chinese 美国社会

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美国人的特征,与中国人的区别英语作文

美国人的特征,与中国人的区别英语作文

中美文化差异:性格、价值观与社交习俗的对比In the vast tapestry of global cultures, the United States and China stand as two distinct and colorful threads. Each nation, with its unique history, traditions, and values, has shaped the characteristics of its people, resulting in a rich array of differences and similarities. This essay explores the distinct features of Americans and Chinese, focusing on their personalities, values, andsocial customs.**Personality Traits**Americans are often characterized as being independent, assertive, and competitive. They value individualism andself-expression,鼓励 individuals to pursue their dreams and achieve success through hard work and perseverance. This is reflected in their direct communication style, which encourages frankness and honesty, even if it may sometimes lead to conflict. Americans also value adaptability and flexibility, often愿意 to embrace change and new experiences.Contrastingly, Chinese culture tends to emphasize collectivism and harmony. The Chinese value group harmony over individual expression, often prioritizing the needs of the collective over personal desires. This is reflected in their communication style, which tends to be more indirect and respectful, avoiding direct conflict. Chinese culture also values stability and tradition, with a strong emphasis on maintaining social order and respecting elders.**Values**Americans tend to embrace a more secular worldview, with a strong emphasis on freedom, democracy, andindividual rights. They value equality and fairness, and often view these as fundamental to their society. Americans also prioritize personal happiness and fulfillment, seeking to find meaning and purpose in their lives.Chinese culture, on the other hand, is deeply rooted in Confucian values, which emphasize morality, duty, and respect. The Chinese value loyalty, filial piety, and the maintenance of social hierarchy. They also prioritize community well-being over individual interests, viewing harmony and stability as crucial to societal well-being.**Social Customs**In social settings, Americans tend to be more informal and relaxed. They value efficiency and punctuality, expecting guests to arrive on time and preferring direct, to-the-point conversations. Americans also emphasize personal space and privacy, often expecting a certain level of anonymity and independence in their social interactions. By contrast, Chinese social customs are often more formal and respectful. Guests are expected to arrive early to show respect, and hosts often go through great lengths to ensure the comfort and satisfaction of their visitors. Conversations tend to be more indirect and focused on maintaining harmony, with a strong emphasis on respect for elders and authority figures.In conclusion, while there are numerous differences between Americans and Chinese in terms of personality, values, and social customs, there are also many similarities. Both cultures value hard work, family, and the pursuit of happiness. Both cultures also strive to create a better future for their children and contribute positively to society. By understanding and respectingthese differences, we can better appreciate the rich diversity of global cultures and the unique contributions each culture brings to the world.**中美文化差异:性格、价值观与社交习俗的对比** 在全球文化的大织锦中,美国和中国就像两条独特且色彩斑斓的丝线。

中美文化差异英文版

中美文化差异英文版

1.美国人的自我意识和独立意识很强。

Self-awareness and independent consciousness of Americans are very strong.2.美国文化鼓励人民开拓创新,做一番前人未做过的、杰出超凡的事业。

In America, innovation often is encouraged and people often do something nobody has done. 3.美国基础教育实践,注重创造的教学形式.American education based on practice, pay attention to teaching form of creation.4. 中国的家庭结构比较复杂,传统的幸福家庭是四代同堂。

China's family structure is more complex, the traditional happy family is four generations.5. 中国人的婚姻相对来说比较稳定。

这是因为中国人把婚姻当作一个严肃的道德问题,喜新厌旧,或是第三者插足都会被认为是极不道德的。

The Chinese marriage is relatively stable. Because Chinese people treat marriage as a serious moral problem, propensity or a third people involvement is considered highly unethical.6. 新中国虽已建立了六十年,但传统的君臣,父子等级观念在中国人的头脑中仍然根深蒂固。

The traditional manner, parent-child hierarchical remains entrenched in the Chinese mind.7. 主动帮助别人或接受别人帮助在西方常是令人难堪的事。

Differences between the Chinese and American cultures 中美文化比较

Differences between the Chinese and American cultures  中美文化比较

摘要:中美文化有其共通之处,但也有很多的差异。

中国有着悠久的历史,经过长时间的文化积淀逐渐形成具有中国特色的传统文化。

美国虽然历史不长,但是美国文化已经成为世界的主流文化之一。

今天我们将从教育、宗教、饮食等方面来对比中美文化之间的异同,提高我们跨文化交际的能力。

关键字:中国,美国,文化异同,教育,宗教,饮食AbstractThere are some similarities between Chinese and American culture,but also kinds of differences。

