国际营销第8章
跨文化商务交际Chapter_8_Intercultural_Management
What is intercultural management?
跨文化管理真正作为一门科学，是在20世纪70年代后 期的美国逐步形成和发展起来的。它研究的是在跨文化 条件下如何克服异质文化的冲突，进行卓有成效的管理， 其目的在于如何在不同形态的文化氛围中设计出切实可 行的组织结构和管理机制，最合理地配置企业资源，特 别是最大限度地挖掘和利用企业人力资源的潜力和价值， 从而最大化地提高企业的综合效益。 兴起这一研究的直接原因是二战后美国跨国公司进行 跨国经营时的屡屡受挫。
企业文化中一些典型的可观察到的要素
典礼和仪式 典故 象征物
语言
Some tips about Corporate culture
A company’s culture is greatly influenced b team as they set the policies and practices for the organization. Many articles and books have been written in recent years about culture in organizations, usually referred to as “corporate culture”. Every organization has its own unique culture or value set. To be specific, corporate culture can be looked as a system. Often the people who see an organization’s culture more clearly are those from the outside, the new comers, or the consultants.
第八章--国际市场营销调研
8
第二节 国际市场营销调研方案 第八章
一、确定市场调研目的与市场调研类型 二、确定国际市场调研范围 三、拟定调研项目 四、确定资料来源和整理资料 五、撰写市场调研报告
9
第八章
一、确定市场调研目的与市场调研类型(1)
• 确定市场调研目的 P181 确定调研目的是把企业在实际运作之前需要
了解和决定的营销问题转换为有待调查的各种 因素,划出范围，明确目的，并写成书面文字， 它是营销调研的起点和开始，且要保证调研工 作有的放矢，确有成效
10
第八章
一、确定市场调研目的与市场调研类型(2)
• 确定市场调类型
▫ 探测性调研(寻找问题的根源) ▫ 描述性调研（描述问题事实） ▫ 因果关系调研 （造成问题的原因） ▫ 预测性调研 （预测未来的需求）
11
二、确定国际市场调研范围
第八章
• 国际市场调研范围是指在进行市场调研时具体应该 去调查哪些问题,应该收集哪方面的资料以及从何 种渠道去收集资料
• 调研报告：
15
第八章
第三节 国际市场调研程序
16
第八章
第节 国际市场调研方法
一、文案调研
17
第八章
• 文案调研方式是指从各种文书档案中检索出 有用的信息资料,再加以分析判断确定国际 市场营销策略的一种以收集第二手资料为主 的调研方式
二、实地调研
18
第八章
• 实地调研是指市场调研信息资料直接来源于国际 市场,从而取得第一手资料的调研方式
6
二、国际市场调研的内容(1)
第八章
• 1.国际市场营销环境调研
▫ 国际自然环境 ▫ 人口资源 ▫ 国民收入 ▫ 各国社会和文化 ▫ 国际政治环境 ▫ 国际经济环境
专业英语-第8章-国际市场营销
b) developing market d) declining market
2.a) intermediary c) wholesaler
b) exporter d) distributor
3.a) opinion poll c) spot check（现场检查）
b) retail outlet d) sales network
Reading comprehee culture comes to coffee-growers
CASE STUDY:Zumo-creating a global brand
Read the case
Starting up:
What products do you know that are marketed internationally?
Discuss these questions. (group work)
What are the advantages for a company of expanding beyond its domestic market?
What kinds problem do companies face when they go international?
What methods can companies use to enter overseas markets?
Vocabulary:
(A) Complete the statements with suitable marketing expressions from the box.
Fill up table of background of the case.
2024版国际营销学
目标市场的进入策略
产品策略
定价策略
根据目标市场的需求和竞争状况，调整产品 或服务的特点、功能、品质等。
考虑目标市场的消费者购买力、竞争状况、 成本等因素，制定合理的定价策略。
渠道策略
促销策略
选择合适的销售渠道和分销模式，以便将产 品或服务有效地传递给目标市场的消费者。
运用广告、公关、销售促进等手段，提高目 标市场消费者对产品或服务的认知度和购买 意愿。
信仰、风俗习惯等。
教育水平
评估目标国家的教育水 平，包括受教育程度、
教育资源等。
社会结构
分析目标国家的社会结 构，包括人口结构、城
乡比例等。
语言和沟通
了解目标国家的语言和 沟通习惯，以便更好地
进行跨文化交流。
技术环境分析
科技发展水平
评估目标国家的科技发展水平， 包括科研实力、创新能力等。
信息技术应用
了解目标国家在信息技术方面的 应用情况，如互联网普及率、电 子商务发展等。
技术标准和规范
了解目标国家的技术标准和规范， 以便在产品设计和生产上与之相 适应。
环保和可持续发展
关注目标国家在环保和可持续发 展方面的政策和要求，以便在营
销活动中遵循相关原则。
03 国际市场细分与目标市场选择
CHAPTER
礼仪规范
了解并遵守不同文化背 景下的商务礼仪规范， 如会面礼节、名片交换、 宴请礼仪等，以展示尊 重和诚意。
习俗禁忌
了解目标市场的习俗禁 忌，避免在营销活动中 触犯当地文化传统和价 值观念，以免引起负面 反应。
节日庆典
关注目标市场的节日庆 典和重要活动，适时推 出符合当地文化特色的 营销活动和优惠措施， 增强品牌亲和力。
国际市场营销 全球营销学每章课后习题答案
全球营销学第四版每章课后习题答案第一章Introduction to Global Marketing1.What are the basic goals of marketing? Are these goals relevant to globalmarketing?P31、Surpass the competition at the task of creating perceived value for customers2、The Guide line is the value equation –Value = Benefits/Price (Money, Time, Effort, Etc.)P42.What is mean by “global localization”?（全球本土化策略）Is Coca-Cola a globalproduct? Explain.The phrase “global localization” represents an attempt to capture the spirit of the rallying cry for o rganizations in the 21st century, namely, “think globally, act locally.”Most people will agree that Coca-Cola is a global product by virtue of the fact that it is available in more than 195 countries in red cans bearing the distinctive signature style. It must be noted, however, that customer service efforts are adapted to the needs of particular markets, e.g., vending machines in Japan. Thus, Coca-Cola is both global and local.3.Describe some of the global marketing strategies available to companies. Giveexamples of companies that use the different strategies.Global marketing strategies: 1. global market participation is the extent to which a company has operations in major world markets; 2. standardization versus adaptation is the extent to which each marketing mix element can be standardized or adapted in various country markets; 3. concentration of marketing activities is the extent to which activities related to marketing mix are performed in one or a few country locations; 4. coordination of marketing activities is the extent to which activities related to marketing mix are performed interdependently around the globe; 5. integration of competitive moves is the extent to which a firm’s competitive marketing tactics in different parts of world are interdependent.Examples: 1. Coke is the best-known, strongest brand, as the Coca-Cola Company, supporting its Coke, Fanta, and Powerade brands with marketing mix elements both that are globe and local, is adept at adapting sales promotion, distribution, and customer service efforts to local needs;2. Mcdonald’s business model is a restaurant system that can be set up virtually anywhere in the world