中西礼貌原则之比较分析
中西社会礼貌原则及其差异分析
礼貌是各社会共有的普遍现象，是人类文明的标志，是人们普遍推崇的一种社会美德，它也是维系人类和谐的工具和手段。
因此,了解并研究中西礼貌原则差异对减少双方误解, 交际顺利进行具有理论和实践意义。
一、中西方文化中的礼貌原则礼貌在人类社会中具有普遍性, 但关于礼貌语言问题, 国内外学者分别从社会语言学、心理语言学、语用学、修辞学等角度提出了不少理论模式和研究方法。
（一）西方文化中的礼貌原则。
早在20世纪50年代, 美国学者戈夫曼(Erving Goffman) 就从戏剧的观点提出了“面子行为理论”（贾玉新，1997）,建立了礼貌模式。
他认为, 人们的行为分为前台行为和后台行为二种。
“脸面” 是人类行为准则之一, 渗透于人际行为之中。
很显然，“面子功夫”是作给其他人看的“前台”行为。
Goffman 同时指出，面子对于每个人都是神圣不可侵犯的，是人们在交际中都很关注的重要因素。
面子的需求是相互的，一个人要想自己不丢面子,最保险的办法是不去伤害他人的面子。
20世纪60年代, 美国语言哲学家Grice (1975)在Austin和Searle的言语行为基础上提出了会话合作原则, 该原则认为人们在所有会话中都应遵循质量, 方式和相关的四个准则。
合作原则提出后, 针对人们在会话中时常出现的故意违背某一准则的情况, Grice又增加了一条会话含义与之补充。
然而, Grice 的会话合原则与会话含义仍不能对语言本身的意义和语言的言外之力做出充分的解释。
koff (1972,1973,1975,1977) 在上个世纪七十年代提出礼貌三规则：规则一：不要强加于人；适用于交际双方权势和地位不均等的场合, 如学生和老师, 雇主和雇员之间;规则二：给对方留有余地和空间；适用于交际双方权力地位平等, 但社会关系不密切的场合, 如商人与顾客;规则三：增进双方的友情；适用于好友, 恋人之间。
koff 的礼貌准则由于提出较早, 在范围上, 系统性上都较为笼统, 未能引起足够重视。
中西方礼貌原则对比分析 语言学
中西方礼貌原则对比分析不同文化类型中的“礼貌原则”存在着差异，这些差异在礼貌用语中有充分的体现。
礼貌是对比语言学中语用对比研究一个不可忽略的问题，在迥异的中西方文化中更是如此。
中西方两种文化的礼貌原则有着较大的差异，了解这种差异对我们的现实生活具有指导意义。
一、中西方“礼貌原则”的理论研究1．西方文化中的礼貌概念西方“礼貌”理论中较有影响的理论框架当属Brown & Levinson的“面子论”及Leech的“礼貌原则”。
两种理论对礼貌的内涵及外延作了较为系统深刻的研究，对不同文化领域的礼貌研究都有一定影响和借鉴意义。
Brown＆Levinson的“面子”概念建立在Gofman的定义基础上。
根据Gofman的理论，面子对每一个人来说是最神圣的、不可侵犯的，对每一个交际者来说是最基本的、不容忽视的。
但Brown＆Levinson 的面子概念更为具体，他们认为所有理性的社会成员都具有面子。
他们根据个人需要把面子分为两类：消极面子(negative face)，即个人拥有行动自由、不受干涉的权利；积极面子(Positive face)，即个人的正面形象或“个性”包括希望这种自我形象受到赞许的愿望。
面子有双层性，而且构成面子的双方面是相互矛盾的。
在交往时，一方面我们需要与对方有所关联，或者关注对方，并且要向对方表示出我们的关注。
面子的“关联”方面就是积极面子，Levinson把它称之为积极礼貌(Positive politeness)。
“积极面子”所常用的语篇方略是：恭听对方谈话，对其表示兴趣，表示与对方有共同之处，相互以名字称呼等。
如：“Agree，I have always believed that，too．”另一方面，我们要维护一定的独立性，并且向对方表示我们也尊重他们的独立需求。
面子的“独立”方面就是消极面子，Levinson把它称之为消极礼貌(negative politeness)。
试析中西方礼貌原则的对比差异
试析中西方礼貌原则的对比差异语言和文化是密不可分的，语言是文化的载体，又是文化的写照。
任何生活在两种不同文化中的人，都会感到不同文化的人说话方式会有很大的差别，要掌握两种不同的语言，必须掌握两种文化。
只有跨越文化障碍，才能做到交际的得体与妥当。
礼貌作为人们交际活动的基本准则，是实现人与人之间成功交际的基本条件，是维系人际和谐的工具和手段，是人类文明进步的重要标志。
而语言就是表达礼貌的重要手段。
1 礼貌原则概述美国语言学家Grace1967年提出了“合作原则”。
他把说话者和听话者在会话中共同遵守的原则概括为量的准则、质的准则、关系准则和方式准则。
合作原则是我们平时谈话时通常都要遵守的语用规则。
20世纪80年代，英国语言学家Leech在Grace“合作原则”的基础上，从修辞学，语体学的角度出发，在其《语用学原则》一书中提出来著名的“礼貌原则”，弥补了合作原则在解释间接会话含义时的不足。
Leech指出，礼貌原则完善了“会话含义”学说，解释了合作原则中无法解释的问题。
因此，礼貌原则和合作原则是互为益补的关系，礼貌原则可以“援救”合作原则。
Leech将礼貌原则划分出六类。
（1）得体准则：减少表达有损他人的观点。
（2）慷慨准则：减少表达利己的观点。
（3）赞誉准则：减少表达对他人的贬损。
（4）谦逊准则：减少对自己的表扬。
（5）一致准则：减少自己与别人在观点上的不一致。
（6）同情准则：尽量减少双方的反感，增加双方的同情。
礼貌原则核心内容为：尽量使自己吃亏，而使别人获利，以取得对方的好感，从而使交际顺利进行，并使自己从中获得更大的利益。
在这六条准则中，得体原则是最根本的一条。
因为得体原则用于指令，而指令是各种语言行为中最需要讲究礼貌，也是最能体现礼貌的一种行为。
礼貌地使用语言就意味着得体地使用语言。
这六项准则互相作用的社会目标是说话人和听话人之间的礼让。
也就是说说话者说话时利他程度越高，多把好处给对方，话语就越有礼貌，礼貌程度就越高。
对中西方礼貌原则差异的研究
对中西方礼貌原则差异的研究引言：在不同的文化背景下，人们对于什么是礼貌行为的理解和实践方式会存在差异。
中西方礼貌原则的差异一直是跨文化研究的重要课题之一、本文将探讨中西方礼貌原则的差异，并分析其背后的文化因素和原因。
一、语言交流方式上的差异1.直截了当VS委婉曲折在交流方式上，西方人更倾向于直截了当地表达自己的意见和要求，而中国人则更善于使用委婉曲折的语言表达方式。
例如，在提出请求时，西方人可能会直接说出自己的需求，而中国人则会通过言外之意或者暗示来表达。
这是因为西方文化注重个人主义和直接性，而中国文化注重集体主义和含蓄性。
2.控制话语VS尊重他人在对话交流中，西方人更倾向于控制话语，表达自己的观点和意见，而中国人则更注重尊重他人的意见和寻求共识。
这是因为西方文化强调个人权利和自由，而中国文化注重团队合作和和谐。
二、身体语言上的差异1.空间距离VS亲密接触在身体语言上，西方人更注重个人空间和独立性，在人际交往中保持一定的距离，而中国人则更习惯于亲密接触和身体接触。
这是因为西方文化注重个人边界和自我保护，而中国文化强调亲密关系和集体意识。
2.眼神接触VS礼貌避让在眼神接触方面，西方人注重眼神接触和直视，视对方为尊重的表现，而中国人则注重礼貌避让和眼神轻视，视直视为不礼貌的行为。
这是因为西方文化注重个人权利和表达，而中国文化强调谦逊和尊重。
三、社交场合上的差异1.个人独立性VS社交关系在社交场合上，西方人更注重个人独立性和私人空间，更倾向于进行面对面的、深入的一对一交流，而中国人则更注重社交关系和社交网络，更愿意进行团体交流。
这是因为西方文化注重个人表达和独立性，而中国文化强调群体合作和社会关系。
2.时间观念VS灵活安排在时间观念方面，西方人注重准时性和时间管理，更愿意按照计划和日程安排行事，而中国人则更注重灵活安排和相互关照。
这是因为西方文化强调效率和个人时间，而中国文化强调灵活性和团队时间。
结论：中西方礼貌原则的差异存在于语言交流方式、身体语言和社交场合等方面。
中西文化中的礼貌探究
内容摘要
尽管中西方文化在礼貌用语上存在许多差异，但它们也有一些相似之处。例 如，中西方文化都注重家庭的重要性。在东方文化中，家庭被视为社会的核心单 元，而在西方文化中，尽管家庭观念不如东方强烈，但仍然被视为重要的社会单 位。
内容摘要
此外，中西方文化都讲究实用性和效率。在东方文化中，人们注重细节和过 程，而在西方文化中，人们更加结果和效益。最后，中西方文化都注重形象表达。 在东方文化中，人们注重言辞和举止的文雅得体，而在西方文化中，人们也注重 语言的恰当性和表达的清晰度。
2、社交礼仪：在社交礼仪方面，中西方的差异也尤为显著。中国人注重群体 和谐，强调集体主义，因此在社交场合中，尊重他人的意愿和感受是十分重要的。 而西方文化更强调个人主义，因此在社交场合中，个人的权利和自由往往会得到 更多的重视。
一、中西文化中的礼貌差异
3、餐桌礼仪：在餐桌礼仪方面，中西方的差异也非常明显。中国注重排场和 面子，餐桌上的菜肴数量和种类都十分丰富。而在西方，餐桌礼仪更注重实用和 简洁，食物的分量适中，不会浪费。
中西跨文化礼貌用语是指在中西方文化交流过程中，双方为表达尊重、友好 而使用的言语和行为。礼貌用语不仅是一种语言现象，更是一种文化传承和社会 交往的方式。在跨文化交流中，恰当的礼貌用语能够化解文化冲突，拉近双方距 离，促进沟通与合作。
二、中西跨文化礼貌用语的特征 分析
1、表达方式
1、表达方式
中西方文化在礼貌用语的表达方式上存在差异。中国人注重委婉、谦虚，往 往采用间接、含蓄的方式表达礼貌；而西方人则更倾向于直接、坦率的表达方式。 例如，中国人受到表扬时，通常会表示自己的不足或他人的优点，以示谦虚；
内容摘要
总之，礼貌用语在中西方文化中都占据着重要的地位。由于历史、社会制度、 宗教信仰等多种因素的影响，中西方文化在礼貌用语上存在着许多差异。然而， 它们也有一些相似之处。为了更好地进行跨文化交流，我们应当了解并尊重不同 文化之间的差
中西方文化礼貌原则内容
中西方文化礼貌原则的对比与理解礼貌原则在任何文化中都是人际交往的核心。
它不仅代表着对他人的尊重，也是建立和维护和谐关系的基石。
在东方与西方的文化背景中，礼貌原则各自有着独特的内涵与表达方式。
通过比较的方法，我们可以更深入地理解这两种文化中的礼貌原则。
首先，在定义上，中西方都强调礼貌作为一种基本道德规范的重要性。
然而，在具体表达上，双方存在微妙的差异。
西方的礼貌更强调个体与个体之间的互动，而东方的礼貌则更注重个体与群体之间的关系。
这种差异反映了东西方文化对于个体与社会关系的不同理解。
在礼仪方面，中西方文化的差异尤为明显。
例如，在见面和道别时，西方人通常采用握手的方式，而东方人则更倾向于鞠躬或点头。
这种礼仪的不同不仅仅是一种形式，它也反映了双方对于人际交往距离的不同理解。
此外，在赞扬方面，西方人倾向于直接表达，而东方人则更为谦虚，避免过于夸大的言辞。
再来看礼节习惯，东西方的差异也十分显著。
在公共场合，西方人注重个人空间，而东方人则更注重群体和谐。
这种差异在言谈举止中也有所体现。
例如，西方人更强调个人的独立和平等，而东方人则更注重社会秩序和群体和谐。
