This results reflect differences in rate of acquisition which are consistent with the hypothesis. Adults are generally faster than children in early stages of second language acquisition.In1967, J.Asher and S.Price compared the ability of listening comprehension of 8-10-year-old and 14-year-old childrent and college adults. The results show that adults score highest while the 8-year-old children were the lowest of all groups tested.T10-year-old and 14-year-old children were between adults are the 8-year-olds. This study suggests that the adults ard superior to the same conditions as children when they learn a second language.Ervin-Tripp(1974) studied the rate of acquisition of French by 31 English-speaking children aged from four to who learn French nine month in Switzerland(including attendance in French-speaking schools). She reached the conclusion that children performed much better.Burstall et al.(1975) and Ekstrand(1977) researched majority children who learn a foreign language in Britain and Sweden respectively. Burstall et al.make a study about a large number of school students,some of whom began learning French at the age of eight and others who began at the age eleven after three years on condition having learnt French for the same amount of time, the older learners were ahead on three out of four skills tested-listening, reading and writing.The younger learners, however, mastered speaking ability highly.Snow and Hoefnagel-hohle(1978) make a study who learn Dutch in Holland. The subjects were divided into five age groups: ten3-to-5-year-olds, eight6-to-7-year-olds, thirteen8-to-10-year-olders, nine12-to-15-year-olds, and eleven adults. The study indicated that 3-to-5-year-olds scored lowest and the 12-to-15-year-olds showed the most rapid acquisition of all the skills tested.Ekstrand(1978) makes a survey about four groups of Swedish school children, whose ages are 8, 9, 10 and 11 respectively. They had been taught English in 10-minute sessions twice a week after 18 weeks, the groups were tested for pronunciation(a taped imitation task) and comprehension(a taped imitation task) increases almost linearly with age.Ann Fathman made a study in 1982 which examined the relationship between certain aspects of the second language acquisition process and age through an oral production test.It examined about 200 children(aged 6 to 15) from diverse language backgrounds who were learning English as a second language in public schools. The results indicated that the older children performed better in the production of correct morphological and syntactic structures while the younger children performed better in the use of correct English pronunciation.From the following studies, we can conclude that age can affect the rate of second language learning. Adolescents and adults have many advantages in second language acquisitio n like faster speed and strong ability to acquire syntax