China is a country that has a long history,in the long period cultural accumulation,the traditional culture with Chinese characteristics came into being。

Although the United S tates don’t have such a long history,American culture has become one of the mainstream culture in the world。

Today we’ll Compare the similarities and differences between Chinese and American cultures from three aspects:religion,education and food。

In this way,we can improve our ability of cross-culture communication。

Key words:China,America,similarities,differences,education,religion,food Differences between the Chinese and American culturesAs we know ,there are many differences between Chinese and American cultures. If we desire to learn about U.S or communicate with Americans in proper way ,it is necessary for us to know about cross-cultural communication. Cross-cultural communication (also referred to as intercultural communication) is a field of study that focus on how people from different cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavor to communicate across cultures. Only if we are familiar with the similarities and differences can we avoid cultural conflicts and get along well with foreign friends. When you are conc erned about what you can do and what you can’t, your foreign friends will show respect for your national culture and there is no doubt that you can enhance the level of cross-culture communication .In the essay,I’ll talk about similarities and differences in three aspects between Chinese and American culture :religion ,food and festival.1.religionAmerica is remarkable now, as in the past,for its attachment to the principle of freedom of belief or disbelief . –The First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States indicates that "Congress shall make no law establishing religion, orprohibit the free exercise thereof."So you can choose your indivisual relision.According to the research, The largest religion in the US is Christianity, practiced by the majority of the population (76% in 2008);Speaking in general terms, the contemporary American is a Christian country. A research indicates that most Americans believe the existence of Santa Clous, Christ Jesus and angel even after they have received edu cation and become adults. It’s easy to see the ingrained status of Christianity in the United States of America. Christianity has the idea that people have original sin, because human ancestors, Adam and eva had sinned, corrupt moral invaded their body, and transmitted to their descendants, the result is that all mankind have sin. Obviously, Christianity preached that man and God, the separation of man and nature. China is a multi-religious country, and Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Christian are the main religions in the country. Incomplete statistics show that there are more than 100 million religious followers in China with over 85 000 religious sites, over 3000 religious groups and some 74 religious colleges. Chinese people also enjoy the freedom of religious belief according to law, and regular religious activities are protected by the Constitution. All religious believers and non-religious people in the country respect for each other in beliefs and customs and live together in harmonies. While Chinese religion would emphasize that the harmony between man and nature, issues of life within a confined themselves, to solve problems with people- oriented. It’s quite different from the Christianity.2.foodGenerally speaking, we Chinese think food is very important to man. People often associate food with important holidays and the chance to meet distinguished guests. The Chinese food not only is very delicious and tasty but also very pleasing to your senses and many of dishes have very beautiful and fancy names. The Chinese have the food culture of our own which are quite different from westerners. In the west, people pay more attention to the nutrition of food rather than the looks of it. The cuisine and table manners are quite different from ours in a great extent.It is a very common practice we Chinese people say "Have you had your meal?" when they meeteach other around the time before or after meals. In fact, it is a kind of greeting to communicate with each other. But foreigners cannot understand that because they think why you ask me this. They tend to think you want to invite me to dinner or I am not rich enough to feed myself regularly but that is my business not yours. Chinese think food is very important and essential to people so it shows some care and concern about you. Very often it puzzles foreigners a lot that we ask and talk so much when we order our food in the restaurant. One reason is we ask what the food or the dish is and try to clarify it because you sometimes never know what the food is just according the name of the food until it is put on your table in the restaurant just. While most of western food has a simple and clear name and you know what it is when you hear the name. For instance, there is a traditional food call "fish and chips" in the UK. You see it is very obvious it is fried fish and potato chips. The reason for this in China is on the one hand to try to tell you the way it cooks such as cook, fry, grill and broil in the name and on the other it has beautiful good names so that you have a good imagination and association to let you have a good appetite.Generally speaking, we don't use much tableware when we have our meal in China. Mainly we have bowl, dishes, chopsticks and spoons, which we don't use very often. In serving English meals, they use so much tableware with different kinds and sizes. The Chinese do not know how to use them properly when they are invited to dinner in English family. For example there are different kinds of names for glasses in English, such as wine glass, cherry glass, brandy glass, beer glass, snifter glass, champion flute and high bowl. You can see tableware also show the food culture of different countries.cationUs’s higher education was considered as the best education in the world. Comparing the elementary education between American and China, people's universal view will be: China's elementary education aims to build the foundation of education with more study and less thought; while US's education aims to bulid such an education to raise the creativity with less study and more thought. the Chinesestudents study more, actually pay little attention to the practice, and cannot study for the purpose of 's education pays more attention to raise student's self-confidence,independence,spirit of supporting oneself, but China's education emphases on training the students to be strict,rigorous spiritual. When American school inspects the result of student, they emphasize more on the ability to analyze and solve the question but not the ability of memory or description. The American students donot need the mechanical memorizing, but display creative thought as far as possible; This can cultivate student's study interest, raise the ability of doing it byself and make the study be one kind of creative action.Conclusion:Chinese culure is broad and profound,but American culture also has its unique and style.After learning this class,I have a general impression on American culture,there are quite differences between Chinese and American culture.I think that it’s beneficial to be familiar to this differences for our cross-cultual communication.References[1]Luther S.Luedtke<The Society and Culture of the United States>America:United States information Agency,2003[2]托马斯﹒里克纳《美式家庭——品质教育家长对策》海南:海南出版社,2001年(2)[3]章创生《美国爸爸中国爸爸——向美国家长学教子》重庆:重庆出版社,2011(6)[4]董小川《美国文化概论》.北京:人民出版社,2006[5]铁梅《道教——中国道家文化百科999问》青海:青海人民出版社,2012(1)[6]赵林《西方宗教文化》武昌:武汉大学出版社,2011年(6)[7]学晏《佛家与管理》北京:社会科学文献出版社,2012年(6)[8]徐怀启《古代基督教史》上海:上海人民出版社,2012(6)[9](美)米拉德﹒丁.艾利克森《基督教神学导论》上海:人民出版社,2012(6)[10]李维冰《中国饮食文化概论》北京:中国商业出版社,2006(6)[11]美国饮食文化,/view/2143412.htm。