交际用语方面也存在差异。
例如，“谢谢”在英语中是表达感激之情的常用词汇，而在汉语中还可以用于表达敬意或赞美。
这种差异反映了双方在情感表达上的不同方式。
跨文化交际中，理解对方的交际策略至关重要。
我们应该尊重对方的文化习俗和礼仪习惯，以避免误解或冲突。
通过适应和融合两种文化背景下的交际方式，我们可以更有效地进行跨文化交际。
总结以上内容，中西方文化礼貌原则存在许多差异，但这些差异并不意味着双方是互相对立的。
相反，通过比较和理解这些差异，我们可以更好地欣赏彼此的文化特色，促进和谐的人际交往关系。
在全球化的今天，这种跨文化的理解与尊重对于建立互信、促进友谊具有重要意义。
浅析中西方礼貌原则的异同
浅析中西方礼貌原则的异同语言是我们的思维工具，根据萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说，有什么样的语言就有什么样的思维方式，那就不难论证中西文化差异的渊源了。
不同语言所传递的是不同的思维方式，虽然中西方语言在社会交际中都会使用礼貌原则来更好地表情达意，但由于中西方在文化背景、社会风俗、宗教信仰、思维方式、道德观和价值观等方面存在着较大的差异，所以表现在实际交际的过程中，就出现了一个很大的问题，即双方对礼貌原则理解的差异，而这个问题如不能得到恰当解决，就会给跨文化交际带来一不可逾越的阻碍。
1.语言学上的礼貌原则1983年，英国学者利奇（Leech）提出了礼貌原则，礼貌原则是对美国语言学家格莱斯(Grice)合作原则的补充、解释和完善。
格莱斯指出会话的言语含义是一种现象，即字面意思之后都会隐含某种言外之意。
而合作原则的目的就在于解释会话含义，是使说出的话语更加趋近于交际的双方共同目的。
其中会话有四种准则：一是质准则，即说话要真实，不能说没有充分根据的话，不能说自知是虚假的话；二是量的准则，即说出的话要包括理解它所需要的足够信息，既不过，又不及；三是关联原则，即说话应该有关联，包括目标、语境、交际双方的关联；四是方式准则，即言语交际要明晰、有层次，不能晦涩，不能有歧义。
美国分析学家赛尔（Searle）发展了英国哲学家奥斯汀（Austin）的言语行为理论，提出了“直接言语行为”和“间接言语行为”。
人际间的交流是一种合作，而语言是一种施为行为。
利奇认为人们不用直接的言语行为，而用间接地言语行为，就是因为礼貌原则的存在。
2.中西方的礼貌原则2.1中国的礼貌原则汉文化中的“礼貌”概念有着悠久的历史，它起源于古代的“礼”，即礼制。
中国古代社会所遵循的“礼”，即上尊下卑，君臣父子，长幼有序。
每个人都有其固定的身份及与其身份相配的权和义务，人是社会性的存在，表现方式是人际交流、互通有无，而只有遵守“礼”节，社会才会变得更加有序、和谐。
中西方表达时的礼貌原则
最使东西方不同文化背景的人们感到困 惑的是双方在别人家做客后，告别时所 使用的礼貌用语存在惊人的差别，如西 方人会说: “Thank you so much for a wonderful evening”，而中国人会说： “实在不好意思，给您添麻烦了”(I am so sorry, I have given you so much trouble)。西方人使用感谢语来表示礼貌， 而中国人则使用道歉语来表示礼貌。仅 此一例，中西方礼貌原则的差异即可见 一斑。
我国学者顾曰国提出了中国文化中的礼 貌特征, 即尊重、谦逊、热情、文雅。
尊重, 就是自我尊重和赞赏对方; 谦逊, 表现为贬己尊人; 热情, 表现为关心、体贴、好客; 文雅, 指举止、谈吐得体大方。 礼貌原则具有普遍性, 世界各民族都有自 己的礼貌准则,具体表现在存在一定的差 异。笔者认为, 在中西方文化中礼貌表现 的差异, 主要有以下几个方面:
又如请求对方帮助, 在西方, 不管事大事 小, 不管对方与自己是上下级关系、师生 关系或亲属关系, 或别的什么关系, 都会向对方表达感激, 说“Thank you”, 否则就是不礼貌的。中国人则不一样, 一 是不常表达感激, 认为说“谢谢”是客气; 二是会区别事大事小和关系的上下、尊 卑、亲疏远近。一点小帮助, 无需客气; 上对下、尊对卑及亲属之间, 也无需客气, 因此在这些情况下, 一般都不说“谢谢”。
西方文化从古希腊开始就注重逻辑, 注重 分析, 重理性。亚里士多德把演说的篇章 概括为: 开头、提出问题、分析论证、结 尾。西方人的思维方式一般是直线形的,
说话、写文章习惯开门见山, 把话题放在 最前面, 先表达中心意思。中国人受儒家、 道家与佛教哲学思想和“天人合一”思想 的影响, 重视悟性和事物之间的联系, 所 以汉语重顿悟、讲含蓄, 语言有一定的模 糊性。中国人的思维方式以自觉、具体为 特征, 思维活动多是螺旋式地绕圈向前发 展。如中国人打电话, 通常开始都不谈自 己的意图、目的( 除了急事重大的事情 外) , 而总是谈些关心对方的话, 最后才说 出打电话的真正目的, 而西方人则习惯于 开门见山, 先说出打电话的目的和要谈的 正事, 然后再细说和谈些其它的事。
中西社会礼貌原则及其差异分析的开题报告
中西社会礼貌原则及其差异分析的开题报告
一、选题背景和意义
在国际社会交往中，礼貌是不可避免的交流方式之一，也是展示文
化品位和修养的一种方式。
礼貌在中西方社会中有着不同的内涵和表现
形式，因此进行中西社会礼貌原则及其差异分析具有一定的实际意义。
随着经济全球化和文化多元化的发展，中西方国家之间的交流和合
作越来越频繁，这也促使我们更深入地了解中西方社会礼貌的异同点，
从而更加顺畅地进行国际交流和合作。
二、研究内容和方法
1. 研究内容
本文将探讨中西社会礼貌的含义、表现形式及其差异。
具体内容包
括以下几个方面：
（1）中西社会礼貌的含义和起源；
（2）中西社会礼貌的表现形式和规范；
（3）中西社会礼貌的差异及其原因。
2. 研究方法
本文将采用文献资料法和实证研究法相结合的方法，从社会文化学、社会心理学和交际学等多个角度进行探讨。
三、预期结果和意义
通过比较中西社会礼貌的异同，我们可以更好地了解中西方社会文
化的差异和相似点，进而更好地进行跨文化交流。
同时，本文的研究成
果对于中西方经贸合作、文化交流和旅游活动等方面也具有一定的指导
意义。
中西方文化中礼貌原则之差异及原因分析
An Analysis of Differences of Politeness Principle betweenChinese Culture and English CultureAbstract:Politeness is a symbol of the human civilization and a means for maintaining a harmonious interpersonal relation. Politeness is a social statute that constrains people‟s behaviors in any society. However, it shows different characteristics in Chinese culture and western culture. In recent years, scholars have shown great interest in politeness. In the west, Goffman‟s notion of face, Brown and Levinson‟s Face Theory and Geoffrey N. Leech‟s Politeness Principles are the representatives; in China, Professor Gu Yueguo‟s Five Notions of the Politeness is the pioneer in this field. This paper attempts to throw light on the differences of politeness principles between Chinese and western culture and its reasons based on the basic introduction of polite principles in Chinese and western culture. The better understanding of these differences and reasons can improve the English learners‟ cultural sensitivity, reducing pragmatic failure. Also, it can help them get the effective communication through the proper modes of politeness.Key words: Polite Principles，Cultural Differences, ReasonsTable of ContentsI. Introduction (1)II. Polite Principles in Chinese and English Culture (2)2.1 Politeness Principles in Chinese Culture (2)2.2 Politeness Principles in English Culture (3)III. Differences of Politeness Principles between Chinese Culture and English Culture (5)3.1 Terms of Address (6)3.2 Thanks and Apology W ords (7)3.3 Contents of the Conversation (7)3.3.1 Compliment and Modest Words (8)3.3.2 Euphemisms and Taboos (8)3.3 .3 Greeting and Farewell Words (9)IV. Reasons of Differences of Politeness Principles between Chinese Culture and English Culture (10)4.1 Different Values Influenced by Cultural Background (10)4.1.1 V alues of Chinese Culture (10)4.1.2 V alues of English Culture (11)4.2 Different Ways of Thinking Influenced by Cultural Backgrounds (12)4.2.1 Chinese Ways of Thinking (12)4.2.2 Western Ways of Thinking (12)V. Conclusion (12)Bibliography (14)Chinese title, abstract, key words (15)An Analysis of Differences of Politeness Principle betweenChinese Culture and English Culture I．