and offers core menu items-hamburgers, French fries, and soft drinks-in most countries, and the company also customizes menu offerings according to local eating customs.4.How do the global marketing strategies of Harley-Davidson and Toyota differ?Harley-Davidson motorcycles are known the world over as “the” all-American motorcycle. Harley’s mystique and heritag e are associated with the USA. The company backs up this positioning with exports from two U.S. manufacturing locations. By contrast, Toyota builds some models (e.g., Camry and Avalon) for the U.S. market in the U.S., a fact that Toyota stresses in its American ad. Thus, Harley-Davidson serves global markets while sourcing locally, while Toyota’s strategy calls for serving world markets and using the world as a source of supply.5.Describe the difference between ethnocentric, polycontric, regiocentric, andgeocentric management orientations.The premise of an ethnocentric orientation is that home country products and management processes are superior. An ethnocentric company that neither sources inputs from, nor seeks market opportunities in the world outside the home country may be classified as an domestic company. A company that does business abroad while still presuming the superiority of the home country may be classified as an international company. Such a company would rely on an extension strategy whereby it would export, without adaptation, products designed for the domestic market.The polycentric orientation that predominates at a multinational company leads to aview of the world in which each country markets is different from the others. Local country managers operating with a high degree of autonomy adapt the marketing mix in a polycentric, multinational company. Managers who are regiocentric or geocentric in their orientations recognize both similarities and differences in world markets. Market opportunities are pursued using both extension and adaptation strategies. The regiocentric and geocentric orientations are characteristic of global transnational companies.OrEthnocentric orientation: home country is superior to the rest of the world, sees similarities in foreign countries，leads to a standardized or extension approach; Polycentric orientation: the opposite of ethnocentrism, each country in which a company does business is unique, sees differences in foreign countries, leads to localized or adaption approach; Regiocentric orientation: a region becomes the relevant geographic unit; management`s goal is to develop an integrated regional strategy; Geocentric orientation：views the entire world as a potential market and strives to develop integrated world market strategies.6.Identify and briefly describe some of the forces that have resulted in increased globalintegration and the growing importance of global marketing.P21+Driving Forces：Regional economic agreements、Market needs and wants、TechnologyTransportation and communication improvements、Product development costs、Quality、World economic trends、LeverageRestraining Forces：Management myopia、Organizational culture、National controls 7.Define leverage and explain the different types of leverage utilized by companieswith global operations.Define leverage：P25第二章The Global Economic Environment1.Explain the difference between market capitalism, centrally planned capitalism,centrally planned socialism, and market socialism. Give an example of a country that illustrates each types of system.Market capitalism is an economic system in which individuals and firms allocate resources and production resources are privately owned. (England).Centrally planned capitalism is an economic system in which command resource allocation is utilized extensively in an environment of private resource ownership. (Sweden)Centrally planned socialism, in this type of economic system, the state has broad powers to serve the public interest as it sees fit. (Former Soviet Union)Market socialism, in such a system, market allocation policies are permitted within an overall environment of state ownership. (China)2.What is a BEM? Identify the BEMs according to their respective stages of economicdevelopment.P53P56-583. A manufacture of satellite dishes is assessing the world market potential for hisproducts. He asks you if he should consider developing countries as potential markets.How would you advise him?Despite the difficult economic conditions in parts of developing countries, many nations will involve into attractive markets.One of marketing’s roles in developing countries is to focus resources on the task of creating and delivering products that are best suited to local needs and incomes. The role of marketing to indentify people’s needs and wants is the same in all countries, irrespective of level of economic development. It is also an opportunity to help developing countries join the information age.And P654.Turn to the Index of Economic Freedom (Table 2-1) and identify where the BEMs areranked. What does the result tell you in terms of the relevance of the index to global marketers?P52第三章Social and Cultural Environments1.What are some of the elements that make up culture? How do