中美文化模式总结

中美文化模式总结

中美文化模式总结引言中国和美国作为两个具有重要影响力的国家,其文化模式有着显著的差异。

了解中美文化模式的不同点和共同点,对于促进两国之间的沟通和合作具有重要意义。

本文将总结中美文化模式的主要特点,并探讨可能导致这些差异的原因。

直接与间接沟通的差异中美文化在沟通方式上存在明显的差异。

中文文化注重间接沟通和含蓄表达,而英文文化则更倾向于直接和直率的表达。

这种差异可能源自两国历史和社会背景的不同。

在中国文化中,人们更注重面子和人际关系的维护。

他们常常使用委婉语言和暗示来传达意思,以免伤害他人的面子或引起尴尬。

相比之下,美国文化更加强调个人的自由和直接表达。

美国人更倾向于直接表达自己的意见和情感,不过多顾及他人感受。

时间观念的差异中美文化在对待时间的观念上也存在显著差异。

中国文化强调时间的长远性和连续性,注重过去和未来的衔接;而美国文化则更注重时间的当下性和效率。

在中国文化中,人们常常把历史和传统视为重要,尊重长辈和祖先。

同时,未来的规划和预测也被看作重要因素。

相比之下,美国文化更注重效率和时间管理。

美国人倾向于追求即时满足和快速解决问题,注重个人的实际行动和成就。

社会结构的差异中美文化在社会结构方面也有很大的差异。

中国文化强调集体主义和家族价值观,尊重长辈和权威。

美国文化则更注重个体主义和个人价值观。

在中国文化中,人们经常把个人的行为和命运与社会团体联系在一起。

他们更关注集体的需求和整体的利益,强调个体应为社会所服务。

与此相反,美国文化更注重个人的自由和权利,鼓励个人表达和实现自己的目标。

教育理念的差异中美文化在教育理念上也存在明显差异。

中国文化强调知识和学术的重要性,注重学科的深入研究和记忆。

美国文化更注重培养学生的创造性思维和实践能力。

在中国文化中,教育被视为向上流动和社会地位的重要因素。

学生被要求牢记知识,接受严格的考试和评估。

相比之下,美国文化更注重培养学生的创造性思维和实际应用能力。

教育更加注重培养学生的批判性思考和解决问题的能力。

美国和中国的餐桌礼仪差异英语作文

美国和中国的餐桌礼仪差异英语作文

美国和中国的餐桌礼仪差异英语作文The differences between American and Chinese table manners are numerous and reflect the deep-rooted cultural disparities between the two nations. While both cultures value the act of dining as a social event, the etiquette, practices, and even the fundamental approach to meals vary considerably. This essay aims to explore these differences and understand the reasons behind them.In the United States, meals often serve as an occasion for informal gatherings, where friends and family members come together to enjoy a meal and engage in casual conversation. The dining table is generally set with each person having their own plate, fork, knife, and spoon. Itis common practice to serve oneself from a central dish,and there is little emphasis on the precise order of eating. Americans tend to be more relaxed and informal when dining, often speaking loudly and engaging in lively discussions.On the other hand, Chinese table manners are steeped in tradition and protocol. The dining table is often thecenter of social interaction, where guests are seated according to their status and seniority. Dishes are placedat the center of the table and are shared among the diners, with each person using chopsticks to serve themselves. The order of eating is also crucial, with certain dishes being eaten before others to maintain the balance of flavors and textures. Silence during meals is considered polite, and loud talking or laughing is avoided.In terms of attire, Americans tend to be more casual when dining out, with jeans and casual shirts being common. However, in China, dressing for dinner is often more formal, with guests often dressing in traditional attire or suits and dresses. This reflects the importance of the dining experience in Chinese culture and the respect shown towards hosts and fellow diners.The differences in table manners also extend to the handling of food. Americans are accustomed to using their hands to eat certain foods, such as sandwiches or burgers, while Chinese prefer to use chopsticks for most dishes. Additionally, Americans