法律英语综合教程归纳
法律英语知识点归纳
法律英语知识点归纳法律英语是指在法律领域中使用的英语语言和术语。
对于从事国际商法、国际仲裁、国际贸易等方面的工作人员来说，掌握法律英语是非常重要的。
本文将详细介绍一些常用的法律英语知识点。
一、法律体系及法律原则1. Common Law（普通法）：源于英国的法律制度，以判例为基础，注重司法判决的先例。
2. Civil Law（民法）：法律体系以法典为基础，强调通过法典和条例规范法律事务。
3. Statute（法令）：由立法机关制定通过的具有法律效力的规定。
4. Case Law（判例法）：法院对特定案件的判决和裁决形成的先例，对类似案件具有法律约束力。
5. Precedent（先例）：判决或裁决后的法律准则，被认为可以指导类似案件的判决。
6. Hierarchy of Laws（法律等级）：指不同法律的优先级别，一般按照宪法、法令、法律、法规、命令、条例等顺序排列。
二、合同法1. Contract（合同）：双方达成的协议，包括权利和义务。
2. Offer（提议）：要约，表明愿意与他人达成协议。
3. Acceptance（接受）：对提议的同意。
4. Consideration（对价）：作为一方履行合同义务的回报。
5. Breach of Contract（违约）：未能按照合同约定履行义务。
6. Force Majeure（不可抗力）：无法预见或控制的事件，免除违约责任。
7. Jurisdiction（管辖权）：法院对案件有管辖权的能力。
8. Damages（赔偿金）：违约方需支付给另一方的经济损失补偿。
9. Termination（终止）：合同约定的条件下，解除合同关系。
三、知识产权法1. Intellectual Property（知识产权）：由创造性思维产生的无形资产。
2. Copyright（版权）：保护个人作品的权益。
3. Patent（专利）：保护新发明的独特性和可产业化的权益。
4. Trademark（商标）：区分商品来源的标志。
法律英语ppt复习总结
Chapter oneTo be enforceable ,a contract must have:petent parties 有能力的当事人2.Legal subject matter 合法标的3.Legal consideration 合法对价4.Mutuality of agreement 合意5.Mutuality of obligation 互负义务Enforceable contract=offer+acceptance+consideration+intentOffer=intent+identified offeree+clear and definite terms+specific durationIntent=reasonable person+objective standardThe reception rule 到达主义The postal acceptance rule(mailbox rule)发出主义Detrimental reliance 不利益的信赖；致人损害的信赖由于一方当事人对他人的行为或陈述产生信赖，从而导致自己处于不利地位的，则该种信赖即属不利益的信赖。
不利益的信赖可以替代合同的对价，使某一单方的允诺成为可强制执行的合同。
Some criteria of irremediable damages一些不可弥补损害的标准1.monetary damages will not sufficiently reimburse the nonbreaching party 金钱赔偿不足以补偿未违约方2.The contract was for personal services unobtainable elsewhere这是一份别处无法获得的个人服务合同3.The property/service is rare or unique财产或者服务是罕见的或者唯一的4.The balance of the hardship to both parties has been considered双方都考虑到履约和损失的平衡性Additional terms in acceptance or affirmation1.a definite and seasonable expression of acceptance or a written confirmation which is sent within a reasonable time operates as an acceptance even though it states terms additional to or different from those offered or agreed upon ,unless acceptance is expressly made conditional on assent to the additional or different terms.一个明确和合理的承诺的表达或者书面的确认书在合理的时间内作为承诺发出，即使它表述额外的条款或者不同于要约或者所商定的，除非承诺是明确附加了条件对于那些附加条款或者不同条款。
法律英语翻译课程总结
法律英语翻译课程总结转眼间，一个学期的法律英语翻译课程就要结束了。
很高兴选择了这门课程，让自己能够有机会学习到关于法律英语的丰富知识。
在顾老师的悉心教导和耐心帮助下，并通过课堂上丰富多样的教学方式，不仅提高了对法律英语的学习兴趣，同时也巩固了所学知识，使自己的翻译水平有了较大的提高。
这学期我学习到了许多法律翻译方面的具体知识。
比如法律英语的词汇特点，句法的与众不同之处，以及翻译时的细节处理等。
在课堂上，还通过一个个具体的视频案例，深入其中，生动形象的了解了法律英语的特色。
接下来就总结一下具体的翻译知识。
一、法律语言的特点法律学科本身的特殊性以及法律长期在人们的政治、经济、科学和文化生活中所发挥的强大的规范和调节作用，使得法律语言在实现其调节、规范作用的过程中也形成了一些自身的语体特点。
法律语言的使用特点可以从语篇结构、句法选择和词汇使用三个层面来考察。
英语词义是在“共时性变化”(synchronic changes)和“历时性变化”(diachronic changes)的交替变化中发展、演变的。
法律英语的发展不可能脱离普通英语的发展,法律英语词义自然而然是从多义的普通英语词汇中分离出来的。
一词多义现象在法律英语中相当普遍,其根源是词义的概括性和词义的演变。
为了有效实现原文的意旨,正确理解一词在原文中的意思,我们不能仅依凭词典,而应审视全文,参透具体语境。
大量应用于法律英语的具有相对专业特色的普通词汇由于其量之多、其范围之广,因而最能体现法律英语独立于普通英语的特性。
同时,这些词汇亦使法律界人士之间的互相交流更容易、更没有阻隔。
例如,单词purchase在形式和含义上均源于单词chase,暗含“一人不是通过继承而获取财产”之义。
自此,法律英语中purchase便一直解释成此义。
这种法律专业的含义润饰自然有别于普通人对purchase(为某物付款)的理解。
短语take by purchase, words of purchase也体现了该词在法律英语中的专业性。
法律英语常用词汇和句型总结
法律英语常用词汇和句型总结常用术语总结一、基本概念及用法债权人：obligee债务人：obligor一方：one party对方\相对人：the other party；善意相对人：the other party in good faith债权：creditor’s right; right to performance; right债务/义务： obligation标的物：subject matter责任：liability要约：offer;承诺：acceptance;要约邀请：invitation to offer;要约人：offeror受要约人：offeree收件人：recipient代理人：agent被代理人/本人：principle行为人：person performing (such) act代理权：agency authority应当：shall可以：may不能：may not不正当：improperly有权做. . .：may; is entitled to do履行义务：perform obligation, render performance订立合同：enter into a contract; conclude a contract; form acontract带来损失：cause loss to . . .损害利益：harm somebody’s interest赔偿损失：indemnify the other party for its loss由某人承担费用：expenses shall be borne by sb.承担损害赔偿责任：be liable for damages各自承担相应的责任：bear their respective liabilities accordingly要求承担违约责任：hold . . . liable for breach of contract享有权利、承担义务：assume right and obligation二、各个条文中的术语合同订立采取. . .方式： a contract is concluded by the exchange of. . .(e.g. by the exchange of an offer and an acceptance; by the exchange of electronic messages). . .的意思表示：manifestation of intention to do something 做出表示：manifest his intention (to do)接受履行：accept the performance订立合同时：in the course of concluding/ negotiating a contract; at the time of its conclusion 符合．．．规定：meet the requirement of . . .承诺的撤回：withdrawal of acceptance书面形式：in writing合同书形式：memorandum of contract具有本法. . .条规定的情形：fall into any of the circumstances set forth in Article. . .撤回：withdraw; 撤销：cancel拒绝追认：decline; 拒绝履行：reject受约束：be bound；is binding upon somebody表明：indicate价目表：price list拍卖公告：announcement of auction招标公告：call for tender招股说明书：prospectus商业广告：commercial advertisement数据电文：electronic message指定特定系统：designate a specific system快速通讯方式：instantaneous communication device国家指令性任务或国家订货任务：state mandatory plan or state purchase order根据需要/要求：in light of its requirement格式条款：standard terms条款：provision提请注意义务：duty to call attention应. . .要求，做. . .：do something upon the request of . . .与对方协商：negotiate with the other party预先拟定：prepare in advance重复使用：repeated use提供格式条款一方：the party supplying standard terms免除或限制责任：exclude or limit liability加重对方责任：increase the liabilities of the other party排除对方主要权利：deprive the other party of material rights 合理的方式：in a reasonable manner对格式条款的理解：construction of standard term通常理解：common sense不一致：discrepancy between… and …解释：interpret缔约过失责任：pre-contract liabilities恶意磋商：negotiate in bad faith以. . .名义：under the pretext of隐瞒与. . .有关的重要事实：conceal material facts relating to . . .提供虚假情况：supply false information商业秘密：trade secret泄露或不正当使用商业秘密：disclose or improperly use trade secret在订立合同的过程中获悉：become aware of in the course of negotiating a contract生效条件：conditions precedent解除条件：conditions subsequent阻止／促成条件成立：impair/facility satisfaction of a condition对合同的效力约定附条件：prescribe that the effectiveness of a contract be subject to certain conditions附生效/解除条件的合同：a contract subject to condition precedent/subsequent条件成立：condition is satisfied附期限的合同：contract term生效/失效期限：a time of commencement/expiration限制民事行为能力人：a person with limited capacity for civil act法定代理人：legal agent追认：ratify纯获利益的合同：a contract from which such person accrues benefits only与其年龄、智力、精神健康状况相适应：be appropriate for his age, intelligence, mental health催告法定代理人在一个月内予以追认：demand legal agent to ratify the contract within one month视为拒绝追认：is deemed to decline ratify the contract撤销的权利：somebody is entitled to cancel. . .