these find expression inyour native culture?Culture is a collection of Values, beliefs, behaviors, customs, and attitudes that distinguish one society from another.Culture is acted out in social institutions, such as, family, education, religion, government, business.2.What is the difference between a low-context culture and a high-context culture?Give an example of a country that is an example of each type and provide evidence for your answer.PPT 第四章4-63.How can Hofstede’s cultural typologies help Western marketers better understandAsian culture?P874.Explain the self-reference criterion(自我参照准则). Go to the library and findexamples of product failures that might have been avoided through the application of the SRC.Unconscious reference to one’s own cultural values; creates cultural myopia5.Briefly explain the social research of Everrtt Rogers regarding diffusion ofinnovations,……P94pare and contrast USA and Japan in terms of traditions and organizationalbehavior and norms.第四章The Legal and Regulatory Environments of Global Marketing1.What is sovereignty? What is it an important consideration in the politicalenvironment of global marketing?sovereignty2.Describe some of the sources of political risk. Specially, what forms can political risktake?Tension between aspirations and realityPrimarily occurs in lower and lower-middle income countries–Indonesia and economic crisisWhen political risk occurs in high income countries, it is generally due to a long-standing conflict–Northern IrelandP1423.Briefly describe some of the differences between the legal environment of a countrythat embraces common law and one that observes civil law.4.Global marketers can avoid legal conflicts by understanding the reasons conflictsarise in the first place. Identify and describe several legal issues that relate to global commerce.Intellectual PropertyAntitrustContractualLicensing and Trade Secrets5.“See you in court” is one way to respond when legal issues arise. What otherapproaches are possible?LitigationFormal arbitration–Settles disputes outside of court–Groups agree to abide by panel’s decision1958 United Nations Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards–Most important treaty regarding international arbitration第五章Global Information Systems and Market Research1.Explain two information technology puts powerful tools in the hands of globalmarketers.Modern IT tools provide the means for a company's marketing information system and research functions to provide relevant information in a timely, cost –efficient, and actionable manner.Electronic data interchange (EDI) allows business units to submit orders, to issue invoices, to conduct business electronically, Wal-Mart legendary for its EDI, save time and money, enables retailers to improve inventory management. Transaction formats are universalEfficient Consumer Response (ECR) This is in addition to EDI, an effort for retailers and vendors to work closely on stock replenishment(补充). ECR can be defined as a joint initiative by members of a supply chain to work toward improving and optimizing(最优化) aspects of the supply chain to benefit customersIntranet, Electronic Point of Sale (EPOS), Data Warehouses are also helping businesses improve their ability to target consumers and increase loyalty.2.What are the different modes of information acquisition? Which is the most importantfor gathering strategic information?3.4、Outline the basic steps of the market research process.5、What is the difference between existing, latent, and incipient demand? How mightthese differences affect the design of a marketing research project?Demand and profit potential, in turn, depend in part on whether the market being studied can be classifieds existing or potential. Existing markets are those in which customer needs are already being served by one or more companies. In some instances, there is no existing market to research and. information may be readily available. A latent market is in essence, an und iscovered segment .It’s a market in which demand would materialize if an appropriate product were made available. An incipient market is a market that will emerge if particular economic demographic, political, or sociocultural trend continues. A company is not likely to achieve satisfactory results if it offers a product in an incipient market before the trends have taken root.Market growth, brand loyalty, market segment, product, sales promotion, pricing, distribution, will be different in marketing research project.6.Describe some of the analytical techniques used by global marketers. When is it appropriate to use each technique?A number of techniques are available for analyzing survey data.Factor analysis can be used to transform large amount of data into manageable units. It is useful in psychographic segmentation studies or creating perceptual maps; cluster analysis allows the researchers to group variables into clusters that maximize within-group similarities and between-group differences. It can be used to do global marketing research, to perform benefit segmentation, and to identify new product opportunities. Multi dimensional scaling is another technique for creating perceptual maps which is particular useful when there are many product to choose and consumers have difficulty in verbalizing their conceptions. Conjoint analysis is used to gain insights into the combination of features that will be the most attractive to consumers. It is useful when determines the values and utilities of the various levels of product features and plots them graphically.