language transfer语言迁移

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Introduction
It has always been assumed that, in a second language learning situation, learners rely extensively on their native language.
Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and cultue--both productively and receptively...
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Types of LT--ten dimensions(Jarvis, Pavlenko)
语言知识/使用的领域(Area of Language Knowledge/use) 语音 书写 词汇
有意性(Intentionality) 有意 无意
语义 形态 句法 语篇 语用 社会语言
模式(Mode) 产出 接受
方向性(Directionality) 顺向(foward) 反向(reverse) 侧向(lateral) 双向或多向（bi- or multi-directional）
认知层面(Cognitive Level) 语言 概念
信息频道(Channel) 听觉 视觉
形式(Form) 言语 非言语
知识类型(Type of knowledge)
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2. It can lead to differential learning rates :
l either delay, when learners whose L1 contains a particular form spend longer at that stage of development than L1 learners or learners whose L1 does not contain that form.( e.g., Spanish negation is realized by "no" + verb. Children learning English as L1 use "no + verb" form for negation before they learn "auxiliary + not" form; many foreign learners appear to go through this stage, but Spanish learners tend to stay there longer).
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Current thinking
◆ Avoidance ◆ Differential learning rates ◆ Different paths ◆ Overproduction ◆ Predictability/selectivity ◆ Second language processing
The influence of a person's knowledge of one language on that person's knowledge or use of another language.
----Jarvis, Pavlenko(2008)
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Transfer may occur at all levels:
Most important is the broadening and reconceptualization of language transfer and the concomitant examination of the terminology generally employed.
Kellerman and Sharwood Smith(1986) suggested the term cross-linguistic influence, which is suffiently broad to include transfer, in the traditional sense, but also aviodance, language loss(whether of the L1 or of another L2), and rate of learning.
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Historical development
Discussions of transfer often begin with the work of American linguists in the 1940s and 1950s.
1. In the 1950s, language transfer was often deemed the most important factor to consider in theories of SLA. Based on behaviorist position: Second language was seen as the development of a new set of habits. The role of the native language, then, took on great significance, because it was the major cause for lack of success in learning the L2. From this framework emerged contrastive ananlysis. (contrastive ananlysis)→→(error analysis)
l Markedness（标记性原则） l Perceived language distance. If two languages are perceived
as close, transfer (both positive and distance negative) is more likely to occur. For example, research in Finland, where Finnish and Swedish are both offcial languages, suggests that L1 Swedish learners of English more readily transfer from their mother language.（语言类型距离）
Culture
--Lado, in his Linguistics Across
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Definitions
l Transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously acquired (and perhaps imperfectly acquired). ----Odlin(1989)
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2. During the 1960s to the late 1970s, its importance waned as learners' errrors were seen not as evidence of language transfer but rather of " the creative construction process". Some researchers virtually denied the existence of language transfer in their enthusiam for universalist explanations. Since the late1970s, research on the role of the native language has taken on a different view, advocating a nonbehaviorist position. View transfer as a creative process.
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During the mid- to late 1970s, the emphasis was on the determination of how and when learners use their language and on explanations for the phenomenon.
结果(Outcome)
陈述性
正
程序性
负
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Possible reasons for LT
l Interlanguage (the learner's interim grammar of the L2) is not fixed and rigid like the L1, but "permeable". (目标语水平)
l In all learning situations, previous knowledge is a starting point for acquiring new knowledge; and in a languagelearning situation, this means previously-learnt languages. （子集原则）
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3. In recent years, however, a more balanced perspective has emerged in which the role of transfer is acknowledged and in which transfer is seen to interact with a host of other factors in ways not fully understood.