often serve themselves directlyfrom the dish, while in China, it is considered polite to use a serving spoon or chopsticks to transfer food from the shared dish onto one's own plate.These differences in table manners can be attributed to the distinct cultural values and historical backgrounds of the two nations. American culture values individualism and informality, while Chinese culture emphasizes collectivism and respect for elders and authority. The American dining experience is often seen as a time for relaxation and socializing, while the Chinese dining experience is a time for bonding and maintaining social hierarchies.In conclusion, the differences between American and Chinese table manners reflect the unique culturalidentities of the two nations. Understanding these differences can help us appreciate the richness and diversity of global cultures and ensure smooth and respectful dining experiences when interacting with people from different backgrounds.**中美餐桌礼仪差异探究**美国和中国的餐桌礼仪之间存在着许多差异,这些差异反映了两国之间根深蒂固的文化差异。

当代海外华人的双重文化认同特征探析——以美国华人为例

当代海外华人的双重文化认同特征探析——以美国华人为例

2021年3月March 2021No.1华侨华人历史研究Journal of Overseas Chinese History Studies 第1期当代海外华人的双重文化认同特征探析*——以美国华人为例刘燕玲(暨南大学 外国语学院,广东 广州 510632)[关键词]美国;海外华人;双重文化;文化认同;华裔新生代[摘 要]论文以田野调查资料为个案分析,结合相关的理论解读,探析了当代海外华人双重文化认同的基本特征。

研究显示,海外华人的双重文化认同是兼具工具性和选择性,且具有复杂多元的个体差异性的“购物车”式混杂型认同。

美国华人的双重文化认同主要呈现混杂型特征,而“情境性”的交替型特征并不明显;其“购物车”式文化认同的工具性和选择性体现在语言的使用和偏好、宗教活动和价值观取舍等多个方面;其个体差异性不仅体现在不同群体和代际之间,在同一群体内部也同样复杂多元,这是家庭环境、成长经历和个人性格等微观因素建构的结果。

[中图分类号]D634.371.2 [文献标识码]A [文章编号]1002-5162(2021)01-0045-09Bicultural Identities of Contemporary Overseas Chinese: A Chinese American CaseLIU Yan-ling(College of Foreign Studies, Jinan University,Guangzhou 510632, China)Key words: bicultural identities; overseas Chinese; hybridity; pragmatism; selectivity individualityAbstract: Based on a two-year field study in San Diego, CA and Boston, MA, this paper takes the ethnic Chinese in the two areas as a case study to explore the characteristics of their bicultural identity. After a literature review and an analysis of the first-hand material collected in the field research, the author proposes a “shopping cart” model of bicultural identity, which features hybridity, selectivity, pragmatism and individuality.华侨华人的文化认同一直是学者们所关注的问题。

中美教育差异对比 Comparing the Education Between American and China 中英文

Comparing the Education Between American and China1. Education in China and the United States first of all the differences between the two countries is the primary goal of teaching different:Chinese primary education to children's intellectual development, child benefits as a high priority goal.And China's education emphases on training the students to be strict,rigorous spiritual.In the United States, there is only one primary purpose: to cultivate children's creativity. And US's education pays more attention to raise student's self-confidence,independence,spirit of supporting oneself.中国与美国教育的差异首先在于两国初等教育的教学目标不同:中国初等教育将开发孩子的智力,孩子好处高分看成首要目标,而且中国的教育强调培养学生成为严格严谨的精神。