第六章Segmentation, Targeting, and Positioning1.differentiate the five basic segmentation strategies. Give an example of a companythat has used each one.P170-P1831、IncomePopulationsAge distributionGenderEducationOccupation2、Grouping people according to attitudes, value, and lifestyles3、4、Benefit segmentation focuses on the value equation–Value = Benefits / Price5、The population of many countries includes ethnic groups of significant size2.Explain the difference between segmenting and targeting.P200pare and contrast standardized, concentrated, and differentiated global marketing.Illustrate each strategy with an example from a global company.Standardized global marketing is mass marketing on a global scale with undifferentiated target marketing (Revlon International)Concentrated global marketing, involves devising a marketing mix to reach a niche. A niche is simply a single segment of the global market. (Germany`s Winter halter) Differentiated global marketing, represents a more ambitious approach than concentrated target marketing with multi-segment targeting and two or more distinct markets (Rover)4.5.What is positioning? Identify the different positioning strategies presented in thechapter and give examples of companies or products that illustrate each.Locating a brand in consumers’minds over and against competitors in terms of attributes and benefits that the brand does and does not offer.P192-1956.What is global consumer culture positioning? What other strategic positioningchoices do global marketers have?Identifies the brand as a symbol of a particular global culture or segment.P1967.What is high-touch product? Explain the difference between high-tech productpositioning and high-touch product positioning. Can some products be positioned using both strategies? Explain.High-tech products are sophisticated technologically complex, and/or difficult to explain or understand, and frequently evaluated in terms of their performance against established objective standards. High-tech global consumer positioning also works well for special interest products associated with leisure of recreation.High-touch products, consumers are generally energized by emotional motives rather than rational ones, and frequently evaluated in terms of their performance against established subjective, aesthetic terms.Some products can be positioned using both strategies, with both satisfying buyers’ rational criteria and evoking an emotional response. Nokia, for example, combines technical performance with a fashion orientation.第七章Global Market Entry Strategies:1.What are the advantages and disadvantages of using licensing as a market entry tool?Give examples of companies from different countries that use licensing as a global marketing strategy.Advantages to LicensingProvides additional profitability with little initial investmentProvides method of circumventing tariffs, quotas, and other export barriersAttractive ROILow costs to implementDisadvantages to LicensingLimited participationReturns may be lostLack of controlLicensee may become competitorLicensee may exploit company resourcesP2062.What is foreign direct investment? What forms can FDI take?P209Partial or full ownership of operations outside of home countryForms:Joint ventures–Minority or majority equity stakes–Outright acquisition3.Do you agree with Ford’s decision to acquire Jaguar? What was more valuable toFord---the physical assets or the name?P2154.What is meant by the phrase global strategic partnership? In what ways does this formof market entry strategy differ from more traditional forms such as joint ventures? Participants remain independent following formation of the allianceParticipants share benefits of alliance as well as control over performance of assigned tasksParticipants make ongoing contributions in technology, products, and other key strategic areasPPT3055.What are Keiretsu? How does this form of industrial structure affect companies thatcompete with Japan or that are trying to enter the Japanese market?PPT307书P2276.Which Strategic options for market entry or expansion would a small company belikely to pursue? A large company?StrategiesCompanies must decide to expand by:–Seeking new markets in existing countries–Seeking new country markets for already identified and served market segments第八章Product and Brand Decisions1.What is the difference between a product and a brand?A product is a good, service, or ideaBrandsBundle of images and experiences in the customer’s mindA promise made by a particular company about a particular productA quality certificationDifferentiation between competing productsThe sum of impressions about a brand is the Brand ImageThe added value that accrues to a product as a result of investments