and morphology while children perform much better in phonology.4.1.2 The Affects of Age Factors on the Process of Second Language AcquisitionFew people make a study of the effects of age on the process of second language acquisition. By far Harley's(1986) investigation of early and late immersion programmes is the most detailed study of the effects of age on the acquisition process. Harley made a comprison between the two groups' acquisition of French verb phrase. For example, the two groups generally made similar types of errors and both groups prefer the relatively unmarked French verb forms to the marked forms. There were only a few differences reflected variations in the second language input to which the learners were exposed.Bailey et al.(1974) investigated the order in which adults acquired the same set of grammatical morphemes studied by Dulay and Burt who found an order similar to that found in the morpheme studies of children. Fathman(1975) found that the order of acquisition remained constant compared with her sample of two hundred children aged from 6 to 15 years.Cazden et al.(1975) found that child, adolescent, and adult learners went through the same stages. Thus, learners appear to process linguistic data in the same way, no matter how old they are.According to their study, the process did not remain constant for children who were in different ages as for order of acquisition. Despite of differences of age and learning environments, there seemed to be a consistency in the order. These findings also support the ideas of Dulay and Burt(1973) and Madden, Bailey, and Krashen(1974), which suggest that there appeared to be similar in terms of acquisition of structures for all second language learners.4.1.3The Affects of Age Factors on Learners’ Second Language AchievementMany researchers have compared older and younger children and concluded that older children are faster learners of syntax and morphology. Then comes the question, whether learners who begin learning can reach higher levels of second language ability than those who start as adolescents or adults. To answer this question,some scholars did some researches.Burstal et al.(1974), through comprison, found the result that those who started learning French in school at either age 8 or 11when reached age 16. There was only one test result in favor of the early learners, that is to say, only listening comprehension better.In another study, Dunkel&Pillet(1962), through the comprison of American Schook children who had begun learning French at grade 3 and students of the same age who had had only one year of French at the secondary level, found that the former did not do as well as the latter in terms of the standardized group test of formal grammar in Franch.Oller&Nagato(1974) found the same results in school system in Japan. Students learn English as a second language from grades 1-6did not do better than