以通知的方式做出：be effected by notification以. . .的名义：on one’s behalf没有代理权：lack agency authority超越代理权：act beyond his agency authority代理权终止：agency authority is extinguished请求人民法院或仲裁机构变更或撤销：petition the People’s court or an arbitration institution for amendment or cancellation 重大误解：material mistake显失公平：grossly unconscionable欺诈：fraud胁迫：duress乘人之危：take advantage of the other party’s hardship真实意思：true intention受损害方：aggrieved party合同无效、被撤销或者终止：invalidity, cancellation or discharge of a contract不影响. . .条款的效力：not impair the validity of the contract provision concerning. . .争议解决方法：the method of dispute resolution返还财产：make restitution of property过错方：the party at fault折价补偿：allowance be made in money based on the value of the property在合同约定的交付期间：during the prescribed period of delivery交付时的价格：price of delivery迟延交付标的物/提取标的物/付款：delay in delivering the subject matter; delay in taking delivery; delay in making payment 同时履行： simultaneous performance互负债务：owe performance toward each other没有先后履行顺序：there is no order of performance履行不符合约定：render non-conforming performance拒绝其相应的履行要求： reject its corresponding requirement for performance部分履行：partial performance债务人部分履行给债权人增加的费用：additional expenses incurred by obligee due to obligor’s partial performance 代位权：subrogation怠于行使到期债权：delay in exercising its creditor’s right that was due专属于. . .人本身：exclusively personal to somebody转让债权：assign a right受让人取得与债权有关的从权利：assignee assumes any incidental right associated with the obligee’s right让与人与受让人：assignor, assignee接到. . . 通知：upon receipt of notice of assignment债务人可以向受让人主张抵销：the obligor may avail itself of any set-off against the assignee对某人享有债权：have right to performance by/against somebody合并/分立：a party has effected combination/division合并/分立后的法人：legal person resulting from combination/division行使合同权利，履行合同义务：assume the rights and obligations享有连带债权，承担连带债务：jointly and severally assume the rights and obligations合同解除：terminate合同终止：discharge债务互相抵销：obligations were set off against each other将标的物提存：place the subject matter in escrow免除债务：release the obligor from performance毁损、灭失的风险：the risk of damage or loss孳息：fruits of subject matter违约责任：liabilities for breach of contract履行合同义务：perform obligations under a contract符合约定的履行合同义务：perform obligations in accordance with the contract; render conforming performance继续履行：specific performance采取补救措施：cure of non-conforming performance赔偿损失：payment of damages预期违约：anticipatory breach明确表示：expressly state行为表明：indicate by conduct违约金：liquidated damage一定数额：a certain sum/amount of …根据违约情况：in the light of degree of breach因违约产生的损失赔偿额的计算方法：a method for calculation of damages for the loss resulting from a party’s breach.适当减少：decrease the amount as appropriate公平原则：the principle of fairness诚实信用原则：the principle of good faith三、“效力”的词汇. . .的效力：effectiveness/validity of . . .e.g. effectiveness of contract/offer生效：become effective失效：extinguish有效：valid无效：invalid四、时间的词汇到达时间：time of arrival承诺期限：the period for acceptance信件载明的日期或电报交发之日：date shown on the letter or the date on which the telegram is handed in for dispatch 邮戳日期：the posting date stamped on the envelop超过承诺期间：after expiration of the period for acceptance 履行期限：time of performance. . .期间自…开始计算：the period for. . . commences on the date when. . ./once . . .五、常用句型：●Ａ符合Ｂ情况的，视为Ｃ：A is deemed as C, if B.●表示假设，用”where” or ”if”●如果是个长句子，内容为：在一个大前提A下，又有几个不同的条件(B、C)，每个条件下的结果（D是B的结果，E是C的结果）都不同。
法律英语汇总
法律英语汇总Unit 1 The Common Law and Its CompetitorsI. Give the Chinese Meaning of the Underlined Word or Phrase The curriculum and the materials studied are much the same in all law schools. （课程）Outside its home base, law has no validity at all.（有效性）Each legal system is specific to its country or its jurisdiction.（管辖范围）There never was an English equivalent of the Napoleonic Code.（等同物）The common law reigns wherever the English language is spoken （统治）In Canada, the civil law is dominated in the French-speaking province of Quebec.（处于支配地位）These superstatutes are enacted by the national parliament.（超级成文法典）This tenacious local system was the so-called common law.（本地系统）For one thing, the common law resisted codification.（法典化）The English brought the common law to their colonies and it took root and thrived.（繁荣）The legal systems of the English-speaking world have a definite family resemblance.（相似性）The English were not seduced by the majesty of Rome.（诱导）For example, the jury is a common-law institution.The common law also has its own peculiar features of substance, structure, and culture.（特征）In the 1990s, the countries of Eastern Europe renounced communism.（放弃）Lawyers in Mexico work in the private sector and are not employees of the government.（部门）In general, it is a fairly crude business to assign legal systems to this or that family.（粗制的）We have to remember that a legal system is not an exercise in history.（一成不变）II. Fill in Each Blank with a Proper Word or Phrase Given BelowA law student usually studies the law of a single country. 一名法科学生同城会学习单个国家的法律。
法律英语-课件内容重点摘录整理
法律英语L1 Introduction法律英语-期末评分细则Assessment Percentages:•10% Attendance & Participation•15% Law Forum•15% Writing: Weekly Case Reports•10% Monthly Quizzes•50% Final Exam法律英语学习内容A case report consists of:•Title of the case•Facts•Legal issue (more than one ; legal issues ≠disputes of parties)----Legal issue is the point or points of law addressed by the case.---- Through Comparing the claims of opposite parties and the key argument is usually the legal issue of the case,which is presented to judge to make decision.•Reasoning = relevant rules -- the application of those rules -- the conclusion the court reached•HoldingL2–Conflict of laws1．In the international business transaction, such as, in an international sales contract, the parties from different countries areinvolved, and the contracting place may be different from the place of performance. If there arises dispute, what matters must the parties concern with?----Which country’s law will apply to the contract?----Where will the case be heard?2．