IntroductionPoliteness is a universal phenomenon and it can be observed in all languages and cultures. In addition, it plays an important role in human communication: it helps to establish, maintain or consolidate harmonious interpersonal relationships and facilitate social interactions. Politeness as an observable phenomenon is something superficial and a reflection of specific cultural values in the language. Thus, while admitting the universality of politeness, we should realize the cultural characteristics of politeness that is, due to the influences of cultural value orientations, the actual manifestations of politeness and the standards for its judgment differ substantially from culture to culture. To explore politeness, we should consider its cultural specificity and accordingly go into the depth where cultural values are firmly rooted. Only in doing so can we uncover the essence of politeness and successfully account for its cross-cultural differences. We view politeness as one of the major social constraints on human interaction which regulates participants‟ communication behavior by constantly reminding them to take into consideration the feelings of the others (He ziran，2003:57). Politeness is a universal phenomenon, which can be observed in every society. People connect, communicate, and cooperate with each other. To some extent, the globe is a huge society; however, it can operate safe and sound. Except some laws and regulations, the social ethics plays a significant role in maintaining the social order, keeping the harmonious interpersonal relationships, reducing social conflict and misunderstandings. Among the social ethics, politeness is a key factor that can not be neglected. It is of great necessity to consider the feelings of others in order to establish mutual comfort and enhance rapport.With the trend of globalization, people in the diplomatic, intellectual, and business circles have more chances to connect with the foreigners. Through the political, economicaland cultural exchange, people around the world are getting closer and closer. However, more and more problems occur. Realizing the difficulties on our way to globalization, we need to know some basic polite Principle in communication so that a healthier discourse pattern can be adopted (Hu zhuanglin, 2007:98-99). There is a famous saying which goes like this: Courtesy costs nothing. But what is polite in one culture may be impolite in another. Thus, we should do in Rome as Romans do. Polite Principle is further highlighted. Many scholars in growing number attach great importance to the politeness Principles. This paper intends to research into the differences of polite principles between western and Chinese culture and its reasons in the hope to achieve a better understanding of them, to raise our cultural awareness and to promote English-Chinese cross-cultural communication. It also is hoped that it can give some inspirations to the college students and readers.II. Polite Principles in Chinese Culture and English CulturePolite theory is used to accounts for the redressing of the affronts to face posed by face-threatening acts to addressees (Gu Yueguo ,1992:30) . First formulated in 1978 by Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson, polite theory has since been expanded academia‟s perception of politeness (Wikipedia, part 1). In the English culture, on the basis of Brown and Levinson‟s Face Theory and Grice‟s Cooperative P rinciples, Geoffrey N. Leech (1983:132) developed the face theories and formulated the polite Principles.2.1 Politeness Principles in Chinese CultureDue to different values, different cultural orientations and different ways of thinking, languages are different greatly from one another in expressing and understanding politeness. And in different cultures, the importance of each politeness maxim is different. Some cultural associations in the east (such as China and Japan) prefer modesty maxim; English-speaking countries (especially England) focus on tact maxim; the countries around the Mediterranean prefer generosity maxim to modesty maxim. Based on Leech‟s theory and Chinese politeness features, Prof. Gu Yueguo studies the politeness phenomenon in the C hinese culture. He summarizes the polite Principles with Chinese characteristics.According to Gu Yueguo there are basically four notions underlying the Chineseconception of “politeness”，which reads respectfulness, modesty, attitudinal warmth, and refinement. Respectfulness is self‟s positive appreciation or admiration of other concerning the latter‟s face, social status, and so on. …Modesty‟ can be seen as another way of saying …self-denigration‟. …Attitudinal