students who began learning English in grade 7 when they attend test in the grade 11.Harley(1986) also make a research which focused on learners' acquisition of the French verb system. She compared early and late immersion students after both had received1,000hours of instruction. Neither group had mastered the verb system, but the older students can master well. However, the early immersion group showed higher levels of attainment than the late.The results from these reflect that children's level of attainment is greater than that of adolescents/adults. As Stern has emphasized, early age school instruction does not in itself guarantee success(Stern, 1976; Stern&Weinrib, 1977; Stern, 1982).4.2 Respective Advantages and Disadvantages among Different AgesWhen children, adolescents and adults learn a second language, they have neurological(Lenneberg, 1967), cognitive(Talor, 1974: 33) and social-psychological(Brown, H.D. 1987: 51; Talor, 1974) differences. There are many factors determining the differences between children and adults in second language learning such as learning learning environment, intelligence and difficulty in comparative researches and experiments, but age factor is the most influenced one. Actually, children, adolescents and adults have their own advantages and disadvantages in second language learning. The most practical way is to study the effects that age differences bring to language learning and the advantages and disadvantages that each each language learner at different age has in learning a foreign language.4.2.1 ChidhoodChildren's brains are flexible and may have an advantage to accept new knowledge in the second language learning. Therefore, it is easy for them to acquire pronunciation in this period. And a second language can be left a deep impression on the brains in this period. So this is very useful for children's further learning. For instance, some children's toys which can speak some English and Chinese words for them, and gradually, we can find those two years child speak the same words correctly. However, during this period, the parents just want to entertain the children. But they will remember those even when they grow up. At the same time, children havepoor-term and systematic memory, and usually confuse native and foreign languages or native culture and foreign culture, possessing poor ability of abstract thinking. Therefore, it is good for children to learn foreign languages in such bilingual social environment or better teaching facilities.Besides, our children don't have ability to judge what is right or what is wrong. Children generally follow others' words and actions. So it is not surprise to find that many children share the same behavior of siphoning off the fingers. Therefore, teachers and parents pay attention to children's environment because children can behave differently in different environments. So the teachers and