To know what law applies to a contract, court will resort to conflict of law rules.( conflict of law is the area of law of each legal system which regulates how to deal with cases involving a foreign factor.)But application of conflict of law rules may bring about uncertainty and lack of predictability over how the case will be resolved, thus increase the risk of an international sale.3．To avoid uncertainty and unpredictability of conflict of law, many international contracts designate the parties’ cho ice of law which is to apply in case of dispute. That is, according to the rule of autonomy of the (party’s) will, the parties agree upo n which law will govern a contract and make a choice of law clause in their contract.4．the CISGL3 - History and Development of the CISGHow to deal with contract disputes in international transactions?----Where should the case be heard?----Which law should be the applicable law of the case?1. Autonomy of parties’ willWhen contract parties specify the choice of law and choice of forum, courts in most countries will require the parties to honor their contractual commitment.2. Conflicts of law3. The CISG✷About the CISG (p110 chapter4)1. Which organization drafted the CISG, UNIDROIT or UNCITRAL?2. W hat’s the main difference between the CISG and the other codes made by the UN?3. How did the CISG become the U.S. law?.✷T or F statements1. T --Treaties prevail over state statutes in the U.S..2. T -- The CISG prevails over the UCC.CISG (federal law)UCC (state statutes)PART ISPHERE OF APPLICATION AND GENERAL PROVISIONS(适用范围和准则)Chapter ISPHERE OF APPLICATIONArticle 1(1) This Convention applies to contracts of sale of goods between parties whose places of business are in different States:(a) when the States are Contracting States; or(b) when the rules of private international law lead to the application of the law of a Contracting State.(2) The fact that the parties have their places of business in different States is to be disregarded whenever this fact does not appear either from the contract or from any dealings between, or from information disclosed by, the parties at any time before or at the conclusion of the contract.(3) Neither the nationality of the parties nor the civil or commercial character of the parties or of the contract is to be taken intoconsideration in determining the application of this Convention.✷There are three conditions if The CISG is applicable:a -the commercial sale of goods;b- between two parties whose places of business are in different countries c-the places of business are located in countries that have ratified the convention.（How to decide “place of business”?）Article 2This Convention does not apply to sales:(a) of goods bought for personal, family or household use, unless the seller, at any time before or at the conclusion of the contract, neither knew nor ought to have known that the goods were bought for any such use;(b) by auction;(c) on execution or otherwise by authority of law;(d) of stocks, shares, investment securities, negotiable instruments or money;(e) of ships, vessels, hovercraft or aircraft;(f) of electricity.✷What sales are excluded from the CISG? And why? L4 –ContractPart1. A General Introduction to Contract⏹definition of a contractA contract is an agreement between competent parties based on the genuine assent of the parties, which is supportedby consideration and made for a lawful objective and in the form required by law, if any.⏹The basic requirements of a valid contract1. Agreement/genuine assent (a meeting of minds)2. Valid consideration----mutual promise3. Formation (offer + acceptance = contract)4. Capacity of parties to make a contract5. The legality of purpose or object of contract6. The form of contract must conform to the legal requirementsA valid contract should include all these essential elements and meet all these requirements.⏹Classification of contractWritten or oral contractsBilateral or unilateral contractsExpress or implied contractsExecuted or executory contractsValid, void, voidable contracts(P98—P104 Fundamentals of Business Law)According to their enforceability and validity, contracts can be classified into the following ones:1 _ Valid contracts __ has the necessary contractual elements, which is enforceable and has legal binding force.2 _ void contracts __ is not a contract at all. It has no legal effect. No parties should be bound by it.3 _ voidable contracts __ is a valid contract except that one party is entitled to rescind it.⏹Typical contract provisionsDuties and obligationsRepresentations and warrantiesTermination clausesRemedy clausesArbitration clausesPart2. Validity and Formation of International Sales Contracts (I)I. What does the CISG governII. Enforcement of illegal contractIII. The writing requirementIV. Problems of interpretationThe substantive study of the CISG( uniform code for the international contract of sale of goods)the CISG—balance : common law & civil lawI. What does the CISG govern? What is the CISG not concerned with? (Art. 4 ,5 & 11)⏹Only govern(1) Formation(2) Rights and obligations of the buyer and seller(3)The form of contract⏹Not govern(1) Validity(2) The property of the goods sold(3) Liability for death or personal injury caused by goods(4) Legal capacity of parties…II. Enforcement of illegal contractsContracts with illegal purposes have no legal effects. Such contracts are void and unenforceable.( Tarbert Trading, LTD. v. Cometals, Inc)III. The writing requirement (the form of the contract)1.The UCC (the 2003 proposed amendaments)2.The CISG3.Foreign Economic Contract Law of China (1985)4. New contract law of China (1999)Iv. Problems of Interpretation⏹Some general guiding principles of interpretation of contract:1. Plain English principle (the literal rule)2. The principle of four corners3. Types of writing --Handwritten words>Typed words>Printed words4. Standard form contractSuch contract is construed against the party who drafts it, otherwise exclusion clauses are construed against the party inserted them into the contract.5. Contracts affecting public interestsSuch contracts shall be construed in favor of the public.6. When one interpreter renders the contract valid and the other renders it invalid, the court usually adopt the one whichrenders the contract valid.7. Parol evidence rule(1) A. Where the parties have entered into a written sales contract that is intended to the final expression of the parties’agreement, the written agreement may not be contradicted by any prior agreement or contemporaneous oral agreement.