warmth‟ is self‟s demonstration of kindness, consideration, and hospitality to other. Finally, …refinement‟ refers to self‟s behavior to other wh ich meets certain standards. The four essentials are elaborated into politeness maxims. Gu Yueguo (1992:37) demonstrates four maxims:(1) the self-denigration maxim;(2) the address term maxim;(3) the tact maxim and the generosity maxim;(4) the Principles of Balance, and the Principles of Sincerity;According to the characteristic of Chinese culture, Gu Yueguo(1992:43) has proposed five politeness maxims:(1) Self-denigration Maxim: a). Denigrate self;b). Elevate other;(2) Address Term Maxim, which requires addressing your interlocutor with an appropriate address form;(3) Refinement Maxim, which requires using refined language, including the use of euphemisms and indirectness, and avoid foul language;(4) Agreement Maxim, which maximizes agreement and harmony between interlocutors, and minimizes disagreement between them;(5) Virtues-words-deeds Maxim, which minimizes cost and maximizes benefit to other at the motivational level, and maximizes benefit received and minimizes cost to self at the conversational level.2.2 Politeness Principles in English CultureTalking about the polite principles in English culture, we should know that it mainly includes Brown and Levinson‟s Face Theory and Geoffrey Leech‟s Politeness Principles. These two theories have important roles in politeness principles in English culture.Brown and Levinson‟s influential theory is based on Grice‟s maxim theory and Goffman‟s“face” as the positive social value a person effective ly claims for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a particular contact‟ (Goffman, 1967:51) face can be likened to a person‟s public self-esteem or self-image, which can be damaged, maintained or enhanced in interaction with others (Leo, 2001:57). Brown and Levinson divided the notion of face into positive face and negative face, according to interactants‟ wants. Brown and Levinson define …positive face‟ as the positive and consistent image people have of themselves, and their desire for ap proval. On the other hand, …negative face‟ is “the basic claim to territories, personal preserves, and rights to non-distraction” (Brown and Levinson, 1987:61). Deviations from Gricean maxims are motivated by employing strategies to counteract so-called “f ace-threatening acts” (FTAs) by using these politeness strategies speakers communicate both their primary message and also the message that they intend to be polite, which has the status of a Gricean conversational implicature (Leo, 2001:57).Leech divides the Politeness Principles into six different maxims:(1) Act maxim: a) Minimize cost to otherb) Maximize benefit to other(2) Generosity maxim: a) Minimize benefit to self.b) Maximize cost to self.(3) Approbation maxim: a) Minimize dispraise of other.b) Maximize praise of other.(4) Modesty maxim: a) Minimize praise of self.b) Maximize dispraise of self(5) Agreement maxim: a) Minimize disagreement between self and other.b) Maximize agreement between self and other.(6) Sympathy maxim: a) Minimize antipathy between self and other.b) Maximize sympathy between self and other.(Leech 1983:132).Leech‟s Polite Principle is built on the basis of the concept of “cost” and “benefit”. Costrefers to the inconvenience or loss that the content of the interaction brings to the speaker and the hearer; benefit means the convenience or the advantage to the speaker and the hearer. The degree of politeness is consistent with the scale of indirectness, which can be observed superficially. As a matter of fact, the level of politeness is in contrast to other‟s cost or self‟s benefit. Generally speaking, the more the content of interaction benefits the hearer, the less the speaker‟s goods, thus the communication is politer. Otherwise, it is impolite. This is the essence of the phenomenon. This is why people choose to use euphemism or the indirect language to minimize the impolite speech. For example, when a woman is pregnant, it is impolite to say you are pregnant directly. However, it is better to say “She has canceled all her social engagements.” or “She is in an interesting condition.” The six maxims of Leech‟s Politeness Principles are interrelated with one another, restrained with one another and can not be understood in isolation.According to Leech, not all the maxims and sub-maxims are equally important. Of all the maxims, Tact Maxim is more powerful on conversational behavior than Generosity Maxim and Approbation Maxim is more powerful than Modesty Maxim. In all maxims, part a) is more important than part b) as it emphasizes not to impose or disagree in conversation (Sara, 2003:129). In all, the Principles are not motivated by the need