in the marketing of the brandAn asset that represents the value created by the relationship between the brand and customer over time2.How do local, international, and global products differ? Cite examplesLocal Product is one that has achieved success in a single national market and represents the lifeblood of domestic companies. （Coca-cola, ginseng beverage only in Japan）International product is offered in several markets in a particular region (Euro-product, only in euro zone)Global product meets the wants and needs of a global market and is offered in all world regions (personal stereos)3.What are some of the elements that make up a brand? Are these elements tangible orintangible?IntangibleP2414.What criteria should global marketers consider when making product designdecisions?In many instances, packaging is an integral element of product-related design decisions. Packaging is designed to protect or contain the product during shipping；Labeling provides consumers with various types of information; Aesthetics differ around the world. Global marketers must understand the importance of visual aesthetics; Product Warranties is a written guarantee that assures the buyer is getting what they paid for or provides a remedy in case of a product failure. Warranties can be used as a competitive tool5.How can buyer at titudes about a product’s country of origin affect marketing strategy?买家对于原产国的态度对营销策略有什么影响？Perceptions about and attitudes toward particular countries often extend to products and brands known to originate in those countries–Japan–Germany–France–ItalyP252-2546.Identify several global brands. What are some of the reasons for the global success ofthe brands you chose?Both products and brand are good……7.Briefly describe various combinations of product-communication strategies availableto global marketers. When is it appropriate to use each?Product-communication extension (dual extension) is a strategy selling the same product with the same promotional appeals used in domestically when pursuing opportunities outside the home market. It used frequently with industrial (business to business) products.Product extension-communication adaptation strategy is a relatively low cost of implementation because the physical product is unchanged, and the main costs are associated with market research and revising promotional appeals. It used frequently when consumer conceptions outside the home market are very different from domestic marketProduct adaptation-communication extension is an approach to global product planning is to extend, without change, the basic home-market communications strategy while adapting the product to local use or preference conditions. It used frequently when natural conditions outside the home market are very different from domestic market Product-communication adaptation (dual adaptation) strateg y is an approach used both the different product serves and advertising appeals to consumer receptivity when comparing a new geographic market to the home market, environmental conditions or consumer preferences differ;第九章Pricing Decisions1.What are the basic factors that affect price in any market? What considerations enterinto the pricing decision?In global marketing, the task of setting prices is complicated by fluctuating exchange rates. Currency fluctuations can create significant problems and opportunities for the classic international company that exports from the home country.Inflation, or a persistent upward change in price levels, is a problem in many country markets. It can be caused by an increase in the money supply and currency devaluation. Governmental policies and regulations that affect pricing decisions include dumping legislation, resale price maintenance legislation, price ceilings, and general reviews of price levels.Pricing decisions are bounded not only by cost and nature of demand but also by competitive action.Competitive Behavior: If competitors do not adjust their prices in response to rising costs it is difficult to adjust your price to maintain operating margins; If competitors are manufacturing or sourcing I a lower-cost country, it may be necessary to cut prices to stay competitiveThe global marketer has several options for addressing the problem of price escalation orthe environmental factors described in the last section.2.Define the various types of pricing strategies and objectives available to globalmarketers.Market Skimming and Financial Objectives: Market Skimming charges a premium price which may occur at the introduction stage of product life cyclePenetration Pricing and Non-Financial Objectives: Penetration Pricing charges a low price in order to penetrate market quickly which appropriates to saturate market prior to imitation by competitors3.Identify some of the environmental constraints on global pricing decisions. Currency FluctuationsInflationary EnvironmentGovernment Controls, Subsidies, RegulationsCompetitive BehaviorSourcing4.Why do price differences in world markets often lead to gray marketing?Because price differences in world markets lead to trademarked products are exported from one country to another