parents should give proper guide in time when children make some mistakes. Some studies state that non-English-speaking have English lessons and instruction. But the length of the program is inconsistent with the acquisition speed. One of the most important factor is the influence of mother tongue. Therefore, it is not the best for children to learn a second language early.4.2.2 AdolescentsAdolescents have several advantages. They have a high cognitive maturity and a high ability of imitation and memory. Adolescents can also make the most of communicative strategies and understand language and culture very well, which make language input enriched. And they like joining the communication activities. Adolescents can grasp the language regulations and make full use of them in their sentences to express their deeper thoughts. Besides, they can also correct the errors in sentences. All these are obvious advantages for the adolescents in second language learning. For instance, if we ask adolescent students to do a role-play after learning a dialogue, most students can finish the task and some good students can even play it lively. While, if we ask children to do the same case, the children can hardly finish it. That is to say, only adults can achieve such advantages. And as we all known, the adolescents is a period of full of energy and imagination, thus the adolescents must have strong self-control ability and stick to their aims. Besides, they always consider themselves as adults. Therefore, they hate to be ignored and hope to win respect like adults, which is difficult for teacher to deal with. This why a successful teacher always treat some students as a adult while doing as a child.At the same time,adolescents have many courses in school. Nowadays,more adolescents learnt more than one kind of foreign language. They have to deal with many subjects. Many students even busy on the weekend.It seems that they have no time to relax. They always feel nervous. This make the students feel much burden. Thus, it is crucial for teachers and parents to give the adolescents proper guide when they grow the sense of giving up learni ng.4.2.3 AdulthoodAs we all known, adults mental is mature. They always have clear goals and strongmotivation to learn a second language. When they decide to learn a language, they will devote much energy to learning.Adults can grasp the complicated grammar and reading task better than adolescents and children. Therefore, they can understand the second language deeply. All those features lead to adults' learning well. At the same time, the following three kind of adults also have an advantage over adolescents and child.(1) Some adults work under an International environment, and this atmosphere may provide them more opportunities to practice foreign languages.