of the cross-cultural communication; they seem to be derived from strategies used by English speakers. In addition, these Principles do not always apply to other culture. Though some of the maxims can be applied to other cultures, the differences still exist. In the English culture, individualism is the center of their value system. The privacy, freedom and personal realization are sacred and inviolable. Tact Maxim is frequently used. Even when the parents “order” their children to do something, they will follow the tact maxim in order not to threaten their children‟s nega tive face. People often use indirect and tactful language.For example:Would you please pass me the salt?Would you mind passing me the salt?Could you possibly pass me the salt?I was wondering if you could pass me the salt?…Some of the people can give order, request, suggestion or even threatening, while others have no choice but to accept the instructions unconditionally. In a word, Leech‟s Politeness Principle is measured by the speaker‟s and the hearer‟s benefit and cost.III. Differences of Politeness Principles between Chinese Culture and English CultureStemming from different cultural backgrounds, the Chinese politeness Principle and the English politeness Principle may have different response and explanation to the same politeness phenomenon. Different cultures may focus on different maxims. In the English-speaking countries, the tact maxim is the most important, which forms the core of the English language and culture. People usually follow this maxim when they perform the speech act, such as requesting, ordering or warning. While in the Chinese society, the self-denigration maxim is the core. This well explains why whenever Chinese people hear the compliment, they would negate the compliment and depreciate themselves to show modesty. In addition, we may observed that the Chinese place more emphasis in their talk on the needs of the group rather than those of the individual, but we can not conclude on the basis of these observations alone that they are genuine more altruistic than members of o ther communities. The major differences between Chinese and English politeness Principles are discussed as follows.3.1 Terms of AddressThe differences between the Chinese and English politeness Principles are also reflected in the terms of address. Every language has its own specific address system and its usage is closely related with the cultural background. When people greet, people in the English-speaking country use the terms of address as well. The terms of address show the social relationships between people. From top to bottom, there are social ranks, high or low, young and old. The change of the terms of address means the change of the relationship. Affected by the social structure, traditional ethics, blood relation and religious factors, Chinese address system is rather complicated than those of the English-speaking countries.Chinese people like to use the blood relations to call their family members and relatives; what‟s more, they call non-family friends and relatives, which is rare in the English-speaking countries. Owning to its social structure and cultural orientation, the interpersonal relationship of the English-speaking countries is totally different from that of Chinese. So the use of the address is varied as well. Generally speaking, English people like to call each other‟s name. This fully shows the cultural orientation of equality. Friends usually address each other‟s name (not including the family name). On the formal occasion, “Mr”, “Miss”, “Mrs” and some other appellations are often used. There are a few titles can be used to address others, except Doctor, Professor, President, etc. the terms of address in the Chinese culture is rather complicated. Chinese people like to add the title before someone‟s family name, such as Director Huang, Manager Ma, or Deputy Li. Thus, the addresses that Chinese people think is polite may be rude according to the English culture. For instant we add “small” or “old” before one‟s family name. This is considered rude in the English-speaking countries. People do not like to be named with words like small or old. When referring to old people, they use the senior citizen instead. For instance, in China, if we call someone “老李”, it actually shows ours respect for him. But if you call a foreigner “Old Brown”, he may think you are impolite or rude.3.2 Thanks and Apology W ordsThe words of thanks belong to the polite language. When one spends time and energy in helping another, it is the basic politeness for one to express his gratitude to the other part. In the aspect of “Thanks”, the English use “thank you” more often than the Chinese. For the English, everyone says “Thank you” even the