where they are sold by unauthorized persons or organizationsGray marketing occurs when product is in short supply, when producers use skimming strategies in some markets, and when goods are subject to substantial mark-ups 5.What is dumping? Why was dumping such an important issue during the UruguayRound of GATT negotiations?Sale of an imported product at a price lower than that normally charged in a domestic market or country of origin.P2966.What is transfer price? Why is it an important issue for companies with foreignaffiliates(外国子公司)? Why did transfer pricing in Europe take on increased importance in 1999?The transfer price is that Pricing of goods, services, and intangible property bought and sold by operating units or divisions of a company doing business with an affiliate in another jurisdiction.P2997.What is the difference between ethnocentric, polycontric, and geocentric pricingstrategies? Which one would you recommend to a company that has global market aspirations?P291-292 PPT240-242pare and contrast the different forms of countertrade.Countertrade occurs when payment is made in some form other than moneyOptions–BarterThe least complex and oldest form of bilateral, non-monetary counter-tradeA direct exchange of goods or services between two parties–Counter-purchase P303-304–Offset–Compensation trading–Cooperation agreements–Switch trading第十章Global Marketing Channels and Physical Distribution1.In what ways can channel intermediaries create utility for buyers?ObjectivesMarketing channels exist to create utility for customers–Place utility -availability of a product or service in a location that is convenient to a potential customer–Time utility -availability of a product or service when desired by a customer–Form utility -availability of the product processed, prepared, in proper condition and/or ready to use–information utility -availability of answers to questions and general communicationabout useful product features and benefits2.What factors influence the channel structures and strategies available to globalmarketers?B2CThe characters of both buyers and products have an important influence on channel design.The number of individual buyers and their geographic distribution, income, shopping habits and different channel approaches.Products characters such as degree of standardization, perishability, bulk, service requirements, and unit price have an impact as well.Channels tends to be longer as the number of consumers to be served increases and the price per unit decreases. Bulky products usually require channel arrangements that minimize the shipping distances and the number of times products change hands before they reach the ultimate customer.B2BAs is true with consumer channels, product and consumer characteristics have an impact on channel structure. Three basic elements are involved: the manufacture's sales force, distributors or agents and wholesalers.Channel strategy in a global marketing program must fit the company's competitive position and overall marketing objectives in each national market.market factors: consumer profiles, market size and location of country.3.What is cherry picking? What approaches can be used to deal with this problem?P323pare and contrast the typical channel structures for consumer products andindustrial products.P340 PPT252-2555.Identify the different forms of retailing and cite an example of each form. Identifyretailers from as many different countries as you can.PPT258-259 P3256.Identify the four retail market expansion strategies discussed in the text. What factorsdetermine the appropriable mode?Organic–Company uses its own resources to open a store on a green field site or acquire one or more existing retail facilitiesFranchise–Appropriate strategy when barriers to entry are low yet the market is culturally distant in terms of consumer behavior or retailing structuresChain Acquisition–A market entry strategy that entails purchasing a company with multiple existing outlets in a foreign countryJoint Venture–This strategy is advisable when culturally distant, difficult-to-enter markets are targeted 7.What special distribution challenges exist in Japan? What is the best way for anon-Japanese company to deal with these challenges?第十一章Global Marketing Communications Decisions:Advertising and Public Relations1.In what ways can global brands and global advertising campaigns benefit a company? P3482.How does the “standardized versus localized” debate apply to advertising?Four difficulties that compromise an organization’s communicat ion efforts–The message may not get through to the intended recipient.–The message may reach the target audience but may not be understood or may even be misunderstood.–The message may reach the target audience and may be understood but still may not induce the recipient to take the action desired by the sender.–The effectiveness of the message can be impaired by noise.。
专业英语-第8章-国际市场营销
安阳师范学院商学院教案第8章国际市场营销第周课题：国际市场营销教学方法：教具：讲授法、案例分析法、小组讨论法多媒体教学目的：了解国际商务各环节的主要内容，熟悉国际市场营销的英文概念，掌握相关核心词汇。
教学重点：国际市场营销的相关专业术语。
教学难点：国际商务文书的英文表述。
第 1 页共 3 页教学过程设计：【复习旧课】回顾市场调研的核心词汇的英文表述。