在美国,初等教育的目的只有一个:培养孩子的创造力。

美国的教育注重培养学生的自信心、独立、精神支持自己。

paring the elementary education between American and China, people's universal view will be:China's elementary education aims to build the foundation of education with more study and less thought.US's education aims to bulid such an education to raise the creativity with less study and more thought.比较基础教育在美国和中国人们的普遍观点:中国的基础教育旨在建立基础教育同更多的学习和更少的想法。

中国留学生在美国状况探析_跨文化适应和挑战_阎琨

第32卷第2期清 华 大 学 教 育 研 究 Vol 32,No.2 2011年4月TSINGH UA JOU RNAL OF EDU CAT ION A pr.2011中国留学生在美国状况探析:跨文化适应和挑战阎 琨(清华大学 教育研究院,北京 100084)摘 要:本文从跨文化的角度梳理了中国留学生在美国的跨文化适应和挑战。

一方面从文化、社会生活、和就业移民的状况来考察中国学生群体在美国的跨文化适应情况;另一方面依据访谈数据,从学业方面、社会 文化方面和个人生活等方面探讨了中国学生在美国所遇到的压力和挑战。

本文旨在全面反馈海外留学生的生存图景,为国家的海外留学预警工作提供实证指导。

关键词:中国留学生;美国;跨文化中图分类号:G648.9 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1001-4519(2011)02-0100-10一、导论从上世纪70年代末期开始,中国政府大力倡导由国际学术和科技交流来推进现代化进程。

这一政策话语情境直接导致了中美教育交流的增多。

从1978年两国开始互派留学生起到1988年,中国赴美留学生在十年内急剧飙升至20,030人。

这个数字到1993年翻了两倍,到2003年翻了三倍。

在美国的国际学生中,中国留学生构成了最大的学生群体。

截至2009年,在美中国学生总数已达95,810人。

这样一个迅速壮大的学生群特别值得关注,而他们特有的问题也值得学术界予以深入研究。

因中美两国在语言、文化、社会结构和政治意识形态等方面差别迥异,而且中国又在长达四分之一世纪的时间内与世界相隔阻断,中国学生在美国的跨文化适应尤为艰难。

迄今为止,未有研究专门探讨中国学生在美国的境况。

鉴于中国学生代表着美国国际学生的最大群体,美国又是一个迥异于中国的文化国别,全面了解中国学生在美情况成为研究的期待。

具体而言,在美国留学的中国学生有哪些独特性?中国留学生的总体生员和专业分布?中国学生在美国社会、文化和就业情况?中国留学生在美国特有的挑战?这些研究可以帮助学界更好地了解在美国的中国留学生群体,也可以帮助中国学生更好地了解和适应在美国的学习和生活。

Cultural differences 中美文化差异 英语PPT

至于午餐,却总是那么简单。人们通常吃一个三明治或热狗。有些人在附 近的快餐店吃。这顿饭不会持续很长时间。
Dinner is the biggest meal with potato, beef, chicken, soup, and some desserts. At this meal, people usually sit around the table and talk
As for lunch, it's always so simple. People usually have a sandwich or a hot dog. Some people also eat in a fast-food restaurant nearby. This meal won’t last very long.
招生前他们就努力学习接受精英教育。因此,他们善于获得高
分的数学,有强大的心理等。
• America
Americans regard education as the means by which the inequalities among individuals are to be erased and by which every desirable end is to be achieved. In America,the education system pays more attention to social skills than to
s.They are Xia, Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han, Sui, Tang, Song, Ming and so on.
However, In the dynasty of Han, Tang, and Ming, China was the most powerful and advanced country in the world. Its economic, cultural, scientifi c and technological strength were well known. 中国历史约有5000年。 中国历经多次演变和朝代更迭。其中,有夏、商、周、秦、汉、隋、 唐、宋、明等。 而在汉、唐、明时期,中国曾是世界上最强大、最先进的国家,其 经济、文化、科技实力举世瞩目。