( Where the sum payable is expressed in words and also in figures, and there is a discrepancy between the two,the sum denoted by the words is the amount payable.)B. Function of parol evidence:A. To clarify an ambiguityB. To prove additional terms of the agreement(2) Whether the CISG adopts the parol evidence rule?----No. Under the CISG in deciding the intend of the parties, all related circumstances may be considered. (Art. 8CISG)Whether the CISG allows to use parol evidence?----Yes. Under the CISG courts have wide leeway in using parol evidence in deciding the intend of the parties toa contract.8. In common law countries the courts often look to the past dealings of the parties and to trade usages for guidance ininterpreting contracts or filling the gaps.The CISG closely resembles the way trade usages are handled under American law. (Art.9 CISG)课堂Case analysis: Snow v. WinnFacts: A landlord sued his tenant in order to terminate the tenant’s lease. The landlord claimed the tenant hadbreached the lease agreement by using the premises for a convenience grocery store in violation of the“purpose clause” of the agreement. This clause stated that the tenant would use the premises for a gasolineservice station, car wash, and “associated activities”. The landlord alleged he had an oral understanding withthe tenant that the premises would not be used as a convenience store.Legal issue:Whether this oral testimony is admissible under the parol evidence?Reasoning:(1)The parol evidence rule states that…..(2) A.In this case, the parol evidence rule prohibits oral testimony about an integrated, written instrument.B. Furthermore, even if the phrase “associated activities” may be viewed as an ambiguity. Here the oraltestimony would be admissible to explain the meaning of such words.C. There was sufficient support for the court’s conclusion that retail gasoline operations are commonlyassociated with convenience store facilities and that parties intended to have good items sold on the premises.Decision: The court held this testimony was inadmissible.L5-8 Formation of ContractOffer + Acceptance = ContractPart1. OfferI.DefinitionsII. Basic elementsIII. Some problems about offerI.DefinitionsThe Common Law definition：An offer is a promise or commitment to perform or refrain from（制止）performing some specified act in the future.An offer must involve a definite promise by the offeror that he will bind himself if the exact terms specified by him are accepted.An offer may be made either to a particular person or to the public at large.The Chinese Law definition：An offer is a proposal with a view to entering into a contract with other parties. The proposal shall comply with the following stipulations:(1) Its contents shall be detailed and definite;(2) It indicates the intention of the offeror to be bound in case of acceptanceII. Basic elements = What are the basic elements to make an effective offer? P1161. Indicates or describes the goods;2. Expressly or implicitly specifies the quantity;3. Expressly or implicitly specifies the price for the goods.III. Some problems p1171. Public offerCan an offer addressed to the public (ads)?Different countries treat “public offer” differently:Germany— advertisements addressed to the public in general are mere invitations to deal.要约邀请the United States & China— do recognize specific advertisement that describe the goods、quantity、price my beconsidered an offerCISG— an advertisement or circular is not an offer unless the contrary is clearly indicated by the person making the proposal.2. Open price termIf the proposal is not definite enough, such as, no definite price terms, can it be taken as an offer? Yes, it can.(How to deal with “open price terms” in different legal systems?)CISG—look to the trade or to the market price of comparable goods to make its own determination of price, and all its other provisions will remain in effect. Art.553. Firm offersHow does the UCC define firm offer?–not be revoked if it is made in a signed writing or record that gives assurance that it will remain open for astated period of time , not to exceed three months.How does the CISG define firm offer-- firm offer are valid even if they are not in writing. Moreover, an offer may not be revoked if the offeree reasonably relies on the offer as being irrevocable and the offeree has acted in reliance on the offer.4. To withdraw an offer(1)How to withdraw the offer legally?(2)Whether an irrevocable offer can be withdrawn? Yes. Though irrevocable, may be withdrawn if the withdrawalreaches the offeree before or at the same time as the offer. ( Art.15)5. To revoke an offer(1) Suppose an offer has reached the offeree, but the offeror still wants to cancel it. How should he do?The revocation reaches the offeree before he has dispatched an acceptance. (Art.16)(2) Under what circumstances can an offer not be revoked?a. if it indicates, whether by stating a fixed time for acceptance or otherwise, that it is irrevocable; orb. if it was reasonable for the offeree to rely on the offer as being irrevocable and the offeree has acted inreliance on the offer.6. To terminate an offerAn offer, even if it is irrevocable, is terminated when a rejection reaches the offeror. -- Article 17True or False statements1．An offer becomes effective when the offeror dispatches it towards offeree.F- an offer become effective when reaches the offeree2．Before the offer reaches the offeree, it can be revoked by the offeror at will.F- two kind of exceptions –(Art.16)a b.3．An irrevocable offer cannot be withdrawn.F - Though irrevocable, may be withdrawn if the withdrawal reaches the offeree before or at the sametime as the offer. (Art.15)4. Even if an offer is irrevocable, it may be withdrawn.. T5. After an of fer reaches the offeree, it’s unlikely to make it invalid. FPart2. Acceptance⏹DefinitionAcceptance is a voluntary act (either words or conduct) by the offeree that shows assent (agreement) to the terms of an offer. The acceptance must be unequivocal(不含糊) and must be communicated to the offeror.