【讲授新课】第8章国际市场营销Quotation: “The last stage of fitting the product to the market is fitting the market to the product.”Clive James, Australian write r and broadcaster Starting up: What products do you know that are marketed internationally? Discuss these questions. (group work) What are the advantages for a company of expanding beyond its domestic market? What kinds problem do companies face when they go international? What methods can companies use to enter overseas markets? Vocabulary: (A) Complete the statements with suitable marketing expressions from the box. buying habits, economic situation, government bureaucracy, income distribution,monetary regulations, political stability 1. Becauseof tight_______________________________ companyprofits could not be taken out of the country. 2. Redtape(繁琐手续）and other examples of_______________________ hinder a company’ s entryinto a market. 3.The country is attractive to exporters because it has enjoyed __________________for thelast 50 years. 4. The purchasing behaviour of consumers can be described as their ______________.5. The ______________________ is improving leadingto a rise in employment. 6. _____________________ isa term used by economists to describe how wealth is shared in a country. (C) Look at the words and phrases below. Choose the odd one out. a) growing market c) expanding market b) developing market d) declining market 第 2 页共 3 页2.a) intermediary c) wholesaler b) exporterd) distributor 3.a) opinion poll c) spot check（现场检查）b) focus group d) survey 4.a) market sector c)market segment b) market potential d) market niche 5.a) international market c) domestic market b) overseas marketd) worldwide market 6.a) launch a product c) bring out aproduct b) introduce a product d) exhibit a product 7.a) intermediary c) wholesaler b) distributor d) exporter 8. a) point of sale c) end user b) retail outlet d) sales network Reading comprehension and discussion: Coffee culture comes to coffee-growers CASE STUDY: Zumo-creating a global brand Read the case Fill up table of backgroundof the case. Discussion 第 3 页共 3 页。
国际商务与国际营销
国际商务与国际营销绪论：经济增长=消费+投资+外贸市场营销：市场营销就是以满足人类各种需要和欲望为目的，变市场潜在交换为现实交换的活动，也是个人和集体通过创造、提供出售、同别人自由交换产品和价值，以获取所需、所欲之物的社会过程。
（1）市场营销不仅仅是销售。
（2）市场营销是让渡价值的系统过程，流程包括3个环节，即选择价值、提供价值、传播价值。
（3）市场营销是组织的整体哲学。
第一部分从事国际贸易的原因及其运作原理第一章：国际贸易的优势第二章：国际收支第三章：汇率的决定因素第二部分制定有效进入国际市场的计划第四章：国际贸易合国际营销环节第五章：国际市场调研第六章：汇率的决定因素第三部分国际市场营销组合的设计及持续改进第六章：国际营销组合第七章：国际市场营销战略、计划、控制第八章：前沿问题第一章经济学与经济体系1.1国际贸易的起因气候因素、资源稀缺、比较优势理论、政治因素、技术差异1.1.1有限的资源可利用的资源成为生产要素，包括土地、劳动力、资本和企业。
经济学的一个基本问题，人们对产品或服务的欲望是无限的，但是资源数量是有限的。
生产体系产生的原因：资源稀缺，所有人的欲望和需要得不到满足---这样的生产体系被称为经济体系。
1.1.2专业化亚当斯密认为分工之所以能够提高劳动生产率，原因主要为3点：1、劳动者的技巧因分工而日益精进；2是分工免除了从一个工序转到另一个工序所损耗的时间；3、分工促进了专业化机械设备的发明和使用。
专业化是使人们能够提供其最擅长的产品和服务的一种生产方式。
在工人之间划分工作和生产流程，也称为劳动分工。
专业化生产的主要优点：雇员能做他们最擅长的事。
●在不断重复一项任务中掌握熟练技术。
●减少对工具的需求成本，可以购买专业的机器设备。
●工人只需学习部分流程。
●雇主能更准确地估计生产成本。
规模经济如果企业提高产量，那么单位平均成本和生产成本都能降低，这些成本优势被称为规模经济。
内部规模经济●技术经济●财务姐姐●管理经济●商业经济●风险承担经济●研发经济外部规模经济●劳动力和技术优势（大学开设相关课程、容易获得专业技能的劳动力）●辅助产业的支持（获取低成本、高效率的养护服务和金融服务）●提高资源利用率（废料回收）●良好的声誉。
《国际市场营销学》第八章习题参考答案
1.解释下列概念：国际市场营销调研：国际市场营销调研是指企业运用科学的方法，有目的地、系统地搜集、记录一切与国际市场营销活动相关的信息，对所收集到的信息进行整理和分析，从而把握目标市场的变化规律，为国际市场上的营销决策提供可靠的依据。
文案调研：文案调研方式是指从各种文书档案中检索出有用的信息资料，再加以分析判断确定国际市场营销策略的一种以收集第二手资料为主的调研方式。
实地调研：实地调研是指市场调研信息资料直接来源于国际市场，从而取得第一手资料的调研方式。
问卷调查：问卷调查是将设计好的问卷寄给被调查者，请其回答后寄回以获取信息资料。
抽样调查：这是从调查对象的总体中按随机原则抽取一部分单位作为样本，对样本进行观测和调查，并以所观测和调查的样本指标推断或推算总体指标的一种非全面调查方法。
二手信息资料：第二手资料包括联合国、各国（地区）政府、贸易协会及其他组织公布的资料，企业内部记录和报告以及从各种渠道得到的间接资料。
第一手信息资料：是市场营销人员直接从顾客、中间商、推销员和竞争者等方面收集得来的第一手资料。
询问法：指采取询问方式向具有代表性的被调查者了解情况，从而获取原始信息资料的一种方法。
观察法：观察法：指由调研人员直接到现场，指由调研人员直接到现场，指由调研人员直接到现场，通过工具、机器或直观方法，通过工具、机器或直观方法，通过工具、机器或直观方法，观察被调查者观察被调查者的行动和表情，收集原始资料。
实验法：实验法：指在一定的小范围市场指在一定的小范围市场指在一定的小范围市场（样本空间）（样本空间）（样本空间）内，对某一购买行为进行实验性的内，对某一购买行为进行实验性的统计性观察，从而了解其因果关系的一种重要方法。
2.国际市场营销调研主要包括哪些内容？答：国际市场营销环境调研：国际自然环境；人口资源；国民收入；各国社会和文化；国际政治环境；国际经济环境。
国际市场的消费者调研：消费者调研；消费量调研。
国际市场营销学教案
国际市场营销学教案第一章：国际市场营销学概述1.1 课程简介介绍国际市场营销学的定义、特点和意义阐述国际市场营销学与其他学科的关系1.2 国际市场营销的概念与演变解释国际市场营销的定义和要素探讨国际市场营销的发展历程和趋势1.3 国际市场营销环境分析分析国际市场营销的宏观环境因素，如经济、政治、文化等探讨国际市场营销的微观环境因素，如竞争对手、顾客需求等1.4 国际市场营销策略介绍国际市场营销的策略类型，如市场渗透、市场开发等探讨国际市场营销策略的选择和实施第二章：国际市场调研与分析2.1 国际市场调研概述解释国际市场调研的意义和目的探讨国际市场调研的步骤和方法2.2 国际市场分析分析国际市场的市场规模、增长潜力、竞争格局等探讨国际市场的机会和威胁2.3 国际市场细分与目标市场选择介绍国际市场细分的概念和标准探讨国际市场细分的方法和目标市场选择策略2.4 国际市场预测与决策解释国际市场预测的意义和目的探讨国际市场预测的方法和决策过程第三章：国际市场营销战略与规划3.1 国际市场营销战略概述解释国际市场营销战略的概念和意义探讨国际市场营销战略的类型和制定过程3.2 国际市场营销战略的实施与评价探讨国际市场营销战略的实施方法和注意事项介绍国际市场营销战略的评价指标和评价过程3.3 国际市场营销规划解释国际市场营销规划的概念和意义探讨国际市场营销规划的制定方法和实施步骤3.4 国际市场营销案例分析分析国际市场营销成功案例的经验和教训探讨国际市场营销失败案例的原因和启示第四章：国际市场营销产品策略4.1 国际市场营销产品概述解释国际市场营销产品的概念和分类探讨国际市场营销产品的特性和差异化策略4.2 国际市场营销产品定位与包装介绍国际市场营销产品定位的概念和重要性探讨国际市场营销产品定位的策略和方法解释国际市场营销产品包装的概念和作用探讨国际市场营销产品包装的设计和策略4.3 国际市场营销产品生命周期策略解释国际市场营销产品生命周期的概念和阶段探讨国际市场营销产品在不同生命周期阶段的策略选择4.4 国际市场营销产品创新与更新探讨国际市场营销产品创新的动力和挑战介绍国际市场营销产品更新的策略和方法第五章：国际市场营销价格策略5.1 国际市场营销价格概述解释国际市场营销价格的概念和作用探讨国际市场营销价格的影响因素5.2 国际市场营销定价策略介绍国际市场营销定价的策略类型，如成本定价、竞争定价等探讨国际市场营销定价的策略选择和实施5.3 国际市场营销价格调整与变动解释国际市场营销价格调整的概念和原因探讨国际市场营销价格调整的策略和方法5.4 国际市场营销价格竞争与合作探讨国际市场营销价格竞争的优势和风险介绍国际市场营销价格合作的策略和方法第六章：国际市场营销渠道策略6.1 国际市场营销渠道概述解释国际市场营销渠道的概念和分类探讨国际市场营销渠道的重要性和作用6.2 国际市场营销渠道选择与管理介绍国际市场营销渠道选择的原则和方法探讨国际市场营销渠道管理的策略和技巧6.3 国际市场营销直接渠道与间接渠道解释国际市场营销直接渠道和间接渠道的概念和特点探讨国际市场营销直接渠道和间接渠道的选择和运用6.4 