中美友谊的对比


对于美国人来说,朋友间不会因此而伤害对方的感情。朋友双方在分 别后一二年中互相寄张 圣诞贺卡或写几封信。之后,他们之间就杳无 音信了。若干年后,老朋友邂逅相遇,双方会 非常高兴的重叙旧情, 并为此感到兴奋不已。从这段话不难看出:同美国人交朋友容易,深 交却最难;同美国人一见如故,热情有加,但有“人走茶凉”的感觉。 美国社会语言学家科 登和约瑟夫(J.C.Cordon&Fathi Yousef)曾在其 “A n Introduction to Intercultural Communication”一文中,把美国 人这种友谊称为Kleenex friendship(手绢纸友谊),用 完就扔。 美国人友好随和,世界上没有比结识美国人更容易的,但是他们 深交却最困难。从表面 上看,美国人常常比其他国家都友好,这与其 社会具有多种多样的文化和高度发达经济有直 接关系。作为一个基本 上是陌生人组成的民族,美国缺乏悠久的传统,从小就学会与不同的 人打交道。美国是一个流动的社会,据美国官方统计,一个美国人在 一生中平均要搬21次家 。美国人调换工作之勤,在世界上是独一无 二的,整个社会和公司老板们把这看作是值得称 道的品德,是具有雄 心壮志和冒险精神的象征。由于美国人经常调动工作和搬家,他们对 陌 生人友好。然而,这种流动性又限制人们建立深厚持久的友谊。美 国学者辛格说,“在我们 现代工业社会人们似乎善于没有丝毫感情色 彩的人际交流。我们要是走到富有感情色彩的人 际交流似乎是极为困 难的。
三、价值观念上的差异
美国人朋友之间强调互相尊重、互相帮助,以诚相待。朋友之间 乐于谈论的话题如业余 爱好、节日、气候、国内外新闻、电影、书籍、 体育赛事等。但是,属于个人隐私的话题是 不喜欢他人问津的。例如: 个人收入多少,钱是怎么花的,家里有多少存款,身上的衣服花 多少 钱买的,个人的健康,女士的年龄,家庭情况等。总之,朋友之间不 询问对方的隐私, 也决不干涉对方的私事。特别值得提出的是:美国 朋友间的经济帐一清二楚。若是涉及到两 个朋友之间的劳务关系,如 甲要求乙为自己干活,工作,那么关于报酬的问题,双方都是坦 率得 很,一小时多少钱,决不含糊。朋友一起去吃饭用餐时,如果不是某 人出面邀请,一般 都各自付帐,这对他们来说是件平常的事,没有半 点不够“朋友”之意。这都体现了美国人 强调个人独立和个人隐私, 不愿承担任何义务和压力的价值观念。这些做法对中国人来说让 人难 以接受。中国人认为,朋友之间应该没有什么秘密可言(隐私权和中 国传统文化是相悖 的,中国人喜欢标榜“君子坦荡荡,小人常戚戚”, “事物不可与人言”。既是朋友也就不 应该分彼此。朋友之间应当肝 胆相照,在义利问题上应当重义轻利,为了知己朋友,牺牲自 身某些 利益也在所不惜。直到1988年,我国才以司法解释的形式首次对隐私 权做了初步的法 律规定)。
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文化_美国人的价值观2007-10-13 19:05

文化_美国人的价值观2007/06/14 13:06四、美国人的价值观

因为在本书中我们经常需要对美国社会进行分析和讨论,因此,简要叙述一下美国文化的一些主要方面——赋予美国人生活以意义的共同价值观和信仰,是很有帮助的。这样一个简述也为我们提供了对一个社会展开详尽观察的机会。

对我们而言,美国的文化价值观是那样的熟悉,因此很难注意到它们。它已成为了我们的生活背景,我们离不开它们,就像鱼儿离不开水一样。它们是一种想当然的东西,从我们的出生到最后死亡,文化一起决定着我们的生活。如何文化发生了变化,那么我们也就不能成为现在的自己了。

美国人的种族、职业、信仰多种多样,因此,美国文化是最多元性的文化之一。煤矿工人和公司经理、爱尔兰血统的波士顿天主教徒和新奥尔良的科利奥尔人——他们都是美国社会的一部分,同时也为美国文化增添了光彩。但是,尽管存在着这些差异,某些共同的价值观模式还是能够清楚地被区分出来的。

1、美国人的传统价值观 罗宾·威廉斯在他的《美国社会:一个社会学的解释》(罗宾·M·威廉斯,Jr.,1970)一书中给出了一套美国人的基本价值观,为我们这一部分的讨论提供了基础。此外,许多其他社会学家也区分出了一系列美国人共有的价值观。这些论断已得到了外国游客的赞同,他们观察到了同样的典型美国人的特征。在美国人中进行的民意测验也证实了这些价值观,测验结果表明美国人仍然信守冈纳·莫德尔(Gunnar Myrdal,1962)所说的“美国人的信条”。威廉斯列出了如下传统的美国人价值观: 个人成就。个人成就是所有美国人评价最高的价值观之一。美国人赞扬和奖励那些才艺出众和成就辉煌者,尤其是那些通过艰苦工作而取得成就的人。一个人的价值常常被赞同于其在商业、艺术或其他重要领域中的成就。但是,对成就的这种强调,特别是往往用经济方面的状况来衡量成就,就与尊重一个人仅因为是其自身的原因的观念相冲突。