(2) Some adults have a long-term or short-term plan to go abroad for further education or working. This plan may make them aware of strengthening their foreign language. And in order to realize this dream, they have to pay more energy and attention to foreign language learning. Therefore, they can promote their foreign language quickly.(3) Some students still have a strong conscious of learning. Thus they will further the quality of their already language. And they'll grasp every opportunity to improve their foreign language.Adults also have some disadvantages. For example, most adults have already worked after graduation,join in the social activities and care about the family day and night. Besides, many adults' memory isn't as good as before with the growth of age. Therefore, it is difficult for adults to master foreign language well. And the adults only practice English in the spare time such as when they are at home. They even can't focus their intention on practice if they have a baby. Thus, most adults try their best to make up those disadvantages.5. ConclusionIt is clear that age is an important factor in second language acquisition. It is not nessessary for students to learn a second language early. Y ounger learners are not necessarily better learners. Children, adolescents and adults have their own characteristics in second language learning. Children can easily grasp the pronunciation. Adolescents can understand language and culture better.It is good for second language learning. Adults can master the complicated grammar and language regularities. Thus, teachers and parents should employ different strategies in terms of learners of different ages.Bibliography[1] 林崇德.英语教学心理学[M]. 北京教育出版社, 2001,3[2] 刘建华.中学英语创新教法[M]. 学苑出版社, 1999,10[3] 束定芬、庄智象. 现代外语教学——理论、实践与方法[J].东北师大学报, 2006 (2)[4] 王立菲. 现代外语教学论[M]. 上海教育出版社, 2002,1[5] 王蔷. 英语教学法教程[M]. 高等教育出版社, 2005,4[6] 薛中梁. 谈英语课堂教学[M]. 湖北教育出版社, 2003,3[7] Liu Yongfa, Liu Xuan'en.The Practical Body Language[M]. Hua Wen Press, 1997,2[8] Wu Zongjie.Readings for Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching[J].Zhejiang Teachers' University,1998(3)。
第二语言习得的关键期假说与学校英语教学
第二语言习得的关键期假说与学校英语教学年龄是外语语言学习中学习者个体差异的重要因素之一，本文简要介绍了语言习得的关键期假说的概念，及其中外学者对年龄因素与二语习得的关系的研究分析，探讨了年龄对第二语言习得产生影响的理论依据，并在此基础上指出了语言习得关键期的研究对我国小学英语教育的启示。
关键期假说；外语；二语；英语教育随着中国的改革开放和经济的飞速发展，越来越多的不同年龄段、不同性别的人在学习英语，代写论文英语已经成为一门学习者人数最多的外语。
在，国家教育部发文，要求在城市和有条件的农村从小学三年级起全部开设英语课，几年过去了，从小学三年级开始学英语的学生与从初中一年级开始学英语的学生在中学毕业时相比，是否存在显著性差异儿童与少年学习外语谁更具有优势关键期假说对在学校环境下的外语学习有多大解释力在学校环境下的外语学习，小学是否是最佳年龄段本文旨在这方面做些探讨，以便对今后的外语教学改革提供一些参考。
一、语言习得的关键期假说第二语言习得关键期假说来源于生物学，这个观点最早是由神经生物学家Penfield(Penfield：1975，引自詹姆斯：1997)和Roberts(1959)提出来的，他们认为，在人生发展的某个特定阶段中，人可以在自然环境下、没有外部干预、不需要教授的条件下，轻松、快捷地学习一门语言(FromkinandRodman：1983，引自刘振前：2003)。
这一观点后来在代被Lenneberg接受并用于第二语言习得研究领域，提出了颇有影响的关键期假说。
认为，语言是大脑的产物，语言能力的发展受到人的生理基础的严格制约。
儿童从两岁开始至青春期到来之前，即人出生后的l0～l，人的大脑具有可塑性，语言学习能够自然而然地轻松进行。
青春期到来之后，人脑已充分发育成熟，神经系统不再有弹性，学习语言也就越来越困难。
由此引发了国内外众多的研究者从不同学科、不同角度的各个方面采用各种方法与实验对关键期假说这一问题的深入研究，研究的焦点主要是围绕二语学习是否存在关键期问题而展开，即二语学习的起始年龄是否与学习的最终结果或好坏直接相关。