⏹How to make a valid acceptance?Article 18(1) A statement made by or other conduct of the offeree indicating assent to an offer is an acceptance. Silence or inactivity does not in itselfamount to acceptance.(2) An acceptance of an offer becomes effective at the moment the indication of assent reaches the offeror. An acceptance is not effective if theindication of assent does not reach the offeror within the time he has fixed or, if no time is fixed, within a reasonable time, due account being taken of the circumstances of the transaction, including the rapidity of the means of communication employed by the offeror. An oral offer must beaccepted immediately unless the circumstances indicate otherwise.(3) However, if, by virtue of the offer or as a result of practices which the parties have established between themselves or of usage, the offereemay indicate assent by performing an act, such as one relating to the dispatch of the goods or payment of the price, without notice to the offeror, the acceptance is effective at the moment the act is performed, provided that the act is performed within the period of time laid down in thepreceding paragraph.True or FalseA makes an offer to B.1. B is not interest ed, but B’s friend, C, accepts the offer. Then a contract is concluded.F --Who can accept? ----I. the person to whom the offer is made. II. His agents2. Offeree says, “I accept the offer, but I wish I could have gotten a better price.” So there is an effective acceptance. F–虚拟语气表过去希望，但已不可能实现3. The offeree says, “I accept the offer, but only if I can pay on ninety days’ credit. Then this is a valid acceptance.F – It is a counter offer4. The offeree replies, “I accept; please send written contract.” This should be take n as an acceptance. ?5. The offeree replies, “I accept if you send a written contract.” This should be taken as an acceptance.？6．It is reasonable for the offeror to state, “By your silence and inaction you will be deemed to have accepted this offer.”-- Silence can never be an acceptance.(Silence can be an acceptance(1)when the parties have made such agreements(2)or (2) when the offeree has had prior dealings with the offeror.)CISG⏹D efinitionArticle 18．A statement made by or other conduct of the offeree indicating assent to an offer is an acceptance.⏹T hree basic elements to make a valid acceptance(1) Offeree (2) through a statement or other conduct (3) indication of assent to the offer⏹When the acceptance becomes effective?1. Under the common law, the acceptance becomes effective as soon as it is dispatched by the offeree, and then acontract is formed. ----the mailbox rule2. Under the civil law, the acceptance becomes effective when it reaches the offeror, and then a contract is concluded.----the rule of receipt of the letter of acceptance3. As to this point, CISG follows an approach somewhat different from the common law but similar to the civil law.----Article 18⏹CISG tries to compromise on two legal systemsCISG mainly adopts the approach of civil law, but it does absorb some elements of mailbox rule. – Art.16 / 18Art.18 An acceptance is effective when it reaches the offeror . ----receipt of acceptanceOne point which should be stressed is that offeree’s dispatch of an acceptance cuts off the offeror’s right to revoke the offer ----dispatch of acceptance⏹Whether a late acceptance is effective?1. There are two kinds of late acceptance.(1)The offeree makes an acceptance beyond the time limit for acceptance.That is, it is late when the offeree dispatches the acceptance.It is impossible for such acceptance to become effective except that without delay the offeror informs itseffectiveness.(2) The offeree dispatches the acceptance within the time limit for acceptance but the acceptance reaches theofferor beyond the time limit.That is, it is not late when the offeree dispatches the acceptance, and if its transmission had been normal, itwould have reached the offeror in due time.2. Such late acceptance is generally effective as an acceptance unless without delay the offeror informs the offereethat he considers his offer as having lapsed. ---- Art.21⏹Whether an acceptance can be withdrawn or revoked?CISG tries to achieve a balance in protecting the interests of two contracting parties.On one hand, CISG protects the interests of the offeror, who is entitled to withdraw or revoke the offer;On the other hand, CISG protects the interests of the offeree, who is also entitled to withdraw the acceptance.An offer may be revoked if the revocation reaches the offeree before he has dispatched an acceptance.The offeree’s dispatch of acceptances cuts off the offeror’s right to revoke the offer.⏹Whether a reply to an offer containing additional or different terms constitutes an acceptance?Material alteration: price, payment, quality and quantity of the goods, place and time of delivery, extent of one party’s liability to the other or the settlement of disputesCase analysis:A computer printer distributor in Argentina receives an offer by mail from Epson, a U.S. company, in reply toan inquiry. The offer arrives in Argentina on June 2. On June 12, the Argentinean company sends its acceptance by mail. On June 8, Epson sends a revocation of its offer that was received on June 13 in Argentina. The acceptance from Argentina arrives in the United States on June 17. Did a valid contract arise? When was the offer valid? When was the acceptance valid? When was the revocation valid? Decide the case under the common law and under the CISG.⏹Legal principles:1．An offer may be revoked if the revocation reaches the offeree before he has dispatched an acceptance.2．