lecture3语言学
(2) Fricative 擦音
There is close approximation of two
articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced. [f, v, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, θ, ð, h ]
(1) Plosive / Stop 爆破音
Complete closure of the articulators is
a.
b. c.
involved so that the airstream cannot escape through the mouth. The closing phase The hold/compression phase The release phase English: [p, b, t, d, k, g]
2. Arbitrariness of language was first
discussed by ______. A. Chomsky B. Halliday C. Firth D. Saussure 3. Which function is the major role of language? A. Informative B. Interpersonal C. Performative D. Emotive
ends joined together at the
back of the Adam’s apple.
Vocal folds 声带
apart: voiceless sounds [p, s, t] Close together: voiced sounds [b, z, d] Totally closed：glottal stop 声门塞音
Nasal Cavity （鼻腔）
Three cavities of vocal tract
Oral Cavity （口腔）
Pharynx （咽腔）
Vocal folds (vocal cords) are
a pair of structure that lies horizontally with their front
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Phonology
Phonology is the study of the sound
patterns and sound systems of language. Analyzes individual language; Determines phonological structure (which sound units are used and how they are put together); Discovers rules that underlie the use of sounds.
10. ____ investigates the interrelation of
language and mind. A. Psycholinguistics B. Sociolinguistics C. Anthropological linguistics D. Computational linguistics
(6) Approximant 近音
One articulator is close to another, but
without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. English: [ w, j, ɹ ] [w, j] = semi-vowels
6. Productivity is one of the _____ features
of languages. A. distinctive B. design C. Suprasegmental D. pragmatic 7. The function of the sentence “Lovely weather, isn’t it?” is _____. A. informative B. phatic C. performative D. recreational
Manner of Articulation
Refers to ways in which articulation can
be accomplished (1) Articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (2) Articulators may narrow the space; (3) Articulators may modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.
Chaptecs and Phonology
Phonetics
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are
produced, transmitted, and perceived. Three main areas: Articulatory phonetics: studies the production of speech sounds; Acoustic phonetics: studies the physical properties of speech sounds; Auditory phonetics: studies the perception of speech sounds.
(7) Trill 颤音
An articulator is set vibrating by the
airstream. [ r ]—red, rye in some forms of Scottish English
(8) Tap and Flap 触音和闪音
Tap: the tongue makes a single tap
4. Which branch of study cannot be included
in the scope of linguistics? A. Syntax B. Pragmatics C. Phonetics D. Anthropology 5. What are the dual structures of language? A. Sounds and letters B. Sounds and meaning C. Letters and meaning D. Sounds and symbols
The obstruction of airstream is at a point
along the center of the oral tract, with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. English: [ l ]
Review
1. Which of the following statements about
language is NOT true?
A. Language is a system. B. Language is symbolic. C. Animals also have languages. D. Language is arbitrary.
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2.2 Consonants and Vowels
Consonants: produced by a closure in
the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction. Vowels: produced without such stricture so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through mouth or nose. Distinction between C and V: Obstruction of airstream
8. Once the notion of ____ was taken into
consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics. A. meaning B. context C. form D. content 9. Which of the following is NOT the function of language? A. Metalingual function B. Interpersonal function C. Emotive function D. Cultural transmission
2.1 How Speech Sounds Are Made?
Speech Organs 发音器官
=Vocal organs: parts of human body involved in the production of speech— the lungs, the trachea/windpipe, the throat, the nose, and the mouth.
2.2.1 Consonants
The categories of consonants are
established on several factors, the most important of which are: (1) Manner of articulation: the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract; (2) Place of articulation: where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing or obstruction of air.
