语言学chapter5 meaning exercises
语言学第五章
Chapter Five Meaning(semantics)What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of meaning.More specifically, it is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences.I didn’t mean to hurt you.He never says what he means.Fame and fortune mean nothing.What’s the meaning of the word “cut”?Life without faith has no meaning.the meaning of girl+ human + female + young + unmarriedsemantic featuresBoys and girls! My little girl is very lovely.1. Meanings of meaningOgden & Richards The Meaning of Meaning LeechSemantics7 types of meaning Leechconceptual meaning概念意义associative meaning联想意义thematic meaning主位意义Conceptual meaning概念意义also denotative [di'nəutətiv] (外延), concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义是对客观对象本质特征的反映，一般在词典中固定下来An instrument made of plastic or metal used for writing with ink penfather 1、male parent 父亲2、ancestors 祖先3、founder or first leader 创始者倡导者Stepmother: A woman who has married their father after the death or divorce of their mother. (wife of one's father by a later marriage )Associative meaning 联想The total of all the meanings a person thinks of when he comes across the word. Connotative meaning 内涵意义Social meaning 社会意义Affective meaning 感情意义Reflected meaning 反射意义Collocative meaning 搭配意义Connotative meaning ['kɔnəuteitiv] 内涵意义What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to. It shows the communicative value. 通过语言所传达的意义曹教授：有些人我看是有意的给三峡泼点脏水，有意的妖魔化三峡。
语言学教程各章节练习及答案
Exercises to Linguistics外语系黄永亮Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Define the following terms:Langue: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.Parole:parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Prescriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct andstandard”behaviour in using language, i.e. to tell people what they shouldday and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Descriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use, it is said to be descriptive;competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance: Chomsky defines performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Synchronic: The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study;Diachronic: The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Linguistics：Linguistics may be defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language.language： Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”2.Does the traffic light system have duality, why?No. No discrete units on the first level that can be combined freely in the second level to form meaning. There is only simple one to one relationship between signs and meaning, namely, re-stop, green-go and yellow-get ready to go or stop.munication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facialexpression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?Less arbitrary, lack duality, less creative, limited repertoire, emotional-oriented.4.Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics?According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite numbers of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. Thus, Chomsky proposed that linguists should focus on the study of competence, not performance. The distinction of the two terms “competence and performance”represents the orientation of linguistic study. So we can say competence and performance is an important distinction in linguistics.5.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in the following basic ways: Firstly, priority is given, as mentioned earlier, to spoken language. Secondly, focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language. Thirdly, modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature. Linguists endeavor to state objectively the regularities of a language. They aim at finding out how a language is spoken: they do not attempt to tell people how it should be spoken. Fourthly, modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented. Modern linguists strive to construct theories of language that can account for language in general. These features distinguished modern linguistics from traditional grammar. The two are complementary. Not contradictory. Knowledge of both is necessary for a language teacher: knowledge of the latter is necessary for a language learner.Chapter 2 Phonetics1. Give the description of the following sound segments in English1)[❆] voiced dental fricative2)[☞] voiceless alveolar fricative3)[☠] velar nasal4)[♎] voiced alveolar stop5)[☐] voiceless bilabial stop6)[ ] voiceless velar stop7)[●] (alveolar) lateral8)[♓] high front lax unrounded vowel9)[◆:] high back tense rounded vowel10)[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2. How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are described according to manner and place of articulation while vowels are described with four criteria: part of the tongue that is raised; extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate; kind of opening made at the lips; position of soft palate.3. Which sound may be described asa voiced bilabial plosive [♌]a voiced labio-dental fricative [ ]a voiceless velar plosive [ ]4. Why might a photographer ask the person she is photographing to say cheese?The vowel of the word cheese [♓:] is produced with the lips spread, this resemblinga smile.5.Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost; ghost boastboast most; ghost mist;The words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter.The word ghost and boast are distinguished by the place of articulation of the initial segment, [♑] being velar while [♌] is bilabial.Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the initial segment, [❍] being nasal.Most and mist are distinguished by the fact that the former has a rounded back vowel shile the latter has a spread front vowel.Chapter 3 Phonology1.Define the following termsPhonology: Phonology is concerned with the sound system of languages. It is concerned with which sounds a language uses and how the contribution of sounds to thetask of communication.Phone: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phonesPhoneme: Phoneme is the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive ina particular language.Allophone: Allophone refers any of the different forms of a phoneme is an allophone of it in English. Compare the words peak and speak, for instance. The /☐/ in peak is aspirated; phonetically transcribed as [☐♒] while the /☐/ in speak is unaspirated, phonetically [☐＝ ]. [☐,☐♒] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /☐/. Such variants of a phoneme are called Allophone of the same phoneme.Suprasegmental features:.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called Suprasegmental features. Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.2.Transcribe the realization of the past tense morpheme for each of the following words:Waited waved wiped waded. account for the differences.[id] in “waited”and “waded”follows another alveolar plosive. [d] in “waved”follows voiced consonants.[t] in “wiped” follows voiceless consonants, there being voicing assimilation. 3. which of the following would be phonologically acceptable as English words?Thlite grawl dlesher shlink tritch sruck stwondle“grawl” and “tritch”4.Why can we not use the sequence [☠kl] in twinkle as an example of a consonant cluster?The sequence [☠kl] bridges two syllables.5.For each of the following pairs compare the position of the stress. Comment.Economy/economic wonder/wonderfulBeauty/beautiful acid/acidicIn adjectives ending in –ic the stress moves to the following syllable, in adjectives ending in –ful it does not.6.Explain why somebody might choose to stress the following utterances as indicated bythe bold type:a) John want ed to do this today. b) John wanted to do this today. c) John wantedto do this to day.The first utterance implies that John was unable to do what he wanted.The second implies that he was only able to do something else.The third implies that he was only able to do it some other day.Chapter 4 Morphology1.Define the following terms:Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Compound:Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snowwhite, etc.Allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme -‘s but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/ in cats, as /z/ in dogs and as /iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the word it is added to, e.g. the plural morpheme in “dogs”.Free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.plete the words with suitable negative prefixesa. ir removable g. in humanb. in formal h. ir relevantc. im practicable i. un evitabled. in sensible j. im mobilee. in tangible k. il legalf. il logical l. in discreet3. “Morpheme” is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationshipbetween expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical conceptor a semantic one? What is its relation to phoneme?Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, it at the same time covers the grammatical and semantic aspect of linguistic unit. A morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. and independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.4. Identify in the following sentence four bound morphemes. State the function ofeach and say whether each is derivational or inflectional.The teacher’s brother considered the project impossible.The –er and the –‘s of teacher’s are bound morphemes, the former being derivational, as it produces a lexeme that denotes the person who does an action, the latter being an inflectional morpheme, as it indicates possession.The –ed of considered is inflectional, indicating that the action took place in the past. The im- of impossible is derivational, producing a new lexeme that denotes the opposite of possible.Chapter 5 Syntax1.Define the following terms:Category: parts of speech and functions, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate, etc.Concord:also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more wordsin a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of somecategoriesSyntagmatic relation:. Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present. Paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element presentand the others absent.Deep structure: is defined as the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i. e. the underlying level of structural relationsbetween its different constituentsSurface structure: is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of aconstruction people actually produce and receive.Theme: The Theme is the first constituent of the clause.Rheme: All the rest of the clause is simply labeled the Rheme.2.Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntaxgmaticand paradigmatic relations?As the relation between a signifier and signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign can not be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for.The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.3.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has only a linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting of word groups first.In this way the internal of structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reason of some ambiguities may be revealed.4.What are the problems in IC analysis?There are some technical problems caused by the binary division and discontinuous constituents. But the main problem is that there are structures whose ambiguities cannot be revealed by IC analysis, e.g. the love of God. In terms of both the treediagram and the label, there is only one structure, but the word God is in two different relations with love, i.e. either as subject or object.5.Clarify the ambiguity in the following sentence by tree diagrams:Old teachers and priests fear blackbirds.SNP VPAdj. NP V NOld fear blackbirds.N Conj. Nteachers and priestsSNP VPNP Conj. N V NAdj. N and priests fear blackbirds.Old teachersChapter 6 Semantics1. defining the following terms:semantics: The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistics units,words and sentences in particular.Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world.Connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of the entitya word denotes.Sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context.Reference: the use of language to express a proposition, i.e. to talk about things in context.Synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.Antonymy: is the name for oppositeness relation:hyponymy: a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one word (the superordinate) is included in the meaning of another word (the hyponym) semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g. [+human].2. Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really thesame, one of them will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word “wireless”, which has been replaced by “radio”. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words aresynonymous with each other?It is true that there are no absolute synonyms. When we say two words are synonymous with each other, we usually mean they have the same conceptual meaning.3. For each of the following pairs of words, state the principal reason why they maynot be considered to be synonyms:man boy toilet loo determined stubbornpavement sidewalk walk runThe words man and boy are principally distinguished be age, the words walk and run by speed. The principal distinction between the words toilet and loo is one of social register. Determined and stubborn are largely distinguished by attitude—a person reluctant to give up is described as determined by those who sympathize and as stubborn by those who do not. The difference between the words pavement and sidewalkis a matter of geography, the former being used in Britain and the latter in America.Chapter 7 Pragmantics1. defining the following terms:Performative:an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed toa constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false. Constative:an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.Locutuonary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of asentence with determinate sense and reference.Illocutuonary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance. Cooperative principle:in making conversation, there is, as Grice holds, a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. He calls this guidingprinciple the Cooperative Principle, CP for short.. It runs as follows:"make your conversational contribution such as is required, at thestage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of thetalk exchange in which you are engaged.”Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’sknowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one ofthe four maxims of the Cooperative Principle (CP)2. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances.[The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes so e popcorn.]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the violin stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?The illocutionary force of “I thought you were practicing your violin”is a criticism of the daughter for her not practicing the violin. That of the daughter’s answer is a defense for herself—I’m going to do that. And that of the father’s retort is a denial of the daughter’s excuse.3.If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?”he answered “Yes”but does not actuallydo it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.I would be angry with him. “Can you open the door”is normally a request of the hearer to do it rather than a question about his ability. The fact that he answers “Yes” but does not actually do it shows that he declines my request.4. A is reading the newspaper. When B asks “What’s on television tonight?” he answers “Nothing.” What does A mean in normal situations? Think of two situations in which this interpretation of “Nothing” will be cancelled.Normally “Nothing” here means “Nothing interesting”. If A adds after “Nothing” “The workers are on strike today” or “There’s going to be a blackout tonight”, then the interpretation of “Nothing interesting’ will be cancelled.。