family members have no exception. While in China, the more intimate the relationship is, the less they say “thank you” to each other. Saying “thank you” is considered to enlarge the interpersonal distance. When people are praised by others, they do not usually say “thank you”, so as not to leave an impression of immodesty. The differences also exist in different culture for using the words of apology. But Chinese people do not apologize very frequently. In China, when doing the wrong things or making mistakes, the authority and the elder do not need to apologize. It is the embodiment ofthe power. There are also some young people, even though their parents have done a lot for them, they seldom say “thank you” to their parents. Westerners consider attitudes like this as rude and unreasonable.3.3 Contents of the ConversationPeople who use different language may hold different views about the world. About one thing, people of different cultural backgrounds may have different ideas. For the English value, “individualism” is the core. They advocate individualism. Individual rights and the private property are inviolable, while the Chinese people appreciate collectivism, promoting mutual friendship. The English people focus on the concept of privacy, but the Chinese people prefer the intimacy. Respecting for individual privacy is one of the major values of the English ideology. In daily life, the English do not want to interfere in other‟s private business, particularly with regard to age, family, income, marital status. In China, on the contrary, nothing is private. People do not think these acts are intrusive other‟s private space. In their mind, it is natural and ordinary. In fact, these acts are beyond the English people‟s psychological limit and privacy. This may fail to achieve the communicative purpose and it may lead to other‟s indifference and alienation.3.3.1 Compliment and Modest W ordsLeech's Modesty maxim is equivalent to part of Gu‟s self-denigration maxim. When referring to self, one should depreciate oneself and be modest. When referring to other, one should show one‟s appreciation and respect to other. For the usag e of compliment and modest words, the Chinese and the English have significant differences. In the English-speaking countries, people usually adopt agreement maxim when they are praised. They seldom negate the praise in order not embarrass others. For example, an actor just finished his performance, one of his friend said to him: “Hey, you really did a good job tonight!” The actor may answer: “Well, thank you very much.” However, in China, it is the other way round, in the face of such recognition; one can not be so straightforward. It is customary to use "self-negation" or "deny" approach. China's historical and cultural traditions emphasize collectivism, resulting in a unique habit of modesty. In this case the Europeans may think Chinese are impolite becausethey have been rejected bluntly.3.3.2 Euphemisms and TaboosThe refined language maxim requires not using offensive language, being more tactful and less straightforward. In order to avoid rude words in the English language there are a number of taboo words and euphemisms. People use those words to avoid direct reference to something unpleasant or something embarrassing. These taboo words and euphemism can be widely used. They are the products of the conventional social orders and politeness Principles. To some degree, Chinese and English are the same in the use of taboo words. For example, talking about the body organs and sex on the public occasions is rude. The differences lie in the following aspects. The English do not like to ask people‟s privacy, such as age, income, marital status, political orientation, religious belief and so on. These inquiries may be considered inappropriate, offensive and unrespectable for other‟s privacy. However, it is common in China. If your friend introduces another friend to you, you may ask your new friend “where is your hometown? What do you do?” or “where do you live?” The common interpersonal communication may look weird in the foreigners‟ eyes. It is, to some degree, an act of invading their privacy rights.3.3 .3 Greeting and Farewell W ordsIt is natural to greet when people meet. The expressions may vary from one culture to another. In the English-speaking countries, there are some fixed greetings, such as: How are you? (In fact, people are not really care about other‟s health status), replies often go like this: Fine, thank you (Regardless of whether the listener really feel good). For greeting, Chinese people often say: "do lunch", "Where to", "Where to go" and so on, we think those expressions are very natural, it is just greeting. Hearing the Chinese style of greeting, foreigners may