语言学笔记 Lecture3
语言学笔记陈银2014/3/15Lecture 3Pretext• 1. Define the following terms:•1). Functions of language•2). Phatic communion•3). Metalingual functionAnswer•1). Functions of language:the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal.)•语言的功能：语言在交际（如表达观点、态度等）或特定的社会情境（如宗教、法律场合）中所起的作用。
•2) Phatic communion:said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.•寒暄：用来创造气氛或维持社会联系的谈话。
•3) Metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.•元语言：用来谈论语言的语言。
• 2. Answer the following question:Halliday proposes a theory metafunctions of language, what are they?Answer 2. The metafunctions of language are: ideatinal, interpersonal and textual functions.•1) ideational function is to organize the speaker’s or the writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world, i. e. language refers to real or imagined persons, things actions, events, states, etc.•概念功能指组织说话者或作者现实或虚构世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚构的人、物、动作、事件、状态等。
语言学讲座3
Sequential rules
• There is little proof that any specific rules actually exists in the mind of the speaker. • The representation of a phonological rule has the general appearance • A B/ C • We will discuss three kinds of phonological rules in this chapter. They are sequential rules, assimilation rules and deletion rules. • sequential rules • The patterning of sounds in a language is governed by rules.
But a noun phrase is stressed differently from compound word. For instance the noun phrase black bird. As it is a noun phrase with bird as its head noun and black a modifier, the word bird is primarily stressed.
Phonology • A phone is a phonetic unit of segment. • The speech sounds we produce in the communication are all phones. • But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning: • Some do, some don’t. • For example:cap and skate/ lake and slate • A phoneme was an abstract phonological unit that represents a class of real sounds. • In practical terms, it is the smallest meaning distinguishing unit of sound. • Allophones are the phones that can represent phoneme.
英语语言学第三章
c. word can be used independently: d. word is relatively stable and uninterruptible
un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity 5 morpheme word un+gentle+man+li+ness Over-5-morpheme word
anti +dis + establish +ment +ari +an+ ism Industr(y)+ial+i+za+tion
2.2 Types of morphemes
1.3 Classification of word
a. Variable vs. invariable words Variable words: words that have series of
grammatically different forms.
Eg. Follow follows follois word A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.
(1) Morphemes
Free morphemes Bound morphemes
Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves
Lecture three
4 Difference in syntax
• SL: If you confer a benefit, never remember it, if you receive one, remember it always. • TL: 施恩勿记，受恩勿忘。
• Analysis: 英语重形合(Hypotaxis) , 汉语重意合(Parataxis)
• 2） 英汉词语部分对应 (one word with multiple equivalents of the same meaning )
• Wife • 妻子、爱人、老伴、内人、贱内、夫人、老 婆； • President • 总统、主席、校长、议长、会长、社长； • Uncle/aunt/niece/nephew
• SL:结婚的事情八字还没一撇呢！ • TL: There is a long way to go before getting married./ There is little hope of marriage.
• English: Indo-European system印欧语
系；Alphabetical language字母语言； linear language表音的文字 • SL: He knows the subject from A to Z. • TL: 他对这个主题了如指掌。
• SL: 班门弄斧 • TL: Show off one‟s proficiency with the axe before Lu Ban, the master carpenter. • SL: 千层饼采用传统工艺，制作精细，质地 松脆，清香可口。 • TL: Qianceng Cake, with numerous clear sheets in it, is delicately made in a traditional way. It tastes delicious and crisp.
语言学(Lecture Three)解析
II. Morpheme: the minimal units of meaning
A single word may consist of one or more morphemes. Example: a word over 5 morphemes
Anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism (国教废除论)
the final word: head-strong, pickpocket 3. compounds have different stress patterns from the
noncompounded word sequence, `redcoat, `greenhouse; red `coat, green `house 4. The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. For example, redcoat (在美国独 立战争中服役的英国士兵), bigwig (有重大影响的人), highbrow, jack-in-a-box (a tropical tree), turncoat (a tractor) Compounding is then a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.
Hu, Z. L., Liu, R. Q. & Li, Y. F. (1988). Linguistics: a course book. Beijing: Beijing University Press.
英语语言学Lecture 3
The manner of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished:
Instruments, such as the oscillograph (示波器) and the sound spectrograph (声谱仪), have been used to translate a sound into a visual representation of its components in terms of frequency and intensity.
A fricative: pay/ horse/ tough/ rice/ breath/ push/ sing /wreathe /hang/ cave/ message A nasal: train/ bang/ leaf/ limb A stop: drill/ pipe/ fit/ crab/ fog/ ride/ laugh/ rack /through An affricate: rack/ such/ ridge/ booze
part of the speech organs which is used in producing speech. 发音器官)
For example, in bad, /b/ involves both lips and /d/ involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the teeth ridge.