语言习得中的年龄因素
语言习得中的年龄因素近年来，人们对第二语言的学习日益重视。
年龄对第二语言习得的影响，是二语习得领域的焦点话题之一。
也可以说，年龄是影响第二语言习得的最明显、最直接的非智力因素之一。
第二语言习得是指“在自然的或指导的情况下通过有意识学习或无意识吸收掌握母语以外的一门语言的过程”。
在这里所涉及到的，主要是在教学情境下的第二语言习得。
年龄是影响第二语言习得效果的个体差异重要因素之一。
年龄与语言学习之间的关系是一个经久不衰的研究课题。
多年来，年龄在第二语言学习中所起的作用一直是语言学界一个争论不休的话题。
心理学家、应用语言学家和教育家十分关注年龄对第二语言习得的影响，他们用大量的时间从不同的角度，选择不同的对象研究年龄和第二语言习得的关系，但得出的结论存在差异，有时甚至大相径庭，相互矛盾。
一、年龄因素影响语言习得的主要表现1、语音习得在语音方面，儿童比成年人更有可能获得接近母语水平的第二语言。
如果有足够的语言接触，大多数儿童在二语习得中都可以习得地道的口音，有可能达到语音纯正。
而成年人经过多年的正规学习，多数可以流利地讲外语，但只有极少数人能达到语音纯正。
也就是说年龄越大，相对而言获得完全地道的口音的可能性越小。
2、语法习得第二语言语法习得的顺序不受年龄制约，但语法习得的速度及达到的水平受到年龄因素的影响。
3、语言能力与潜力儿童具有更高的语言潜力，与成人相比更有可能达到更高的水平和层次。
在学习速度问题上，成人学习者学习的最初阶段具有优势，尤其在语法方面。
但他们最后可能会被儿童超过。
儿童在自然的语言环境中学习更快，而在正规的外语课堂上学习速度较成年人缓慢。
二、语言习得关键期假说理论1、关键期假说概述20世纪50年代，著名神经心理学家Penfield andRoberts(1959)根据生物学的关键期理论得出结论：儿童的语言习得能力与大脑的发育有关。
60年代，心理语言学家Lenneberg(1967)发展了这一观点，提出了著名的关键期假说。
起始学习年龄对二语长期学习成绩影响实证
起始学习年龄对二语长期学习成绩影响的实证研究【摘要】研究发现早期学习者比后期学习者的长期成绩略高，但两组之间的差别不具备统计意义。
也就是说两组之间的差异并不大，但两组除了在表层动机方面的差异，其它差异并不具有统计意义。
虽然结果表明早期英语学习者的成绩稍好，似乎越早开始学习英语，学习者的英语学习成绩越好，但由于其差异不具有统计意义，因此该结论还不能推广应用。
【关键词】临界期假设；起始时间；学习效果一、问题的提出语言学家eric lenneberg(1967)是提出关键期假说的第一人。
假说表明，儿童开始学习语言的前几年是关键时期，在这段时期内，如果学习者有足够的外部语言刺激，学习者就会获得第一语言的能力。
熊金菊(2006)则指出：不同年纪的学习者在学习速度、发音以及外语水平上存在着不同差异。
然而，不同于以上观点，黄怀飞和李荣宝(2008)在调查某学校大三英语专业的学生的英语水平时发现学习英语较早的学生的学习成绩比学习英语较迟的学生的英语成绩优秀。
关键期假说是在研究第一语言习得的过程中首先提出来的，而现在是在围绕着第二语言习得(sla)的年龄效应的影响。
首先，年龄标准没有统一界定。
第二，不同的研究者没有统一的研究方法。
第三，参加数据分析的学习者的学习成绩的没有统一标准。
可能导致研究结论的出入。
笔者在探讨长期英语学习成绩的不同起始年龄的影响，同时对审查较早的相关研究的不足之处加以考虑。
二、研究方法1.研究参与者。
本实验的调查对象为南京晓庄学院行知学院06级旅游英语1班的33人。
其中15人从小学3年级开始学习英语，即早期者；18人是从初一开始学习英语，即晚期者。
2.研究工具。
问卷调查。
笔者在文秋芳(2001)关于学习策略的问卷的基础上制作了此次调查问卷。
问卷内容包括英语学习的起始年龄、英语学习的投入时间、英语学习的动机等。
3.数据采集。
笔者从学校教务处调取参加问卷调查者的大学二年级第二学期的英语专业四级的成绩和大一大二的四次英语期末考试口语的平均成绩，用其作为比较的依据，按起始年龄分成两组进行研究。
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探讨年龄差异和第二语言习得的关系一．社会现象：近年来，人们对第二语言的学习日益重视。
年龄对第二语言习得的影响，是二语习得领域的焦点话题之一。
在实际生活中可以看到，学习第二语言呈现低龄化趋势，于是出现了很多很多的早教班，很多年轻父母让他们的孩子还在上幼儿园的时候就开始学习英语。
因为他们觉得，在第二语言学习中，越早开始学习，越容易学习和掌握这门语言。
二．提出问题: 对于那些连母语都不能完全掌握的孩子而言，过早学习第二语言真的有利于他对第二语言的学习和掌握吗？三．研究论证1.关键期假说复习概念:关键期假说伦尼伯格所提出的“关键期假说”。
关键期假说认为儿童习得语言更有优势是由于生理因素，他认为人的大脑在两岁至青春期，10-12岁之前是习得语言的关键期。
过了关键期的学习者不会像在关键期内的学习者一样成功。
而且很容易产生外国腔。
这是因为青春期以前，大脑的两个半球都参与了语言学习，大脑可塑性较强，语言习得较快，也较为成功。
而在青春期后，大脑发生了侧化，逐渐失去可塑性，语言学习也就越来越困难。
2.关键期假说的相关研究（1）支持关键期假说的研究二语习得领域里, 支持关键期存在最具代表性的研究是Johnson和Newport (1989)的实验。
研究结果显示对于第二语言学习来说，越早越好，而且如果想学第二语言更容易，好像有一个界定的发展期间。
（2）反对关键期假说的研究反对第二语言习得关键期的研究也有很多；C.Snow等人研究了在自然语言环境下不同年龄的人习得第二语言的情况；被试母语为英语，第二语言为荷兰语；研究者跟踪研究了被试在荷兰第一年里学习荷兰语的情况。
其结果是，虽然儿童表现出一些优势，但成人同样也表现优势，在课堂学习，情况仍然如此。
3.绝对的关键期到底存在吗关于第一语言的学习，则关键期假说应该是正确的。
但是，第二语言的学习和关键期假说的关系则不同。
Birdsong在1989年也做了一个相似的研究，他也发现了明显的年龄作用。
然而，他所发现的学习第二语言越早越好是指在人的整个生命区间，而不是在某一个关键年龄段期间。
但是，第二语言的学习和关键期假说的关系则不同。
大多数的研究者还是怀疑这种绝对版关键期假说的成熟性，因为毕竟有些实例表明有的成人尽管过了所谓的关键期，但第二语言的水平还是达到了近似母语熟练度或甚至相当于母语的熟练度。
所以说，有其他更为复杂的因素来解释这种在二语学习中的年龄作用则比绝对版的关键期假说更为准确而全面。
四．论证年龄差异对二语学习的影响1.在正式的教室环境中青少年和成人在教室学习环境中的比较参加此研究的学生是被招收到小学（FLES）学习外语。