语言学教案Chapter 5 Meaning
Chapter 5 Meaning5.1 Meanings of “meaning”5.2 The referential theory5.3 Sense relations5.3.1 Synonymy5.3.2 Antonymy5.3.3 Hyponymy5.4 Componential analysis5.5. Sentence meaning5.5.1 An integrated theory5.5.2 Logical semanticsSemantics: the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.5.1 Meanings of “meaning”Ogden & Richards: 16 major categories of meaning, with 22 sub-categories Ogden, C. K. & I. A. Richards. 1923. The Meaning of Meaning[M]. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Leech: 7 types of meaningLeech, G. 1981[1974]. Semantics: The study of Meaning [M]. Harmondsworth: Penguin.●Conceptual meaning (概念意义): similar to reference (指称)●Connotative meaning (内涵意义): some additional, especially emotive meaning.E.g. c.f. politician & statesmanNote: Connotation and denotation in philosophyCONNOTATION (内涵)DENOTATION (外延)E.g. human●Thematic meaning (主题意义)Question: How to explain the meaning of a word in the conceptual meaning?E.g. DESK1) to point to a desk directly2) to describe it as “a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs, at which one reads and writes.3) to paraphrase it as “a desk is a kind of table, which has drawers”4) to give the Chinese equivalent 书桌5.2 The referential theoryProblems:The concrete thing pointed at differs from the abstract concept behind the thing.The object pointed at does not directly correspond to the concept.CONCEPTSemantic triangleconceptword thingC.f. Sense & reference1) Sense: the abstract properties of an entity——concept ——connotation Reference: the concrete entities having these entities ——denotation2) Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.E.g. grammatical words like but, if, and5.3 Sense relations●Sense●ReferenceThree kinds of sense relations: sameness relation, oppositeness relation, and inclusiveness relation5.3.1 SynonymySYNONYMY: the sameness relation●Stylistic differenceE.g. Little Tom ___________ a toy bear. c.f. buy & purchase●Connotative difference.E.g. “I’m thrifty. You are economical. And he is stingy.”●Dialectical differenceE.g. c.f. autumn & fall5.3.2 AntonymyAntonymy: the oppositeness relation(1) Gradable antonymyE.g. good: bad, long: short, big: smallgradable---comparative and superlative degree; lexicalizationE.g. good & badgraded against different norms---no absolute criterionE.g. c.f. a big car & a small planeone member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term E.g. How old are you?C.f. Unmarked & marked●Unmarked: the term is more often used●Marked: the term is less used, odd, or unusual(2) Complementary antonymyE.g alive:dead, male:femaleNOTE 1: Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other.NOTE 2: No comparative or superlative degrees are allowed.E.g. alive, dead, 半死不活*John is more dead than Mary.C.f. John is more mad than stupid.C.f. Gradable and complementary1. The difference between the gradable and the complementary is somewhat similar tothat between the contrary and the contradictory.In logic, a proposition is the contrary of another if it is impossible for both to true, or false.E.g. The coffee is hot.The coffee is cold.A proposition is the contradictory of another if it is impossible for both to be true, orfalse.E.g. This is a male cat.This is a female cat.a b a bgradable complementary2. The norm in complementary is absolute.E.g. male & female3. There is no cover term for the two members of a pair.E.g. Is it a boy or a girl?*How male is it?Exception: true & false (Pp 167)(3) Converse antonymyE.g. buy: sell, lend: borrowX buys something from Y. == Y sells something to X.RELATIONAL OPPOSITES5.3.3 HyponymyHYPONYMYSUPERORDINATEHYPONYMSCO-HYPONYMSflowerrose peony jasmine chrysanthemum tulip violet carnationAUTO-HYPONMYlivingplant animalbird fish insect animalhuman animaltiger lion elephant …5.4 Componential analysisSEMANTIC FEATURES/SEMANTIC COMPONENTS: semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. (Pp 170)E.g. boy: HUMAN, YOUNG, MALEwoman: HUMAN, ADULT, FEMALEYOUNG: ～ADULTFEMALE: ～MALEE.g. father = PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)mother = PARENT (x, y) & ～MALE (x)son = CHILD (x, y) & MALE (x)die = BECOME (x, (～ALIVE(x)))kill = CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (～ALIVE (y)))))murder = INTEND (x, (CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (～ALIVE (y)))))))➢Synonyms: words or expressions with the same semantic componentsE.g. bachelor, unmarried man: HUMAN, ADULT, UNMARRIED➢Antonyms: words with contrasting semantic componentsE.g. cold & hot, give & take➢Hyponyms: words which have all the semantic components of anotherE.g. boy & girl are hyponyms of childSense relations between sentences:E.g.1.a. * John killed Bill but Bill didn’t die.b. * John killed Bill but he was not the cause of Bill’s death.c. * John murdered Bill without intending to.EntailmentE.g. a. John killed Bill.b. Bill died.Difficulties1) Polysemous words will have different sets of semantic components.2) The difference