英语语言学lecture 3 Phonetics
fricatives
When the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point.[f][v][s][z]…(p.53)
Classification of English speech sounds:
Vowels (20):
the sounds are produced when the air-streams meet no
obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the
Stops:or plosive consonants:
When the obstruction created by the speech organ is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive: [p][b][t][d][k][g]
There are two kinds of transcription: narrow transcription and broad transcription. A narrow transcription records as many features of an utterance as possible. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. A broad transcription omits many of the irrelevant and predictable details of pronunciation . This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and textbook for general purposes.
语言学lecture 3 semantics (I)
Research tasks
4. Identify the functions of the following sentences: 1) I like your house very much. 2) I now declare the meeting closed. 3) Nice to meet you. 4) I met Mary in the library this morning. 5. What‟s your opinion of correctness in language use?
If you want to buy something, somebody else must sell it. .
If one wants to be a wife, she needs a husband.
Hyponymy (上下义关系）
Super-ordinate co-hyponyms 同 下义词 flower
古代各种各样的洗：沐；浴；盥；涤；洗 灯：炬；烛；灯 新月曲如眉，未有团圆意。
红豆不堪看，满眼相思泪。（牛希济《生查子》）
Little nigger 老Q---阿Q---阿Q哥
Jane is an angel of a girl. The man is a fox. Die----pass away
概念意义; 逻辑的 认知的和外延的内容。 内涵意义：通过语言所传达的意义。 社会意义：所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义。 情感意义：说传达的关于说话人的态度方面的意义。 反射意义：通过同一种表达方式的其他意思所传递的意义/ 搭配意义：通过词语的常用搭配意义而传递的含义。 主位意义：通过顺序和重音这种组织信息的方式所传达的意 义。
英语语言学讲义Chapter3
Chapter 3 MorphologyMain points:•What is word•Classification of words•Morphology and the types of word formation•Lexical change3. 1 Concept of wordWord, word-form, lexemeνWhat is a word?ν A cat eats rats.νIn visual term s: a word is a meaningful group of letters printed or written horizontally across a piece of paper.1) --- A physical definable unit2) Phonologically, a word is viewed as a sound or combination of sounds which are madevoluntarily with human vocal equipment to convey meaning and its boundaries are indicated by pauses.ν[Əkæt i:ts ræts]3) From an orthographical point of view, each of the forms eat, eats, ate, eaten, eating is a“word” in the sense of word-form.Semantically, however, the five forms share the same basic meaning.Grammatically the five forms are the inflectional variants in the paradigm (范例) of the verb EAT.“Word” used in this sense is known in linguistics as lexeme, i.e. “a minimal free form” in Bloomfield’s terminology. --- the common factor underlying set of formsνSo, Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.To sum up, A word is [a minimum free form of a language]. which has [a given sound] and [meaning] and [syntactic function].νThere are three factor to identify words1) stability2) a minimum free form3) relative un-interruptiblityν A lexeme (词位) is a word in an abstract sense. When it “occurs” (in a metaphorical sense of “occur”) in a certain context, it is a word-form, which has a particular phonological ororthographical shape.νThe actual occurrence of a lexeme in speech or writing always has phonological or orthographical form.νThe phonological or orthographical form is the realization of the lexeme.νLexeme is the standard form that enters the dictionary.νSentences Language is not only a linearityν-- clauses structure but also a hierarchyν-- word group structure.ν-- wordsν-- morphemes According to Bloomfield’s theoryν-- syllables Sentence is the maximum free formν-- phonemes Word is the minimum free form.ν-- distinctive featuresν-- super-segmental features3.2 Classification of wordsWords can be classified by different criteria into different types:1) variable and invariable words2) grammatical and lexical words3) close-class and open-class word4) part of speech1) variable and invariable wordsνWords cab be classified according to their variability.variable words:e.g. follow, following, follows, followedInvariable words: The words which do not have inflective endings.e.g. when, Hi, seldom, through etc.2) grammatical words and lexical words --- in terms of words’ meaningνBy notion, words can be divided into content words and function words3) Close-class and open-class wordsνClose-word is one whose membership is fixed or limited.νOpen-word is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. With the mergence of new ideas, inventions, etc.4) Word class and part of speechνAccording to traditional grammar – Latin grammar, there are 8 kinds of word class:νToady, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories: (1) particles; (2) pro-form (3) determiners; (4) auxiliariesFurthermore, there are other standards to classify words.νBy frequency ,words fall into the Basic word stock and Non-basic vocabulary.