The offeree’s dispatch of acceptance cuts off the offeror’s right to revoke the offer.1. Mirror Image RuleThe rule requires that an offeree respond to an offer with an acceptance that is definite and unconditional, and that matches the terms of the offer exactly and unequivocally不含糊的.Most common-law and civil-law countries follow the mirror image rule. Under these laws, it is unlikely for an acceptance containing different or additional terms to become effective. Such acceptance is usually considered a counteroffer and thusa rejection of the original offer.2. The Battle of the FormsAs the mirror image rule requires that an acceptance be unconditional, both parties, buyer and seller, have to negotiate back and forth through standard business forms. The mirror image rule is the source of the battle of the forms.offer counteroffer counteroffer …The “last shot” principle:The form sent last in time will prevail others as the contract.3. Modification to Mirror Image RuleA. Modification under UCCB. Modification under the CISG----Art. 19C. Modification under China’s contract law---- Art.30, 31A -- Modification under UCCA. In the United States the mirror image rule has been changed by statute (the UCC) to deal with modern businesspractices.-- UCC 2-207(1) A written confirmation with additional or different terms operates as an acceptance unless…(It breaks the mirror image rule.)(2) Between merchants, an acceptance by a confirmation that contains new terms will produce a contract and newterms become a part of contract unless:The buyer (the offeror) expressly limits…The new terms materially alter…The buyer notifies the seller of an objection to the new termsB. How to deal with the additional or different terms(1)To become a part of the contractThe contract is concluded between merchants, containing those additional or different terms which only reflects minor differences (related to usual and customary usage in trade).(2) Not to become a part of the contractThe contract would arise without the new terms if the new terms reflect major differences( material alteration---- that is not commonly accepted in the trade and that would result in surprise hardship).B -- Modification under the CISG----Art. 191. The CISG compromises between the mirror image rule set out by the common and civil law and the UCC. Under theCISG:(1) the acceptance containing the new terms that do not materially alter the terms of the offer becomes a part of thecontract.---- close to the UCC(2) The purported acceptance containing the new terms that do materially alter the terms of the offer wouldconstitute a rejection of the offer and a counteroffer.---- close to the mirror image rule2. Unlike the UCC, the CISG goes further to define “material alteration” :T h e k e y e l e m e n t s t h a t w i l l m a t e r i a l l y a l t e r a c o n t r a c t: price, payment, quality and quantity of the goods, placeand time of delivery, extent of one party’s liability to the other or the settlement of disputesC -- China’s contract law---- Art.30, 31第三十条承诺的内容应当与要约的内容一致。
英语专业《综合教程》一、二册笔记整理
综合英语第一、二册词汇分类整理第一册：重点单词+一词多义1．Hand in hand:1. 手拉手2. 紧密相连：Theory and practice must go hand in hand.2．Manner: （注意manner的作单复数时不同的意思）mannered 矫揉造作的；矫饰的；不自然的1．[singular]: 方法；方式：in a/the manner 2. （言行的）方式：aggressive manner; 3. 种类：all manner of sth 各种各样的人（或物）；(as) to the manner born自然而然地；in the manner of= in the style of以…风格3. [plural]: 1.礼貌；规矩：good/bad manners; have no manners= behave badly 没有礼貌2．(某个人群的)风俗；习惯；Middle-class manners3．Appreciation/appreciate1.感激；感谢[U] in appreciation of : The award is given in appreciation of her huge contribution to the film business.2.理解；体会；明白There is a growing appreciation of the need for environmental reform3.欣赏；赏识4. 涨价；增值4. Cherish 1.怀念: cherish the memory of those happy times; 2. 关爱；爱护3. 珍爱；珍视：a cherished dream/hope/memory5. Infectious 1.传染性的2. (心情、行动)有感染力的；有影响力的：His enthusiasm was infectious.6．Jolt 1.震动；颠簸：The bus jolted to a stop. 2.使震惊；使惊醒：The alarm jolted me out of a deep sleep.7. Bolt [n] 1.（门或窗的）金属插销2.螺栓a bolt from/out of the blue:大出意外的事；晴天霹雳[v]（用螺栓）把…钉在一起：bolt sth to sth8. Scramble：1. [i] +over/up/down/out of etc 爬；攀登scramble to your feet 匆匆站起身2[i] 争抢；争夺+for/ scramble to do sth 3.炒蛋：Scrambled eggs9. confidence/confident/confidential1.confidence: 1.信心+in2.信任；信赖+in3.信心；把握4.秘密：gain/g et sb’s confidence 赢得某人的信任；in confidence秘密地；私下里2. confident in the knowledge that：确保You can go out, confident in the knowledge that your house is safe.10. skim :[v]1.撇去（液体面上的浮物）+off : Skim the fat off the soup. 2.(使) 在表面上方快速移动In the distance, water skiers skimmed across/over the bay；The children are skimming stone on the lake. 3.浏览；略读+through11. steer :steer sth away from/towards/into/through etc sth 1. 掌舵；驾驶2.引领；引导3.影响；引导He steered the country through a transitional period to elections；steer sb to victory=help someone win 帮助某人取得成功；steer a course:1.遵循：They tried to steer a middle course between overconfidence and undue pessimism. 2.朝着…前进steer a course for…12．Smash: 1.用力打破；打碎2.粉碎，捣毁（组织等）；击败；击溃：The government would take whatever necessary action to smash the rebellion by separatist guerillas. 13．Bond 1.联系；关系+between: The trade agreement strengthened the bond between the two countries. 2.公债；债券a government/Treasury bond; 3.契约；合同4.（郑重的）许诺；保证：my word is my bond 我的话像契约一样可靠；我一定会履行诺言 5.bonds: 枷锁=shackle；束缚物：She longs to escape from the bonds of children and housework.14.affect 1.影响；身体上的伤害；感情上的打动affecting；震动2. 假装；佯装She affected a look of disinterest as she glanced at his newspaper.15.plague~epidemic/pandemic/:1.瘟疫；传染病2. [singular]普遍的祸害: the plague of violence in America today 3. (动物或昆虫)无限制的大量滋长；泛滥：A plague of journalists surrounded around the superstar. [vt]:给…造成长期的灾祸；长期困扰：The children plagued him with questions.16.conformist 1.[adj] 墨守成规的；因循守旧的2.[n]墨守成规的人，因循守旧的人17. distinction 1.差别；不同make/dra w a distinction between… 2.优秀；卓越；杰出：of (great) distinction; He is a writer of high distinction. 3.声誉；特征；特点;Have/hold/gain the distinction of : She holds the distinction of being the first woman editor of the Harvard Law Review.18.distinct 1.不同的；单独的：They were classified into two distinct groups; as distinct from: The Company, as distinct from its shareholders, should be liable for any debts. 2.清晰的；清楚的；明显的：As dawn broke, the outline of a building became distinct against the sky. 3.[usually before noun]确实的；显著的：I had the distinct impression that he did not like me.19.stature 1.身高He will be taller than his father when he reaches his full stature. 2. 名望；威望: Gain/grow/rise in stature20. fragment 1.[n]碎片:fragments of glass 2.[v]（使）破碎；（使）分裂Fragmentation（含抽象意味）;[n]破碎；破裂；分裂~ of the Soviet Union21．Polar 1.极地的2.截然不同的：The novel deals with the polar opposites of the love and hate.22.integrate1.