between the semantic components differs.C.f. MALE and FEMALE (absolute) & ADULT and YOUNG (relative)boy and man (clear-cut)& girl and woman (vague)3) There may be words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain. Question: How to express the semantic features?METALANGUAGE (原语言): a language used for talking about another language 5.5. Sentence meaning1) The sentence meaning is not merely a sum of word meaning, and it is related to word order.E.g. a. The man chased the dog.b. The dog chased the man.2) Sentences have thematic meaning.E.g. a. I’ve already seen that film.b. That film I’ve already seen.3) The sentence meaning is connected with its syntactic structure.E.g. The son of Pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of Pharaoh’s son.5.5.1 An integrated theoryPrinciple of COMPOSITIONALITYsystematic informationgrammatical classificationdictionary idiosyncratic information Semantic theory semantic informationprojection rules●Dictionary: to provide the grammatical classification and semantic information ofwords➢Grammatical classificationGrammatical markers/syntactic markersSystematic information✧Systemic part —Semantic markers: (Male), (Female), (Human), (Animal)✧Idiosyncratic information —Distinguishers(辨义成分)E.g. bachelora. [who has never married];b. [young knights serving under the standard of another knight];c. [who has the first or lowest academic degree];d. [young fur seal when without a mate during the breeding time].●Projection rules: responsible for combining the meanings of words togetherSNP VPDet N V NPthe man hits Det Nthe Adj Ncolorful ballSelection restrictionsProblems1. The distinction between semantic marker and distinguisher is not very clear.E.g. (Young)2. The collocation of words may not be accounted for by grammatical markers, semantic markers or selection restrictions.E.g. a. He said hello to the nurse and she greeted back.b. My cousin is a male nurse.c. ? My cousin is a female nurse.3. The use of semantic markers like (Human), (Male) and (Adult), is elements of an artificial meta-language.5.5.2 Logical semanticssentence meaningPREPOSITIONAL LOGIC(命题逻辑)/ PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS(命题演算)/ SENTENTIAL CALCULUS(句子演算):proposition≈sentence meaningTruth value: truth or falsePredicate logic (Pp 180)p (simple proposition)one-place connective: negation ～or ﹁two-place connective: conjunction &disjunction ∨implicationequivalence ≡orConnective conjunction: similar to the English “and”Connective disjunction: similar to the English “or”Connective implication/conditional implication: corresponds to the English “if…then”Connective equivalence/bicond itional: corresponds to “iff…then”C.f. Antonyms & “not”●With complementary antonyms, the denial of one is the assertion of the other.●With gradable, that is not necessarily the case.E.g. John isn’t old.John is old.C.f. Conjunction & “and”●ConjunctionE.g. He missed the train and arrived late.●“And”E.g. He arrived late and missed the train.*He missed the train and arrived late.C.f. Implication & “if…then”●ImplicationE.g. If he is an Englishman, he speaks English.If snow is white, grass is green.E.g. If snow is black, grass is green.●“If…then”E.g.? If snow is white, grass is green.*If snow is black, grass is green.In sum, propositional logic, concerned with the semantic relation between propositions, treats a simple proposition as an unanalyzed whole.E.g. All men are rational.Socrates is a man.Therefore, Socrates is rational.PREDICATE LOGIC/PREDICATE CALCCULUS studies the internal structure of simple propositions.Question: How to analyze Socrates is a man?Argument (主目): a term which refers to some entity about which a statement is being madePredicate (谓词): a term which ascribes some property, or relation, to the entity, or entities, referred toSocrates is the argument, and man is the predicate.Token: M(s)Note: A simple proposition is seen as a function (函数) of its argument. The truth value of a proposition varies with the argument.M(s) =1, M(c) =0E.g. John loves Mary.L (j, m)John gave Mary a book. G (j, m, b)kill: CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (～ALIVE (y)))))C (x, (B (y, (～A (y)))))All men are rational.1. All is the universal quantifier and symbolized by an upturned A—∀in logic.2. The argument men does not refer to any particular entity, which is known as avariable and symbolized as x, y.Notation: ∀x (M(x) R(x))“For all x, it is the case that, if x is a man, then x is rational.”Some men are clever.Some is the existential quantifier and symbolized by a reversed E—∃Notation: ∃x (M(x) & C(x))C.f. Universal quantifier & existential quantifier1.Quantifiers2.Implication connectiveE.g.All men are rational.There is no man who is not rational.Notation: ∀x (M(x) R(x)) ≡～∃x(M(x) & ～R(x))(1) ∀x(P(x))≡～∃x(～P(x))～∀x (P(x))≡∃x (～P(x))∃x (P(x)) ≡～∀x (～P(x))～∃x (P(x)) ≡∀x (～P(x))(2) ∀x(M(x) R(x))M(s)∴R(s)(3) ∀x(M(x)) R(x))R(s)∴R(s)(4) ∃x (M(x) & C(x))M(s)∴C(s)。
语言学chapter5meaningexercises