have a misunderstanding: Chinese people like to mind other‟s business. Respectively the English people often say: "Goodbye. Bye-bye. So long or See you later, tomorrow on the next morning". It is equivalent to Chinese like "Good-bye, Bye, now see, See you tomorrow, or see you next Monday." Chinese people sometimes say so. Although in the English-speaking countries, biding farewell is roughly the same, yet there are differentways to bid farewell. Compared with the English, Chinese are more subtle. Although the Chinese and the English are more or less the same in the farewell words, Chinese are more reserved.IV. Reasons of Differences of Politeness Principles between Chinese Culture and English CultureDifferent cultural factors may result in cultural differences, and consequently, the acknowledgment of the factors affecting the cultural differences will facilitate the understanding of such differences. However, it is impossible to cover all of the factors in this thesis, so the factors discussed here are some important ones. So, we can see there are many differences of politeness principles between the western and Chinese culture as we discussed in chapter three. In this chapter, we will talk about the main reasons from their different families‟ features and concepts as well as different values between them.4.1 Different Values Influenced by Cultural BackgroundsAnother cultural reason for differences between China and western countries is different value under the different cultural backgrounds. In the following, we will talk about the values in Chinese culture and western culture.4.1.1 Values of Chinese CultureIn spring and autumn and Warring‟s periods of China, Confucianis m, Taoism and other ideologies emerged. As different ideologies developed and combated each other, the basic framework of Chinese civilization was established. And then Confucianism became the foundation stone of Chinese philosophy system. Confucianism‟s c entral doctrine is that of the virtue of Ren. What is Ren? Ren is translated variously as goodness, benevolence, humanity and human-heartedness. In short, Ren means affection and love. For more than two thousand years it has molded and shaped the civilization of China and exerted a profound influence upon almost one fourth of the human race. The core of the Chinese value has some relationship with the Confucianism. That is the well-known Five Relationships: ruler-minister, father-son, husband-wife, elder-younger brother and friend-friend. This was explained as“There should be affection between father and son, righteous sense of duty between ruler and minister, division of function between husband and wife, stratification between old and young, and good fait h between friends.” During the more than two thousand years of the feudal period, the ruling class arranges every thing by this relationship, and then formed a class society. In this kind of society, a minister owes loyalty to his ruler, and a child filial respect to his parent. As a result, humanity is neglected and people have no equality. In recent years, this kind of relations has changed greatly. People in China also hope to have an equal status, but the Confucianism is still rooted in people‟s mind, a nd it needs a long time to realize to be truly equal.4.1.2 Values of English CultureThe concept of Chinese values is usually placed in opposition with English values. Therefore, it is necessary to determine how people define English values. Some have stated that the modern English value system originated in Victorian England, and describe it as social norms and behaviors well-known in European people during that time. The core of English values is individualism. English values have three levels: 1) physical level –science, technology, business, public administration, and modern capitalist economics; 2) conceptual level – equal opportunity, the role of law; and time management; and 3) core values – open debate, equality, balance of power, Free speech and democracy( Zhangzhanyi, 1990:103). Different from China, religion plays an important role in English culture. The English speaking countries are generally considered as religious countries, and among all the religious groups by which people seek to worship, Christianity is by far the most influential in the west. Almost every phase of man‟s life is touched by religion, so much so that it has become part and parcel of English culture. Christianity is the religion based on the life and teaching of Jesus Christ, who is the founder of Christianity. According to the doctrine of Christianity, the Trinity is the union of the three forms of God, the Son and the Holy Spirit. Although in the English countries religion provides the customs and ceremonies that mark lif e‟s most important