使融入；使打成一片：integrate sb into sth 2.使结合；使成为一体:integrate sth into/with sth 3.使取消种族隔离Integrated:融合的；整体的；综合的；互相协调的~team 2.无种族隔离的Integration 1. 融合；融入：+into 2.种族融合：the ~ of school 3.结合；融合；整合：+of/with/intoIntegrity 1.正直；诚实：maintain/preserve your integrity; question/doubt sb’s integrity; professional/artistic/political integrity 2.完整；完全：defend the new state’s territori al integrity23.spectrum 1.系列；范围；幅度wide/broad spectrum=a large range: The course covers a wide spectrum of musical activity from opera to rock 2. 光谱3. 频率24.capacity 1.能力;：capacity to do/for sth；2.身份in a professional/personal/advisory etc capacity；in your capacity as :I attended in my capacity as chairman of the safety committee.3.容量；容积；容纳力1.The seating capacity of the theater is 5,000. 2.The hall was filled/full to capacity.25.discipline [n]1.纪律；惩罚：Impose discipline/maintain discipline 2.自控能力；自制力：Their attention wandered and they lacked the discipline to learn. 3.训练方法：Studyinga foreign language is a good discipline for mind. 4.（尤指大学的）学科；科目[v]1.惩罚；处罚：The strikers were disciplined by management. 2.discipline yourself:约束自己26.conscious:1.意识到；注意到~ of doing sth/~that 2.神志清醒的；有知觉的3.慎重的；有意的；刻意的~decision/effort 4.特别感兴趣的；关注的：Environmentally-conscious27.refine: 1. 精炼；提纯：refined sugar 2. 改善；改进；使精炼：refine one’s manners28.reflection；1. 映像：He admired his reflection in the mirror. 2. （声、光、热等的）反射3. 反映；显示；表达：The increase in crime is a sad reflection on（=shows sth bad about）our society. 4.沉思；深思；审慎的思考：She decided on reflection to accept his offer after all.29. induce : 1. 劝说；诱使induce sb to do sth 2.引起；导致=cause or produce, result in, bring about, entail : Drugs which induce sleep30. Persist 1. 顽强地坚持；执着地做~ in sth/in doing sth/with sth ; 2.维持；保持；持续；存在：If the pain persists, consult a doctor.31．Vision 1.视力；视野：good/perfect/poor/blurred/normal vision; 2.想象；幻想3. 想象力；眼力；远见卓识=foresight: a leader of foresight Visionary 1.有眼力的；远见卓识的2. 梦幻的；（尤指）宗教异象的；神示的32．Vain≈futile1. 徒劳的；枉然的；in the vain hope/in a vain attempt to do/in vain; 2.自负的；自视过高的: She is too vain to wear glasses.33. Given : 1.[adj]已经安排好的；规定的：They were to meet at a given time and place. Be given to sth/to doing sth: 经常做；习惯于；2.[prep]考虑到；鉴于Given his age, he is remarkably active. Given that: It was surprising the government was re-elected, given that they had raised taxes so much.34. moral [adj]1. 道德的：a moral issue/dilemma/question 2.道义上的；道德上的：moral responsibility/duty 3.品行端正的；有道德的4.能辨别是非的：Children are not naturally moral beings. Take/claim/seize the moral high ground声称自己的论点在道义上占优势[n]1.品行；道德2. 寓言：The moral of the fable is that honesty is always the best policy.35. scarcely [adv]1.几乎不：I can ~ believe what’s hap pened. 2.才；仅仅:We had~ driven a mile when the car broke down. 3.决不；一定不:I can scarcely refuse to help after all he’s done for me.36.conviction 1.定罪；判罪：previous conviction; 2.坚定的信仰；信念；3.深信；确信：lack conviction（缺乏信心）；not carry conviction（没有说服力）37. nest 1.鸟巢2.+of 一套；一组: a nest of table38. off 1.离开；走开：be off/be off to; off/on course 偏离/在正确航线；航向2.从…（顶部或表面）离开：keep/stay off the grass 3.不上课；不工作；休息：be off 4.off and on/on and off 有时；间或；断断续续39．Distant 1. 在远处的：in the not too distant future:在不久的将来；Distant memory 遥远的记忆；the dim and distant past:很久以前；遥远的过去；Keep a respectful distance 敬而远之；2疏远的；不友好的；冷淡的； 3. 恍惚的；心不在焉的；4.远亲的；远房的 a distant relative40.somehow:1.以某种方法：somehow or other:不管怎么样；2.由于某种未知的原因41．Lean 1.清瘦而健康的；2.倚靠：lean against/on sth 3.有（选择或支持某事物的）倾向:lean in the direction of sth; lean on sb 依靠某人；leaning towards对…的倾向；爱好；偏爱42．Extend 1.提供；给予；（向某人）表示（欢迎、感谢、同情）extend sth to sth 2.涉及（范围；延伸（距离）延续（时间）；Rain is expected to extend to all parts of the country. The desert extends for miles.Extension/extent: 1.This kidnapping shows an _extension_ of terrorist activity to innocent children. 2. This kidnapping shows the _extent_ of terrorist activity which has got innocent children involved.43. Identify: 1.indentify sb as sth:1.辨认；确认;2.是…的标志；显示出；2.identify with sb体会（某人）的思想感情；理解并同情（某人）的感受：He didn’t seem to be able to identify with ordinary people and their aspirations. 3.be identified with sb/sth把某人或某物联系在一起4.identify sth with sth 认为…和…一致；将…等同于44.ground [v]1.使飞机停飞；船只搁浅；2. 罚…呆在家里His parents grounded him for two weeks for smoking.3.使决定、想法建立在…之上，基于：be grounded in/on sth [n]4.理由；原因：on the grounds of: She is suing the company on the ground of unfair dismissal.45.sway [v]1.摇动；摇摆2.影响某人；使改变看法：Sway sb into doing sth 3.[n]hold sway :1.（对人们的观点或行为）有巨大的影响力；2.控制某个区域under sb’s sway:在某人的控制或统治下46．Smear：1.（胡乱地）涂，抹：be smeared with sth 2.玷污；诽谤：≈slur/smash/malign47．Facility 1.[通常用复数]（房间、设备等）设施；2.（工具、制度等的）特点：Have the facility to do sth : The software has the facility to produce high-quality graphics displays.3.（用作某种用途的）区，大楼；4.[单数/U]天赋;技能；技巧：He has a facility for languages.[注]：facility作单数时指场所；作复数时指设施。
法律英语资料
Lesson One Legal systemPart one:Legal phrases1．Report (Law reports) 判例汇编：报道人reporter对于级别较高的法庭审理中的司法程序、案件事实陈述、当事人辩论、法庭判决及理由、法官的同意、反对意见等予以记载的出版物。
United States Reports 美国最高法院判例汇编2．United States Supreme Court / Supreme Court of the United States 联邦最高法院Chief Justice 首席大法官associate Justices大法官3．Case law : caselaw or case-law 判例法Case Law System 判例法系judge-made law法官造法Common law普通法local custom 地方习惯法statutory law /written law 制定法Anglo-American legal system英美法系civil law legal system/ continental law legal system大陆法系equity law横平法Chancellor’ court \ Equity’s court 衡平法院canon / church law教会法4．Writ令状Writs of right权利令状Prerogative Writs特权令状Original writs 诉讼开始令状Judicial writs司法令状Provision of Oxford 牛津条例Writ upon the Case个案条例5．stare decisis 遵循先例6．Court rules法院规则7．Direct sources 直接渊源Indirect sources 间接渊源8．Legal system 法律制度、法律体系9．Written constitution\ragid constitution 成文宪法/刚性宪法unwritten constitution\flexible constitution 不成文宪法/柔性宪法10.federal system 联邦制confeeral system邦联制11.itinerant judge巡回法官12.form of action诉讼形式13.Recourse to law诉诸法律14.jury trial\trial by jury陪审团审grand jury大陪审团lay people 外行bench trial法官审Verdict(award)陪审团的裁决General verdict 概括性裁断，即确定原告胜诉还是被告胜（civil cases）;被告有罪还是无罪（criminal cases）Special verdict特别裁断(few special cases）陪审团仅对案件中的特定事项进行裁决，而将对该事实适用法律的问题留给法官解决Unanimous verdict 一致裁断Majority verdict 多数裁断15．