语言学chapter5meaningexercisesI. Choose the best answer.1.Which pair of antonyms does not belong to gradable antonyms?______A.good, badB. hit, missC. long, shortD. small, big2.The verb “take”can be analyzed in the following way according to the componential analysis._____A.take=CAUSE(x, (HA VE(x, y)))B. take=CAUSE(x, (~HA VE(x, y)))C. take=CAUSE(x, (BECOME(x, y)))D.take=CAUSE(x, (~BECOME(x, y)))3._______is the name for oppositeness relation, which includes three main sub-types.A.HyponymyB. AntonymyC. PolysemyD. Synonymy4.According to G. Leech, who recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics , ______makes up the central part.A.conceptual meaningB. connotative meaningC. social meaningD. thematic meaning5.Of the following______does not belong to the three sub-types of antonymy.A.gradable antonymyB.converse antonymyC. complementary antonymyD. complete antonymy6.The sense relation which holds the pair of words beef-meat is_______.A.synonymyB. hyponymyC. homonymyD. converse antonymy7.There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and_______relation.A.exclusivenessB. conclusivenessC. inclusivenessD. deduction8.“Can I borrow your bike?”______ “You have a bike.”A.is synonymous withB.is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes9.______is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features, semantic components or semes.A.prediction analysisB. componential analysisC. phonemic analysisD. grammatical analysis10.______deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A.referenceB. conceptC. semanticsD. sense11.When the word “root” means “part of plant that keeps fit firmly in the soil and absorbs water and food from the soil”, the meaning is _____meaning.A.connotativeB. conceptualC. senseD. semantics12.There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation. They are represented by____respectively.A.Synonymy antonymy hyponymyB. Homonymy antonymy hyponymyC. Synonymy antonymy homonymyD. Homonymy hyponymy antonymy13.By componential analysis, BECOME(x, (~ALIVE(x))) is an explanation of ____.A.dieB. deadC. killD. murder14.The sense relationship between “John plays the piano” and “John plays a musical instrument” is______.A.synonymyB. antonymyC. entailmentD. presupposition15.More specifically, ____is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.A.pragmaticsB. semanticsC. syntaxD. phonology16.In the semantic triangle by Ogden and Richards, the SYMBOL refers to____.A.the linguistic units (words, phrases)B. the object in the world of experienceC. conceptD. idea17.The words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects are called____.A.dialectal synonymsB. collocational synonymsC. stylistic synonymsD. emotive synonyms18.The word “table” has at least six meanings such as “a piece of furniture”, “all the people seated at a table”, etc. It can be called____.A.polysemyB. homonymyC. hyponymyD. antonymy19.The relation between “dog” and “animal” is that of_____.A.synonymyB. antonymyC. homonymyD. hyponymy20.The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called____.A.hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. homonymy21.The words “kid, child, offspring” are examples of ______.A.dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. emotive synonymsD. collocational synonymsII. Fill in the blanks.1.According to G. Leech, ____meaning refers to logic, cognitive, or denotative content.2.According to G. Leech, ____meaning refers to what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.3.In the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the ____theory.4._____is the technical name for the sameness relation.5.Terms like “apple”, “banana” and “pear” are ____of the term “fruit”.6.“Mary gave a book to Jack” is synonymous with “Jack____a book from Mary”.7.Antonyms like “husband” and “wife” are____antonyms.8._______=PARENT(x, y) & MALE(x)9._______=CHILD(x, y) & MALE(x)10.Predication analysis is to break down predications into their constituents: _____and_______.11.______logic, also called predicate calculus, studies the internal structure of simple propositions.12.______opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.III. True or false1.After comparing “they stopped at the end of the corridor.” with “at the end of the corridor, they stopped.” , you may find some difference in meaning, and the difference can be interpreted in terms of collocative meaning.2.The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.3.Reference is one of the rarely used cohesive devices.4.Odgen and Richards argue that the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct.5.“Tulip”, “rose” and “violet” are all included in the notion of “flower”. Therefore, they are superordinates of “flower”.6.The two words “borrow” and “lend” are antonyms but the two sentences “Jane lent some money to Jack” and “Jack borrowed some money from Jane” are synonymous.。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第5-6章
Chapter 5 Meaning1. Semantics(语义学)Semantics is the study of meaning of the linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. (语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。
)2. Meanings of “meaning”1). Meaning:Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.（意义是指语言所表达的关于现实世界或者想象中的世界的想法。
）2). Connotation: （内涵）Connotation means the properties of the entity a word denotes.(内涵指的是一个词所指称的实体的特征。
)3). Denotation: （外延）Denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entity to which it refers. Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning. (外延涉及语言单位与非语言实体之间的关系。
在这个意义上，它跟指称意义是一样的。