研究表明在这种环境中开始第二语言学习晚一些的孩子的表现能够赶上甚至超过那些比他们学习早的孩子。
在传统的教室环境中，外面环境中目标语的影响是有限的，成人学习者不仅比更小的学习者学的一样好而且超过他们部分由于成人学习者拥有更好的认知能力和学习策略。
我们不能否认一些个体尽管在他们生命中更晚一些的时候开始学习二语但是也能达到像母语一样的水平，而且一些成人学习者对目标语句法的熟练掌握，与以这种目标语为母语的人的语言熟练程度很难区分。
年龄在二语学习中有重要作用，但我们也要看到青少年和成人学习者在第二语言学习方面成功地达到甚至是超过了以目标语为母语的人。
在某些方面成人要享有优势，比如：在学习能力方面，成人比孩子要记忆时间更长，并有更好的记忆能力。
Ausubel认为成人比孩子有更为复杂的语言结构，而孩子趋向于依赖直觉。
总之，在教室学习环境中，在目标语在教室之外没有用武之地的国家，表明儿童比成年学习者好的研究少之又少。
所以，Schmitt 认为，近来的研究表明，孩子仅仅在目标语国家在教室之外的自然环境里学习第二语言才比成人更具有优势。
而在传统教室环境中，成人在一些方面如形态和句法方面和孩子学的一样好，而且往往比孩子更好。
所以，说这种绝对版的关键期假说完全正确是不成熟的。
2.在目的语的自然环境中青少年和成人的学习情况在目的语自然环境中比较然而，在学习者能够持续接触这种第二语言的自然环境中，“的确有随着年龄增长而二语学习表现下降的证据”。
比如说：Fasold指出研究者发现在二语习得中与年龄相关的下滑现象至少在目标语的一些方面存在，如在二语语音学习方面，如果学习者不能在早期被置于目标语的环境中去接触所学语言，那么他在二语原因方面总体来说很难达到本族人的发音程度和水平。
有很多研究支持这种说法。
根据Gass而言，在一些具体的任务中也许成人比儿童学习者做的好，但这种优势是短期的，它会最终被置身于自然的二语环境中的儿童学习者所超越。
这就解释了为什么二语的最终成就在自然环境中比传统的教室环境中更容易取得。
所以，在二语学习中，尽管有特例表明成人也能达到近母语的熟练程度，但的确存在着与年龄相关的下降，这是普遍的共识。
然而，对于在某个年龄点之后把第二语言学到像母语的水平是不可能的，似乎并没有一个明显的这样的年龄点存在。
所以，绝对版关键期假说是不完全合适的。
应该这样说更为安全，在自然学习环境中，有一个敏感的年龄阶段，在这个阶段内把第二语言学到近母语的水平是更容易的，而这个阶段之后一些青少年或成人尽管是在关键或敏感年龄之后开始学习但还是能够克服年龄因素的限制，通过自我激励和个人努力也还是能达到第二语言学习的成功。
结论第二语言习得中的关键期仍然是个有争议的问题。
可以说；关于年龄与第二语言习得之间的关系的任何过度概括都是不可靠的。
有学者认为，可以用“最佳期”或者“敏感期”来取代“关键期”这一说法，也就是说，在这一时期内，是第二语言习得的较好时期，但不是绝对时期，即使错过了这一时期，也可以通过其他途径的努力来达到比较高的第二语言水平，这种看法是比较理性和折中的。
1.学习速度问题。
成人学习者学习的最初阶段具有优势，尤其在语法方面。
但他们最后可能会被儿童超过。
儿童在自然的语言环境中学习更快，而在正规的外语课堂上学习速度较成年人缓慢。
2．语音问题。
在语音方面，儿童比成年人更有可能获得接近母语水平的第二语言。
如果有足够的语言接触；大多数儿童在二语习得中都可以习得地道的口音，有可能达到语音纯正。
而成年人经过多年的正规学习，多数可以流利地讲外语，但只有极少数人能达到语音纯正。
也就是说年龄越大，相对而言获得完全地道的口音的可能性越小。
3．语言能力与潜力问题。
儿童具有更高的语言潜力，与成人相比更有可能达到更高的水平和层次。
4．对语法的影响。
第二语言语法习得的顺序不受年龄制约，但语法习得的速度及达到的水平受到年龄因素的影响。
六．对实际教学的启发综合国内外的研究，对第二语言习得的启发是，年龄是影响第二语言习得的重要因素，但并不是唯一的决定性因素。
儿童、青少年和成人在第二语言得方面都有各自的优点和不足，不能一概而论，也不能绝对化的否定某个年龄层的人学习第二语言的能力。
儿童有第二语言习得的相对优势，成人也有他们的优势。
在实际教学中，可以根据学习者的特点选择更适合的教育方式。
对于青春期以前的儿童，他们学第二语言的优越条件是大脑的可塑性最强，语言环境相对较好，模仿能力强，尤其是在习得自然的语音方面，占有绝对优势。
缺点是他们的长时记忆能力较差，思维能力不强。
对于年龄较小的儿童，语言的准确性与流利度不高，学习效率不高，花费时间较多。
因此，他们更适合在自然的语言环境中学习，如双语生活环境，在学校中则要求有好的教师以及教学设施。
在前面提到了外语学习低龄化的问题，社会上，有些广告夸大了低龄儿童学习外语的作用，片面地宣传外语学习越早越好，很多家长也受到了这样的宣传的实际上，当前低龄外语教学的科学依据不足，教学实践经验薄弱。
家长应该更加理性的看待这个问题。
在对孩子进行第二语言教育时，要考虑到教育的目的和最终期望达到的水平，如果是期望孩子达到与母语相接近的水平，那就可以让孩子较早的接触第二语言。
因为儿童在语音的习得和语言潜力方面确实较成人具有很大的优势，早点接触有助于获得更地道的语音。
如果是期望孩子达到学习和工作所需要的外语水平，那么就不需要刻意地过早开始学习第二语言，按照学校的教学安排学习就可以了。
对于青少年，他们学习第二语言的优越条件是母语习惯已经形成，第二语言习得不会受到母语的干扰，尤其是语言的流利性较儿童有很大的优势，长时记忆能力有所增强，理解能力也比较强。
而且青少年的主要任务是学习，因此有充分的学习时间。
缺点是比儿童的学习要花更多的精力，要求有较高的学习自觉性和坚持性，尤其是对于初中生或高中生。
教学计划中安排的学习科目太多，不可能将所有精力放到第二语言学习中，容易造成顾此失彼，所以要合理安排学习计划。
对于成年人，他们学习第二语言的优越条件是学习目的性明确，学习动机比较强烈，在学习效率方面有很大优势，理解能力和记忆能力比较强。
因此在记忆单词、掌握语法方面成年人占有绝对优势。
他们的缺点是难以获得纯正的语音，没有足够的学习时间，生活中的杂务多,很难专心致志的学习，因此学习的连续性常受影响。
但是如果成年人有强烈的学习动机和兴趣、良好的语言环境和适当的学习方法，同样可以达到很高的第二语言水平。
总而言之，从第二语言学习和教学的角度来看，年龄只是影响第二语言习得的因素之一，不应该夸大它的作用。
重要的是要了解不同年龄的人学习第二语言的特点，在学习中扬长避短。
除了年龄因素之外,社会文化背景、学习氛围和语言环境等对第二语言习得的影响也非常大。
只有各因素等共同作用时；才能更好地促进第二语言的学习。
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