events－birth, coming of age, marriage, and death, religion has declined in importance in terms ofinfluencing behavior and philosophical outlook. Now when people need personal advice, they usually turn to psychiatrists or to professional counselors rather than to Fathers for help. Although, the power of the church cannot compare with the past, it still influences many aspects of people's daily life. For example, there are a few important festivals in the English countries is concern with Jesus Christ. Christmas day is a festival in celebration of the birth of the Jesus Christ on Dec.25 (Chenlinhua, 1998:67).4.2 Different W ays of Thinking Influenced by Cultural Backgrounds4.2.1 Chinese W ays of ThinkingChinese people lived in a vast and rich land in East Asian Continent in the North Temperate Zone. In ancient times, they enjoyed the favor from nature without too much fear. The stable agricultural society made Chinese people in harmony with nature. On one hand, Chinese people were clear that everything came from nature, and the relationship between man and nature was very close; on the other hand, nature was so mysterious to them that they were satisfied with what they had got, and they thought their existence relied on the bounty of nature. This kind of viewpoint resulted in the fact that Chinese people lacked the feelings of hostility to nature, and tried to seek for the harmony between man and nature. They made efforts in the stability of society and happiness of people. As for the traditional Chinese thought, Confucianist thought originated from the semi-closed continental surroundings and the small peasant economy. What‟s more, the Taoism influences Chinese thought pattern as well. LaoZi holds that the world is full of opposites and contradictions. In order to eliminate them to come to harmony, man must get to the level of “Wu Wei”, which derived from a point of Dao and De. Influenced by the above Chinese philosophy, Chinese thought pattern tend to be synthetic and subjective. Chinese way of thinking decides Chinese people express their polite culture more directly.4.2.2 Western Ways of ThinkingContrary to the Chinese, English speaking people usually consider the objective things。
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Ｌ ｅｈ礼貌 原则 的六 条 准 则 ， 互 相联 系 ， ｅｃ 虽 互相 制约 ， 但其各 自的重要性并不一致 ， 语境的变化也是 其 参考 的重 要 因素之 一 。例如 ：
（ ）Ａ： ｈｙｗ ｒ ｏｋｎ Ｓ ３ Ｔ ｅ ｅｅｓ ｉｄｔ Ｕ． ｏ
文化交流 ， 提高跨文化交际能力 ， 保证跨文化交际的 顺 利进 行 。
一
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英汉礼貌原则比较分析
（ ） 一 礼貌原则 的提出 ２ 纪５ ０世 ０年代 晚期 ， 国哲 学 家 Ｊ ｕｔ 英 ．Ａ ｓｎ提 ｉ 出 了“ 言语行 为 ” 理论 ， 这个 理 论 包含 三个 层 面 的 内
因此从 语用 的角 度 ， 研究 不 同文 化 背景 下 的人们 如 何理解 、 运用礼貌原则 ， 有利于跨文化交际双方增进
容 ， 言 内行 为 、 即 言后 行 为和言 外行 为 。其核 心 内容 就是 人们 能用 语 言来 完 成 一 定 的行 为 。但 是 ， 一 这 理论 只是单纯 地研 究 没 有 任何 语 境 下 的言语 行 为 ， 具 有很 大 的局 限性 。随后 ， 国哲 学家 Ｊ ．Ｓａｌ 美 ．Ｒ ｅｒ ｅ 改 进并 发展 了 Ａ ｓｎ的理论 ， 出 了一 个 新 的交 际 ｕｔ ｉ 提 理 论 。后来 ， 国哲学 家 Ｇｉｅ又提 出 了合作 原 则 。 美 ｒ ｃ 合作原则包含 四个准则 ：． １ 质的准则 ； 量 的准则 ； ２ ． ３ 系准则 ；．方式 准则 。交谈 双方 只有遵 从 这些 ．关 ４ 准则 ， 才能配合默契， 从而使交际顺利地进行。但是 在很多情况下 ， 交谈者会故意违反合作原则 中的一 个或几个准则 ， 甚至会违反合作原则本身， 这样便出 现 了会 话 的隐含 意义 。 比如 ：
作者简介 ： 徐丹 ， ， 女 四川雅安人 ， 南师范大学教 师。 河
语 言与文 化密 切相关 ， 言是 文化 的重要 载体 ， 语 也是 文 化 的重 要组 成部分 之一 。人 类在学 习 和运用 语 言 的过程 中积 累 、 取 文化 。生活 在 两 种不 同文 获
化 中的人 ， 对语言基本构成要素的使用方式 ， 即语用 方面 ， 存在着很大差别。语用差别 的制约 因素有很 多 ， 中最 重 要 的是 文 化 因 素 。 由此 我 们 可 以 其 理解为 ， 文化的差异可以直接体现在语言 的运用和 理解上。人们 的交际活动主要是通过语言实现 的， 而 在交 际活 动 中 ， 礼貌是 基本 准则 ， 是维 系人 际和谐 的工具 和手段 ， 实 现人 与 人 之 间成 功 交 际 的基 本 是 条 件 ， 人类 文 明进 步 的重要 标 志 。英 国语 言学 家 是 Ｌｅｈ以英 语 语 言 文 化 为 背 景 ， 出 了 礼 貌 原 则 ｅｃ 提 （ ｏｉｎｓ ｒ ｃ ｌ）而 根据 礼貌 的语 用 原则 ， ＰｌｅｅｓＰｉ ｉ ｅ ， ｔ ｎｐ 中 国学 者顾 日国也 以 中 国文 化 为 背 景 ， Ｌｅｈ的 在 ｅｃ 礼 貌原 则 基 础 上 ， 出 了汉 语 言 的 礼 貌 原 则 ［１。 提 ３８ １３
２ １ 年 ４月 ０１
第２ ５卷 第 ２期
新乡学院学报 （ 社会科学版 ）
Ｊｕｎ ｌ ｆ ｉｘａｇＵ ｉ ｒｔ（ ｏｉ ｃ ｎｅ ｄｔ ｎ ｏｒａ ｎｉｎ ｎｖ ｓｙ Ｓｃａ Ｓｉ ｃｓ ｉｏ） ｏＸ ｅｉ ｌ ｅ Ｅ ｉ
Ａｐ ． ０ １ ｒ２ １ Ｖｏ ． ５ Ｎｏ ２ １２ ．
前提下 ， 人们才可 能进行成功的交际。为 了维护礼 貌原则 ， 们甚 至 可 以牺牲 合作 原则 。例 如 ， 人 用一 个 不会带来任何不 良后果 的谎言 （ ｈ ｅｌ ） ｗ ｉ ｅ 来谢绝别 ｔ ｉ 人 的邀请 ， 尽管违反 了质量准则 ， 但是与直接地回绝 对 方相 比 ， 这样 做 更 加礼 貌 、 婉 ， 让 人 容 易 接受 委 更
８ ６
有直接责备孩子 ， 而是用 了一个不定代词 ｓ ｅｎ ｏ ｏｅ ｍ 来 间接指代 ， 这便是违反了合作原则中的数量原则 。 但对人们为什么会故意违反合作原则来含蓄地 表达 自己的真实意义 ， 合作原则却不能解释。英国 语 言 学家 Ｌｅｈ随后 提 出 的礼 貌 原 则 给 出 了答 案 。 ｅｃ Ｌｅｈ ｅｃ 指出， 人们故意违反合作原则 中的准则 ， 是因 为他们出于礼貌 ， 遵守 了礼貌原则 。礼貌原则维护 了交 谈双方 的均等地位 和友 好关 系 。只有在 这个 大
际对象和交际环境 ， 选择合适 的礼貌原则 ， 克服跨 文化交 际中的语用失误 ， 保证跨 文化 交际顺利完成 。
关键词 ： 礼貌原则 ； 文化差异 ； 跨文化交际
中 圈分 类 号 ： ０ Ｇ４ 文献标志码 ： Ａ 文章 编 号 ：６４—３３ （０ １ ０ ０ ８ ０ １７ ３４ ２ １ ）２— ０６— ３ 收 稿 日期 ：０ ０—１ ２ ２１ ２— ６
（ ）Ｐ ｒｎ：Ｓ ｍ ｏｅｈ ｓｅｔ ｈ ｉｇｏ ｅ １ ａｅ ｔ ｏ ｅｎ ａ ａ ｎ ｔｅｉ ｎ ｆ ｔ ｅ ｃ ｈ
ｃｋ ． ａ ｅ
Ｃｈｌ ｉ ｄ：Ｉ ｓ ｔｍｅ ｔｗａ ｎ’ ．
这是典 型 的家长 和 子 女 之 间 的对 话 ， 长对 于 家 谁 吃 了蛋糕 上 的糖 粉 应 该 是 心 中有 数 的 ， 他并 没 但
●旅游经济与文化研究
中西 ＝ 貌 原 则 之 比较 分 析 ｉ ： Ｌ
徐 丹
（ 河南师范大学 外语部 ， 河南 新乡 ４ ３０ ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ ５ ０７
摘
要： 文章从跨文化语用学 的视角 ， 探讨 了中西方两种既相互关联又相互区别的礼貌原则 ， 旨在通 过两种礼
貌原则 的对 比研究 ， 发掘言语应用背后 的文化差异根源 ， 而使 言语参 与者在跨 文化交 际的过程 中根据不 同的交 从