)3. The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impression of objects in people’s mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption ofthe real world.4. The referential theory1). DefinitionThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.(把词语意义跟它所指称或代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称理论)2). The semantic triangle （语义三角）Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle”as manifested in the following diagram。
语言学05--ChapterFiveMeaning
语言学05--ChapterFiveMeaningChapter Five Meaning11. The Study of MeaningSemantics:The meaning of words: Lexical semantics The meaning of sentences: Propositional meaning, compositional meaning Linguistic semantics vs. Logical semantics/philosophical semanticsPragmatics:The meaning of utterances22. Semantic MeaningSemantics is the study of meaning in language. Meaning has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists. E.g. Plato Aristotle.Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or propositions ) within a single language. The linguistic approach is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.3. The meaning of meaningC. K. Ogden I. A. Richards (1923). The Meaning of Meaning. John means to write. A green light means to go.Health means everything.His look was full of meaning.What is the meaning of life?What does capitalist mean to you?What does cornea mean? The transparent, convex, anterior portion of the outer fibrous coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and the pupil and is continuous with the sclera.Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaning Connotative meaning Social meaning Affective meaning Reflected and meaning Collocative meaning Thematic meaningAssociative Meaning(1) Conceptual meaningAlso called denotative or cognitive meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content. Concerned with the relationship betweena word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.(2) Connotative meaningThe communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features.Involving the real world experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.13Step mother(3) Social meaningWhat a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class. Time: the language of the 18th c., etc. Province: language of law, of science, of advertising, etc. Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc. Modality: language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc. Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc. 18domicile: very formal, official residence: formal abode: poetic home: generalsteed: poetic horse: general nag: slang gee-gee: baby language19。
《语言学教程》 chapter 5 Meaning
5.1 What is the meaning of meaning?
Health means everything.
His look was full of meaning.
What is the meaning of meaning?
What is the meaning of meaning?
批注本地保存成功开通会员云端永久保存去开通
Good morning, everyone!
Review questions
1. What are the three syntactic relations? 2. What is the difference between endocentric and exocentric constructions? Give one or two examples. 3. What is predicate?
flower, garden, colour, village, etc. – handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.
(7) Thematic meaning
What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.
The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. (sense or concept of a word)
语言学Chapter_5_semantics..
According to this theory, there is no direct link between symbol and referent (between language and the world). The link is via thought or reference, the concepts of our minds.
3. Contextualism
During the period roughly from 1930 to 1960, linguists gave pre-eminence to the empirical or observational aspect in the study of meaning.
Context
Linguistic
Context: the Probability of a Word’s Co-occurrence or Collocation With Another Word.
a piece of paper a daily paper
an examination paper
Some scholars have suggested that
the link is simply a psychological one
---when we think of a name, we think
语言学Chapter 5 Meaning (revised)
Q3: Types of meaning
3.1 Sense & reference 涵义和指称、系统意 义和外指意义 Sense-----the inherent meaning of the linguistic form independent of situational context. It’s the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. It is concerned with the intra-linguistic relations. It’s abstract and de-contextualized.
பைடு நூலகம்
The term semantics is a recent addition to the English language. It has only a history of a little over a hundred years. 1894 it was introduced in a paper entitled “Reflected meanings:a point in semantics” 1897 Breal first used it as the science of meaning. 1900 its English version came out 1980s semantics began to be introduced into China One of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning published in 1923.
英语语言学Chapter 5 Meaning
Leonard Bloomfield(1887-1949)
Bloomfieldian Age: 1933-1950
Behaviourism: stimulus-response reinforcement, stimulus-response
His formula for practical stimulus and speech stimulus:
❖ Reference (所指) : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the nonlinguistic world of experience.
❖ The Conceptualist theory (概念论): The conceptualist
theory holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to ; rather, in the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind, i. e. the meaning of a word is its concept. The notion “concept” is the semantic triangle proposed by Ogden and Richards in their The Meaning of Meaning.