νBy notion, words can be divided into content words and functional words.νBy origin, words can be grouped into native words and foreign words.νBy Morphology, words can be divided into simple words and compoundsνBy cognition, The vocabulary can be divided into Active Vocabulary and Passive Vocabulary.3.3 Introduction to morphologyMorphology, as a branch of linguistics, is the study of the internal structure, forms andclasses of words.Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Word-building or word-formation is an important means of vocabulary enlargement. It refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationship.•Introduction to morphemeA morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.• Two types of morphemes free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: dog, nation and close.--- All mono-morphemic words.Bound morpheme: “-s”, “dis-” and “-al” they must appear with at least another morpheme. Introduction to free morphemeSome morphemes can stand alone as words, which are called free morphemes.A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is ,a free morpheme, such as talk. Such an element is called a root .Introduction to root, stem and basePoly-morphemic words other than compounds may be divided into roots and affixes. ( prefix, suffix, and infix)A root is the base form of word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. It is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A base is an all-purpose term, referring to a form to which affixes of the kind can be added. Introduction to rootA root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.Root may be further divided into free roots and bound roots.A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A root may be free or bound , but an affix is naturally bound. Introduction to stemA stem of a word may be(i) a simple stem consisting of only 1 morpheme, in which case the root and the stem are the same, eg. In works, work is both the stem and the root;(ii) a root plus a derivational affix, eg. in workers, work is the root, worker is the stem;(iii) Two or more roots, e.g. in workshops, both work and shop are roots ,workshop is the stem. Lexical and functional morphemeFree morphemes can be divided into 2 categories.lexical morphemes and functional morphemeslexical morpheme : the set of ordinary nouns, verbs and adjectives which carry the content of message we convey. These free morphemes are called lexical morpheme, since we can create new lexical morphemes for the language rather easily, they are called an open class of words. Functional morphemesfunctional morphemes: consists of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, articles, prepositions and pronouns. As we almost never add new functional morphemes to the language, they are called a closed class of words.Introduction to bound morphemesBound morphemes: Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words, e.g. –s,-er,-ed and –ing. Bound morphemes are actually affixes.All affixes in English are bound.Bound morphemes also can be divided into derivational and inflectional morphemes according to the their grammatical functionPrefixes, suffixes, and infixesPrefixes: affixes can be joined to the beginning of the root or stem, in which case they are called prefixes. Prefixes can change the meaning or function of the word.Suffixes: Affixes can be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which case they are called suffixes. Suffixes can also change the meaning or function of the word.Infixes: morphemes that are inserted into other morphemes.Derivational and inflectional morphemeDerivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.Inflectional morphemes are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word. English has only 8 inflectional morphemesThe eight inflectional morphemes• noun+ -’s (possessive), -s (plural)• verb+ -s(3rd person present singular),•-ing (present participle),•-ed (past tense and past participle),•-en (past participle)• adj.+ -est(superlative),-er(comparative)The differences between inflectional and derivational morphemesInflectional• (1) Does not change meaning or part of speech of the stem••(2) Indicates syntactic or semantic relations between different words in a sentence.•• (3) Occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.•• (4) Occurs at margins of wordsDerivational(1)Changes meaning or part of speech of the stem(2)Indicates semantic relations within the word.(3)Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes.(4) Occurs before any inflectional suffixes added.Inflection & Word formationMorphology concerns two fields : Inflections and word-formation.(1)Inflection: It is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.Such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.(2)Word-formation: It refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further sub-classified into Compound and Derivation.Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.Compounding shows the relation between lexical words.Endocentric and Exocentric compoundCompound: refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.(1) Endocentric compound (向心复合词).Such as: self-control, sun-tanned, machine washable(2) Exocentric compound (离心复合词).Such as: sit-down, playboy, take-home, runawayThe Features of compoundsDespite the various formations, all compounds share the following features.1. Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.e.g. armchair, follow-up, thunder bird.How a compound is written is simply a matter of convention, and convention should be respected in this case as it always is.2. Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element,e. g. icy-cold (adj). green-house. (n).But there are many exceptions, especially with those compounds ending with a verb or an adverb or a preposition..For example, follow-up, crackdown, kick-off are all nouns instead of adverbs, and toothpick, snowfall are nouns instead of verbs3 Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components..For example, a blackleg is not a leg that is black, a greenhouse is not a house that is green, a Red coat is not a coat at all, and neither is a hotdog a dog ..To find out the meaning of a compound, one sometimes has to consult thedictionary instead of doing some guess work.4 Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress..This is important because it helps us to distinguish –ing forms that are used as a pre-modifier of a noun and those that are used as the first part of a compound word.So the same form "running dog" can possibly be pronounced in two differently ways.Usually the right-hand member nor only determines the category of the whole compound, but it also determines the major part of the sense of the compound. SO the right member serves as the head.4.4 Lexical development1) The disappearance of some old words2) The occurrence of some new words3) The lexical change in words’ form and meaningSuch as: self-control, sun-tanned, machine washableThere are five aspects about the lexical change.The types of lexical change(1) Lexical change proper --- minor means of word- formationIncluding：Invention，Blending, clipping, acronym (首字母拼音法), & Initialism（首字母缩略法）; back-formation; analogical creation(类比构词)，etc.Loanwords: Group1 Loanword (借词) ※Loanblend （混合借词）＝＝Denizen （同化词）& Alien (非同化词)Group 2 Loanshift （转移借词）※Loan－translation（翻译借词）Semantic－loan（借义词）& Translation loan ( 译借词)(2) Phonological change (音位变化) ---Such as, loss of sound; Sound addition; Metathesis; assimilation(3) Morpho-syntactical change (形态-句法变化)Such as: self-control, sun-tanned, machine washable(4) Semantic change 语义变化)(5) Orthographic change （拼写的变化)Old English is an Synthetic language , which full of inflectional changes.Modern English is an analytic language.4) Types of word meaning changesνNarrowing (缩小)A process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrow or specialized sense.νExtension /broadening (扩大)It is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo.νTransference / Meaning shift (转移)Refer to some word which were used to designate one thing but later changed to meansomething else which experienced the process of semantic transfer.(1) . Associated TransferThis is what is commonly known as figurative extension of word meaning.(2) Transfer between Abstract and Concrete meaning(3) Transfer between Subjective and Objective meaningνDegradation (降格)It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affectivewords come to be used in derogatory sense.νElevation (升华)It refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions ofimportance.Cause of word-meaning change1.Extra-linguistic factorsHistorical reasons; Class reasons; Psychological reasons.2. Linguistic factorsLanguage system; The influence of borrowings; Analogy。
Lecture 3 形式的复活
Dolphins were far hornier than Flipper ever let on; randy males had even been known to attempt couplings with human females.（Chromosome 8）
其实海豚很好色的，甚至比电视上的Flipper注还要过分，据说好色的雄性海豚还想和女人结合呢。
文学性
文学性是语言通过一定的排列组合造就的。这种排列组合是有规律的，这规律就是对语言运用的常规的故意违反，造成形式上的变异，从而形成陌生化或反常化（defamiliarization）的形式特征
读者在解读这些新颖乃至费解的形式特征进而获得理解的过程就是诗学所追求的审美或诗学效果。
三、“亡者”归来
后结构主义更加强调形式
案例3
The lip of the sun curled over the horizon to blow a red glow across the island.
太阳从天边升起，小岛沐浴在一片一片红色的朝霞之中
改译
太阳在地平线上撅起一弯唇瓣，向着小岛吹了一口红色的光。
案例4
The fault-finder will find faults in paradise.（Love Your Life）
（注：Flipper是1964年在美国播出的一套长篇电视剧，剧中的主角是一条名叫Flipper的海豚。）
改译
海豚其实是很好色的，比那个费利波[注略]好色多了，据说那些雄性的海豚骚劲上来了连雌性的人都想勾搭呢。
案例2
You hear it all along the river. You hear it, loud and strong, from the rowers as they urge the junk with its high stern, the mast lashed alongside, down the swift running stream. You hear it from the trackers, a more breathless chant, as they pull desperately against the current…（The Song of the River)