工作。美国社会是建立在艰苦工作的基础上的。来到这片荒原的早期移民必需努力工作,这不仅仅是为了争取较好的社会条件,更是为了能生存下去。丰富的自然资源为人们的生产提供了可能性,同时,这些殖民者也意识到,一个农民、猎人或矿工的劳动不仅仅给他自己,而且也给整个社会带来了财富。这就形成了这样一种价值观,工作被视为是取得较好的社会条件的手段。这个新国家开放流动的社会结构也为那些努力工作的人们提供了出人头地的机会。到现在为止,工作仍然是美国文化中一个重要的价值观。

道德关怀和人道主义。作为美国人虔诚的宗教信仰的一部分,早期美洲殖民者对那些比他们不幸的人们的福利有关深切的关注。不过在实际生活中,美国人并不经常把这种价值观付诸实施。同时,人道主义价值观与美国人其他的一些主要价值观存在逻辑矛盾。比如,个人成就的价值观就使很多美国人难以接受国家福利计划。在他们看来,让社会的一部分人来养活那些根本不工作的人是不合理的。但是,如果其他人显然是由于其自身难以抗拒的原因而陷入贫困的(例如水灾受害者),则大部分美国人的态度是十分慷慨的。要解决诸如上述个人成就与道德关怀之类核心价值观之间的冲突是很困难的,而且很容易导致个人层次的混乱和不稳定。

效率和实用主义。美国人倾向于用实用主义来评价事物:这是否可行呢?是否值得这么做?这种价值观很大程度上是受美国边缘地区传统的影响。边缘地区的危险环境使当时的殖民者对那些缺乏效率和不够实用的工具、武器甚至人都十分轻视。

作为一个实用主义者,美国人喜欢尽快解决手头上的问题。结果,美国人往往比较注重技术,并有一种想控制物质世界的强烈欲望。美国人一般不愿意追求长远的、不切合实际的目标。

进步和物质增长。作为一个建立在希望之上的国家,美国一直对进步的思想感兴趣。这种思想的源泉之一就是对工作的重视,它直接导致了这样一种观念,即艰苦的工作将有助于建立一个美好的世界。早期的美国人努力提高他们的物质繁荣和享受的水平,这种努力使进步的思想和技术革新相联系起来:如果一种事物是新的,那它肯定就是好的。由于进步的思想和物质增长是紧密相关的,所以它们都意味着“美好生活”。由此,在美国的公司和企业中出现诸如“进步是我们最重要的产品”这样的口号也就不足为奇了,广告也竭力使我们购买它所宣传的产品,因为它是“新的”和“进步的”。

平等。由于早期的美国殖民者大多来自殖民国的中下层阶级,所以他们大多反对严格划分阶级的观念。因此,“旧世界”的许多不平等现象在美国则不是问题。另一方面,由于这个国家具有大量的自然资源能够为所有人提供充足的供应,从而更增强了平等的观念。

和许多其他主要价值观一样,平等观念也和其他一些价值观存在冲突,而且也往往在实践中难以得到体现。这里,我们再次看到了理想价值观和现实价值观之间的冲突。一种认为美国人生活中明显缺乏平等的观点指出,要体现平等价值观就要求每个人都能有一个平等的机会去争取成功,但实际上即使以这个最普通的标准去衡量,大多数美国人也很难做到这一点。许多中上层阶级的成员把他们在社会中的优越地位解释为对他们更高个人成就的一种奖励,而这种个人成就观点也是美国人的主要价值观之一。

自由。在所有美国人价值观中,自由占据了最重要的位置。对美国人而言,自由意味着行为不受约束,又代表着一个明确的、完全的自由体制,包括:新闻自由、和平集会的自由、维持多党政府的自由以及私人经营企业的自由等。

虽然美国人也接受一些对其自由的限制,但他们对任何过分强权的、直接要求他们如何生活的政府则表示出完全的不信任。这种不信任建立这样一种信仰之上,即人们应自己管理自己的生活。