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I. Choose the best answer.1.Which pair of antonyms does not belong to gradable antonyms?______A.good, badB. hit, missC. long, shortD. small, big2.The verb “take”can be analyzed in the following way according to the componential analysis._____A.take=CAUSE(x, (HA VE(x, y)))B. take=CAUSE(x, (~HA VE(x, y)))C. take=CAUSE(x, (BECOME(x, y)))D.take=CAUSE(x, (~BECOME(x, y)))3._______is the name for oppositeness relation, which includes three main sub-types.A.HyponymyB. AntonymyC. PolysemyD. Synonymy4.According to G. Leech, who recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics , ______makes up the central part.A.conceptual meaningB. connotative meaningC. social meaningD. thematic meaning5.Of the following______does not belong to the three sub-types of antonymy.A.gradable antonymyB.converse antonymyC. complementary antonymyD. complete antonymy6.The sense relation which holds the pair of words beef-meat is_______.A.synonymyB. hyponymyC. homonymyD. converse antonymy7.There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and_______relation.A.exclusivenessB. conclusivenessC. inclusivenessD. deduction8.“Can I borrow your bike?”______ “You have a bike.”A.is synonymous withB.is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes9.______is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features, semantic components or semes.A.prediction analysisB. componential analysisC. phonemic analysisD. grammatical analysis10.______deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A.referenceB. conceptC. semanticsD. sense11.When the word “root” means “part of plant that keeps fit firmly in the soil and absorbs water and food from the soil”, the meaning is _____meaning.A.connotativeB. conceptualC. senseD. semantics12.There are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation. They are represented by____respectively.A.Synonymy antonymy hyponymyB. Homonymy antonymy hyponymyC. Synonymy antonymy homonymyD. Homonymy hyponymy antonymy13.By componential analysis, BECOME(x, (~ALIVE(x))) is an explanation of ____.A.dieB. deadC. killD. murder14.The sense relationship between “John plays the piano” and “John plays a musical instrument” is______.A.synonymyB. antonymyC. entailmentD. presupposition15.More specifically, ____is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.A.pragmaticsB. semanticsC. syntaxD. phonology16.In the semantic triangle by Ogden and Richards, the SYMBOL refers to____.A.the linguistic units (words, phrases)B. the object in the world of experienceC. conceptD. idea17.The words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects are called____.A.dialectal synonymsB. collocational synonymsC. stylistic synonymsD. emotive synonyms18.The word “table” has at least six meanings such as “a piece of furniture”, “all the people seated at a table”, etc. It can be called____.A.polysemyB. homonymyC. hyponymyD. antonymy19.The relation between “dog” and “animal” is that of_____.A.synonymyB. antonymyC. homonymyD. hyponymy20.The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called____.A.hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. homonymy21.The words “kid, child, offspring” are examples of ______.A.dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. emotive synonymsD. collocational synonymsII. Fill in the blanks.1.According to G. Leech, ____meaning refers to logic, cognitive, or denotative content.2.According to G. Leech, ____meaning refers to what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.3.In the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the ____theory.4._____is the technical name for the sameness relation.5.Terms like “apple”, “banana” and “pear” are ____of the term “fruit”.6.“Mary gave a book to Jack” is synonymous with “Jack____a book from Mary”.7.Antonyms like “husband” and “wife” are____antonyms.8._______=PARENT(x, y) & MALE(x)9._______=CHILD(x, y) & MALE(x)10.Predication analysis is to break down predications into their constituents: _____and_______.11.______logic, also called predicate calculus, studies the internal structure of simple propositions.12.______opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.III. True or false1.After comparing “they stopped at the end of the corridor.” with “at the end of the corridor, they stopped.” , you may find some difference in meaning, and the difference can be interpreted in terms of collocative meaning.2.The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.3.Reference is one of the rarely used cohesive devices.4.Odgen and Richards argue that the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct.5.“Tulip”, “rose” and “violet” are all included in the notion of “flower”. Therefore, they are superordinates of “flower”.6.The two words “borrow” and “lend” are antonyms but the two sentences “Jane lent some money to Jack” and “Jack borrowed some money from Jane” are synonymous.。