Real property \real estate \immovable property不动产movable property 动产Part two: Legal SayingEquity saying:Equity corrects error .Equity corrects a law which is too board in that particular or in which it is defective .Equity doesn’t make the law , but assists the law .Equity acts in personam .Chancellor’s footLesson 2 Legal professionLesson 3 Legal EducationLesson4 Judicial SystemPart1:Legal Phrase:1.the Bar法律职业/律师职业Lawyer法律职业者2.ABA (American Bar Association )美国律师协会Attorney (counsellor)律师Attorney 检察官3.SJD (Doctor of Juridical Science)法学博士LLM(Master of Laws) 法学硕士JD (Juris Doctor) 法律博士Teaching methods :Lecture method , Case method ,Socratic methodTypes of lawyers in private practice :single practitioner / partnership / corporation4．House counsel/Corporate counsel 公司法律顾问5．independent counsel 独立检察官制度6．Double-track system双轨制court of appeals上诉法院trial court 审判法院/基层法院Federal district court 联邦地区法院Three-tiered model 三级模式7.Barrister(英)大律师solicitors（英）小律师Part 2:Uncomplimentary synonymsAmbulance chaserShysterPettifogger（pettifogging shyster）Philadelphia lawyerLegal eagleHired gunLip (mouthpiece)Part 3: Legal saying:saying: When the law is on your side, you pound on the law; when the facts is on your side ,you pound on the facts; when neither the law nor the facts is on your side , you pound on the table.Part 4: Court MovieTo killing a mocking bird, 1962 the Paper Chaser(1973)w(1980S)Movie:the practice(1990s)Lesson 5 ConstitutionPart1:Legal Phrase:1.Mayflower Compact五月花公约In the name of God, Amen.We whose names are underwritten, the loyal subjects of our dread sovereign Lord, King James, by the grace of God, of Great Britain, France and Ireland king, defender of the faith, etc., having undertaken, for the glory of God, and advancement of the Christian faith, and honor of our king and country, a voyage to plant .既是清教徒的自治公约,也是Plymouth殖民地的基本法规。
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●法律的分类：A.Public law and private lawPublic law: constitutional law, criminal law and administrative law (行政法)Private law: contract law commercial law tort law property law…B.Criminal law and Civil lawC.Civil law (大陆法) and Common Law（普通法）大陆法的重要特点是强调成文法的作用。
成文法（written law）又称为制定法（statute）Common law（case law）：following the principle of stare decisis 遵循先例●Goddess of law:希腊：TemisRoman：Justitia词汇：administrative agency 行政机关prosecutor 检察官Damages：损害赔偿金punitive/exemplary damages 惩戒性损害赔偿金Lawsuit 诉讼（尤指非刑事案件）institue a lawsuit 提起法律诉讼Miranda waningsStatue of limitations诉讼时效是指民事权利受到侵害的权利人在法定的时效期间内不行使权利，当时效期间届满时，人民法院对权利人的权利不再进行保护的制度。
●Source of law:Constitutions and common law (common law) and statutory law and administrative law statutory law (legislation): 制定法（立法）制定法是由国家享有立法权的机关依照法定程序制定和公布的法律。
●Chinese Court system：中国的人民法院的组织体系分为四级，即设基层、中级、高级和最高人民法院，并设军事、铁路、水运等专门人民法院。
中国的基层人民法院包括县人民法院和市人民法院、自治县人民法院和市辖区的人民法院；中级人民法院包括：省、自治区内按地区设立的中级人民法院，直辖市内设立的中级人民法院，省、自治区辖市的中级人民法院和自治州人民法院；高级人民法院包括省高级人民法院、自治区高级人民法院和直辖市高级人民法院。
专门人民法院包括军事法院、海事法院、铁路运输法院、森林法院、农垦法院、石油法院等。
最高人民法院：the Supreme People's Court专门人民法院：special people's court●美国法院系统US Court system分为联邦和各州两大系统：Federal and state court system1.联邦系统法院包括：Federal court system1.联邦地方法院district court (普通民事，刑事案件的初审法院)，2.联邦上诉法院United States Court of Appeals3.美国最高法院the Supreme Court (全国最高审级由总统征得参议院同意后任命的9名终身法官组成，其判例对全国有拘束力，享有特殊司法审查权)，4.专门法院special court2.州系统法院包括：1.初审法院：trial court (州管辖的一般民事，刑事案件的初审法院)，2.州上诉法院appellate court3.州最高法院state supreme court (州的最高审级)。
●陪审团Jury目前于司法制度中采用陪审团制度的有美国、英国和香港等。
陪审团所认定的结果在英美法上称为verdict陪审员juror 陪审团长foreperson悬而不决的陪审团；未能作出裁定的陪审团hung jury 所谓陪审团制度，是指特定人数的有选举权的公民参与决定是否起诉嫌犯、并对案件作出判决的制度。
陪审团分为大陪审团和小陪审团。
大陪审团只适用于刑事案件，由23人组成，其主要职责是决定是否起诉，可以在任期内（一般4周）审理若干起案子；而小陪审团则参加审判，决定被告人是否有罪，而在民事诉讼中则是决定被告人是否要赔偿。
小陪审团一般由6-12人组成，一案一组。
●主要法理学流派实证法或实在法positive law 自然法natural law“应然法”，就是“应该是怎么样的法”（law as it ought to be），即根据其自身的特性而应达到某种理想状态的法。
而实然法是指法在当下已经实际发生、现实存在的状态。
就是“实际上是怎么样的法”（law as it is），即在现实中实际存在、实际发生效力、对人们的行为实际产生作用的法。
“应然法”问题是“法应该怎么样”的问题，它涉及的是人们对法应该达到的理想状态的价值判断，是法存在的终极理由的评论，是对法之好坏善恶的评价。
通俗点说“应然法”是法的一种理想状态，而“实然法”是根据社会经济条件所制定出的法，这种法在某些方面可能并不体现人们的正义观。
●Criminal Law（刑法）刑事案件（criminal case）中的犯法叫做crime，民事案件（civil case）中犯的法叫做民事过错（civil wrong），不叫crime在刑法的刑事诉讼（criminal proceedings）中，原告是社会或是国家，而非个人，而在民事诉讼civil action中，原告是个人，称为plaintiff英国的普通法把crime分为两大类：重罪（felonies）和轻罪（misdemeanors）一般的，引起刑事诉讼的犯罪行为包括：1.Felonious homicide重罪杀人、恶意杀人，这项罪行包括两种，即murder和manslaughterMurder：蓄意谋杀Manslaughter：非预谋谋杀罪2.Arson3.mayhem 重伤罪4. rape5. robbery6. sodomy 反自然性行为承担刑事责任的基础：犯罪行为criminal act和犯罪心理mental element,两者缺一不可犯罪行为（Criminal Act）：1.不作为failure to act不作为是相对于作为而言的，指行为人负有实施某种积极行为的特定的法律义务，并且能够实行而不实行的行为。
2.替代责任vicarious liability：被告人对他人的不正当行为承担责任，这一问题常出现在雇佣情况下刑事审判原则：Criminal defendants are presumed innocent.●刑事指控被告人的辩护类型types of defenses to a Criminal charge美国法律制度中有下列四类抗辩理由：1.不再犯罪现场Alibi：2.正当理由：justifications, 这个类型分为以下几种：Self-defense自我防卫；the defense of others他我防卫；defense of home and property 家庭与财产防卫；necessity紧急避险；consent 被害人同意resisting unlawful arrest 抗拒非法拘捕3.可得宽恕：包括被强迫，年龄不足，非自愿醉态，无意识，精神病等等非自愿醉态：Involuntary intoxication4.程序不正当：●刑事诉讼中被告人的权利：1.保持沉默的权利the right to remain silent2.对质证人的权利：to confront witness3.获得公开审判：right to a public trial4.获得陪审团：right to jury：注：a lack of unanimity among the jurors is called a hungjury, and the defendant will go free unless the prosecutor decides to retry the case.5.获得律师辩护权：the right to be represented by an attorney6.被告人享有不受双重追诉的权利：not to be placed in double jeopardydouble jeopardy一罪不受两次审理原则；Miranda Warnings(米兰达警告)You have the right to remain silent and refuse to answer questions.Anything you do say may be used against you in a court of law.You have the right to consult an attorney before speaking to the police and to have an attorney present during questioning now or in the future.If you cannot afford an attorney, one will be appointed for you before any questioning if you wish.If you decide to answer questions now without an attorney present you will still have the right to stop answering at any time until you talk to an attorney.Knowing and understanding your rights as I have explained them to you, are you willing to answer my questions without an attorney present?中文翻译“宪法要求我告知你以下权利：1.你有权保持沉默，你对任何一个警察所说的一切都将可能被作为法庭对你不利的证据。
2.你有权利在接受警察询问之前委托律师，他（她）可以陪伴你受讯问的全过程。
美国法典3.如果你付不起律师费，只要你愿意，在所有询问之前将免费为你提供一名律师。
4.如果你不愿意回答问题，你在任何时间都可以终止谈话。
如果你希望跟你对律师谈话，你可以在任何时间停止回答问题，并且你可以让律师一直伴随你询问的全过程。
”●民事诉讼法Law of Civil Procedure民事诉讼法是调整民事诉讼civil action的法律规范，是指国家制定或认可的，规范法院和当事人、其他诉讼参与人进行诉讼活动的法律规范的总和。