美国人的这种对政府控制的怀疑态度必然会产生这样一种冲突,即文化中自由价值观和平等价值之间的冲突(利普斯特,1963)。如果没有政府管理,一部分人会变得极端富有甚至专权。极端的财富紧接着就会带来对穷人、下层阶级的压迫。这就违背了我们所接受的平等价值观或至少是违背了平等机会的观念。 民族主义和爱国主义。大部分美国人相信他们的生活方式是最好的,而且应被其他国家沿用。即使到今天,那些对美国社会提出建设性批评的美国公民有时会被认为是不爱国的。

最近的一些社会学研究已发现了美国人和英国人的个人价值观之间存在许多相同点。正如表3-2显示的那样,在12种价值观中,两国的城市居民都把“身体健康”和“婚姻幸福”列在最重要的选择,而把“道德目的”、“团队工作的意义”、“赚大钱”列在最后。然而,两国公民对具体各项价值观的重视程度是不一样的。婚姻和朋友对英国人而言更为重要;美国人则更注重“有意义的生活”。可以推断,这些区别反映了两种文化间深层次的差异:美国文化更偏向于集体主义,而美国文化更偏向于个人主义。

2、对美国人价值观的其他分析 尽管罗宾·威廉斯曾经指出,我们前面所讨论的某些价值观之间存在着冲突,但他并没有过多地强调这些冲突,从而把它看作是美国文化的主要要素。他也没有对价值观之间的相互关系展开足够的讨论。但近年来,价值观之间的相互冲突和相互联系已成为其他社会学家们分析的焦点。同时,研究者们还指出,美国人的主要价值观正处在巨变过程中。

帕森斯的观点 塔尔科特·帕森斯(1964,1967)(他的社会理论很强调文化价值的意义)认为美国社会的主导价值观可称为“工具性能动主义”(instrumental activism)。所谓“能动主义”,帕森斯是指美国人倾向于对周围环境进行控制,而不是佛教徒那样的被动的生活方式。所谓“工具性”,帕森斯是指这样一种事实,即美国社会并不追求一种高层次的或者说是“最终的”目标或价值观,相反,它追求一种非常普通的“改善”或“进步”。美国社会所主张的主要价值观——如效率、经济发展、科学进步及追求知识等——都是为了获得个体或集体的人类幸福的工具。 帕森斯强调指出,美国社会一直受到新教教义的道德和精神传统的强烈影响。新教徒认为人是神的意志的工具,因此,人类应为建立一个更美好的世界而努力工作,他们的目的是在现世建立一个上帝的王国,而不是期待来世。新教徒相信,个人能够而且也有责任把自己的行为引导到这种基本的宗教义务上来。因此,所谓工具性能动主义就阐发了这样一种观念,即一个理想的社会应当是一个每个成员都能为了一个共同的利益而努力工作的社会。

批评的观点 丹尼尔·贝尔在其《资本主义文化矛盾》一书中提出了对美国文化冲突的尖锐批评(丹尼尔·贝尔,1978)。他指出,主导美国经济的资本主义体制在其发展的不同过程中强调了两种相互冲突的文化价值观。在其早期阶段,资本主义强调独立、工作、成就、节俭和节制,这促成了较高的生产力水平,并使资本家把获得的利润不断地进行再投资,从而积累资本。但是当美国社会由早期资本主义发展到大规模的资本联合时期时,就需要更多的资金来维持企业的运转,需要支出大量的广告费用以鼓励消费者购买商品和服务。这就引发了一系列新的价值观,包括个人享乐、自我表现和自我冲动。

人们不断被劝告要增加消费,要好好消遣,要旅行、喝酒、享受生活,这一切都使美国人发现自己已陷于与原有价值观——艰苦工作、勤俭和谦虚——的剧烈冲突之中。为了获得享受新价值观的手段,人们反而又必须继续遵循旧的价值观。但是,这两种价值观在许多方面显然是相互矛盾的,很难把它们融合在一起。此外,这种明显向贝尔所说的享乐主义——认识个人享乐是最高利益的观点——发展的长期趋势,最终将会威胁到美国社会的资本主义制度。即时享乐的愿望将会使人们丧失努力工作、节俭的动力。如果贝尔的上述论断是正确的,那么美国文化就已远远背离了新教徒的信仰和实践。

贝尔并不是唯一的一位认为美国的基本价值观正在潜移默化地向享乐主义转变的当代社会学家。社会历史学家克里斯托弗·拉什在其最畅销的著作《自恋主义文化》中指出:长期主导着美国人生活的个人主义价值观正在让位于“纯粹的个人专注”,或者说让位于所谓对

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