国际市场营销新兴渠道与传统渠道探讨国际市场营销新兴渠道，如电子商务、社交媒体等的优势和挑战分析国际市场营销传统渠道，如实体店铺、分销商等的作用和局限性第七章：国际市场营销促销策略7.1 国际市场营销促销概述解释国际市场营销促销的概念和作用探讨国际市场营销促销的目标和原则7.2 国际市场营销促销工具与方法介绍国际市场营销促销的工具，如广告、公关、促销活动等探讨国际市场营销促销的方法和技巧7.3 国际市场营销促销组合策略解释国际市场营销促销组合的概念和重要性探讨国际市场营销促销组合的制定和实施7.4 国际市场营销促销评估与优化解释国际市场营销促销评估的意义和目的探讨国际市场营销促销评估的方法和指标介绍国际市场营销促销优化的策略和方法第八章：国际市场营销服务策略8.1 国际市场营销服务概述解释国际市场营销服务的概念和特点探讨国际市场营销服务的重要性和作用8.2 国际市场营销服务策略设计介绍国际市场营销服务策略的设计原则和方法探讨国际市场营销服务策略的实施和运营8.3 国际市场营销服务创新与改进探讨国际市场营销服务创新的动力和挑战介绍国际市场营销服务改进的策略和方法8.4 国际市场营销服务质量管理解释国际市场营销服务质量的概念和重要性探讨国际市场营销服务质量管理的策略和技巧第九章：国际市场营销风险与管理9.1 国际市场营销风险概述解释国际市场营销风险的概念和分类探讨国际市场营销风险的来源和影响9.2 国际市场营销风险识别与评估介绍国际市场营销风险识别的方法和工具探讨国际市场营销风险评估的原则和过程9.3 国际市场营销风险应对与控制解释国际市场营销风险应对的策略和手段探讨国际市场营销风险控制的方法和技巧9.4 国际市场营销风险管理案例分析分析国际市场营销风险管理成功案例的经验和教训探讨国际市场营销风险管理失败案例的原因和启示第十章：国际市场营销伦理与社会责任10.1 国际市场营销伦理概述解释国际市场营销伦理的概念和重要性探讨国际市场营销伦理的原则和规范10.2 国际市场营销伦理问题与挑战分析国际市场营销中常见的伦理问题，如虚假广告、侵犯知识产权等探讨国际市场营销伦理问题的解决和应对策略10.3 国际市场营销社会责任概述解释国际市场营销社会责任的概念和重要性探讨国际市场营销社会责任的内容和实施途径10.4 国际市场营销社会责任实践与评价介绍国际市场营销社会责任实践的案例和经验探讨国际市场营销社会责任评价的方法和指标重点和难点解析1. 第一章至第五章主要介绍国际市场营销学的基本概念、环境分析、策略选择和产品与价格策略。
国际市场营销学 第8章Target Marketing Strategy
第一节 国际市场细分
大众化营销（Mass Marketing）
– Henry Ford 黑色T型轿车 – Coca-Cola 6.5盎司瓶装可乐
微观营销（Micromarketing） –细分营销（Segment marketing）
汽车 奶制品等。注意，细分市场不同于阶层
–补缺营销（Niche marketing）
第四节 国际市场定位
二、市场定位策略 – “第一位”定位策略（Number One） – “迎头”定位策略 – “高级俱乐部”定位策略（Exclusive Club） – “市场补缺”定位策略（Market Niche）
第四节 国际市场定位
三、市场定位的步骤： – 根据企业自身条件和竞争情况选择目标用户的特定需求 作为定位依据 – 具体了解竞争者在满足目标用户的特定需求达到的程度 或者说了解竞争者的市场定位情况 – 确定本企业应如何满足目标用户的特定需求或者说确定 本企业的市场定位情况 – 传达市场定位 企业通过一定的方式把产品的市场定位观念准确及时 有效地传播给目标市场上的消费者，通常是通过加大 宣传力度的方式来进行。
第一节 国际市场细分
三、有效市场细分的条件 – 可衡量性（Measurability）即子市场规模和购买力可 以被衡量的程度 – 可接近性（Accessibility），企业可以达到并服务该市 场的程度 – 足量性（Substantiality），子市场规模足够大，企业 服务该子市场能获得足够多利润 – 可实施性（Actionability）企业能够有效吸引并服务于 子市场可行程度
三、选择目标市场策略
无差异性策略（Undifferentiated Marketing) 差异性策略（Differentiated Marketing) 集中性策略 （Concentrated Marketing )
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
二、国际市场价格的构成
1、制造成本：也称生产成本，是企业为生产产
品直接耗费的材料费用、人工费用和制造费用的总 和。 2、营销费用：是指企业在销售产品过程中发生 的各项费用。 3、管理费用：包括管理人员工资、业务招待费、 印花税、车船使用税、房产税、咨询费、诉讼费等。 4、财务费用利润和税金：利润是销售收入扣除 成本及费用，是企业生产经营结果的综合反映。税 金主要由关税和一般流转税组成。
10
（四）通货膨胀因素
对国际企业而言，通货膨胀可能带来的不 利因素有： 1、成本可能比价格上涨更快； 2、政府往往倾向于价格控制； 3、高通胀国家常常对外汇交易加以限制。
（五）政府干预与国际协定
政府干预包括关税、税收、汇率、利息、 竞争政策以及行业发展规划等。
11
（六）国际协定
一般来说，对国际市场营销影响最为直接的国际 价格协议，包括各种商会制定的协议、专利许可 协议以及卡特尔等。
成本
销售成本
8
（三）产品特性
产品价值是决定产品价格的基本因素， 其他还有产品的易腐性、时尚性、差异 性和生命周期等。产品特性不同，制定 的价格应不同。 渠道的长短会影响企业产品定价。
9
（四）分销渠道因素
二、影响企业国际定价的外部因素
（一）需求（市场）因素 需求应具备两个条件：一是购买欲望； 二是支付能力。 （二）竞争因素 竞争是促使价格在其上下限（即需求与 成本之间）移动的主要因素。 （三）消费者心理 即消费者对企业产品的不同定价以及价 格调整的内心承受程度和能力。
（1）市场必须是可以细分的，且每个市场的需 求程度有所不同； （2）以较低价格购买某种产品的消费者不会以 较高的价格转卖给他人； （3）竞争对手不可能在企业以较高价格销售商 品的市场上以低价竞销； （4）细分市场和控制市场的成本不得超过实行 差别定价所得的额外收入；
（5）产别价格不会引起消费者的厌恶和不满。
（七）国际货币价格变动
一方面，世界范围内存在通货膨胀或持续价格上 涨，迫使企业提升产品售价以补偿增加的成本。 另一方面，在浮动汇率体系下，随着货币价值在 外汇市场上的波动，货币发生的贬值或升值亦对 国际定价产生重要影响。
12
影响国际定价的因素：
内部因素
目标因素 成本因素 产品特性 渠道因素 需求因素 竞争因素 消费者心理 通货膨胀 政府干预 国际协定
2
主 要 内 容
第一节 第二节 第三节 第四节 第五节 第六节
国际市场价格的种类与构成 国际市场定价的影响因素 国际市场定价的基本方法 国际市场定价策略 跨国公司定价决策 企业价格的调整
3
第一节 国际市场价格的种类与构成
一、国际市场价格的种类
1、合同价格：是指交易双方所签订的产品购销合 同所确定的价格，是各类国际市场价格中最普遍、 最常见的价格类别。 2、开标价格：是国际市场上以招标方式进行交易 的成交价格。 3、国际商品交易所价格：国际商品交易所价格是 通过公开竞争所形成的，能够反映市场供求变动趋 势的市场价格。
即在新产品上市时，将价格定得很高，其目的是 获得较高的利润。这种方法适合需求弹性小的市场。 其优点是主动性大，价格高，获利大；缺点是很快 招徕竞争者。
（二）渗透定价策略
即在新产品投放市场时，将价格定得低一些，其 目的是获得最高销售量和最大市场占有率。其优点 是低价薄利，能迅速占领市场，问题是新产品要有 一个巨大的潜在市场。
24
第三节 国际市场定价策略
一、产品组合定价策略
指将产品依据特定标准细分后，分别就每个组成 部分定价，从而形成组合价格。 指企业根据其产品线上多种产品间的联系，为同 一产品线中不同的产品赋予不同的角色特征，并 分别为其制定高低不等的价格的行为。如航空公 司定价。
（一）产品线定价策略
企业把同一产品分成不同等级，并相应制订 不同的价格，以满足不同层次消费者的需求。
企业利用消费者追求廉价的心理，特意将企 业的某几种产品价格定得低一些，以吸引消 费者，使消费者在购买廉价产品的同时，也 采购了其他价格正常的产品。这种方法通常 被零售商所采用。
31
（六）招徕定价策略
四、折扣定价策略
6
第二节 影响国际定价的主要因素
一、影响国际定价的企业内部因素
（一）目标因素
生存目标 利润最大化目标投资 报酬率目标市场占有 率目标质量目标 声誉目标 稳定价格目标 竞争目标
7
定 价 目 标
（二）成本因素
生产成本 原材料成本 员工工资 奖金 投资费用 运输成本 保管成本 一般销售费用 关税、保险费
23
（三）密封投标定价法
密封投标定价主要用于投标交易方式。
这种方法指企业与众多同行竞争者组成一个卖 方集团，对同一个买主的公开招标进行竞价投 标，密封报价，买方从诸多卖方报价中选择一 个质量可靠、价格合理的投标者签订合同。 这种方法一般适用于基建工程或成套设备的购 置以及政府等机构的采购。
28
（三）满意定价策略
又叫中间价格策略，这种价格介于撇脂定价与 渗透定价之间，是指企业把价格确定在适当水 平，既能使消费者易于接受，又使企业能够获 得较为满意利润的定价策略。
采用这种定价策略的企业是基于稳妥的角度考 虑产品定价的，而采用撇脂定价策略与渗透定 价策略都有不同程度的风险。
29
三、心理定价策略
产品线定价的关键是决定价格档次的幅度。
25
（二）任选功能定价策略
企业采用任选功能定价策略，旨在增加销售总 额和利润额。但要实现这一目标的关键是如何 合理处理产品基本功能与附带功能间的关系， 正确决定哪些功能为基本功能或附带功能。如 餐馆定价。
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
（三）互补产品定价策略
有些产品的某些部件需要定期更换，产品必须 相互配套才能正常使用，如剃刀与刀片、隐形 眼镜与消毒液。
26
（四）两部分定价策略
服务业企业经常对其所提供的服务，在收取定 期固定费用的同时，再视情况收取变动费用。
（五）成套优惠定价策略
该策略适用于那些既可以单个出售，也可以成 套出售的产品，企业可以将其组合在一起，以 较低的价格捆绑销售。
（六）副产品定价策略
27
二、新产品定价策略
（一）撇脂定价策略
（一）数量折扣策略：即根据购买数量决定价格
折扣程度，数量越多，折扣越多。包括累计数量折 扣和非累计数量折扣。
（二）现金折扣策略：即在允许买主延期付款的
情况下，因买主迅速支付货款而给予的一种折扣。
（三）贸易折扣策略：也叫功能折扣或中间商折
扣，是指生产企业根据各类中间商在产品营销过程 中担负的功能不同所给予的相应的让利折扣。
14
（一）成本加成定价法
指在总成本基础上加上一定利润，由此作为产品 价格。 ※例如：生产某一产品时成本费用如下： 固定成本 20,000元 变动成本（销售量8000件×2元） 16,000元 总成本 36,000元 利润率为20%的利润 7200元 总成本加利润 43,200元 每件价格=43200/8000=5.4（元）
18
二、需求导向定价法
（一）倒推定价法
这种定价方法主要依据国外市场的需求，分析 顾客可接受的价格，或参考目标市场上同类产品 的价格，减去中间环节的中间商利润、关税、运 费等费用项目，倒推产品的出厂价格，即FOB价。
（二）认知价值定价法
指企业根据购买者对产品的认知价值来制定价格 的方法。这种定价方法的关键因素不是建立在企 业的产品成本上，而是建立在消费者对企业产品 价值的认同水平上。
15
（二）边际成本定价法
即只计算变动成本，暂不计算固定成本，而 以预期的边际贡献补偿固定成本并获取利润。 如果边际贡献小于固定成本，则出现亏损。 ※ 例如：生产某产品固定成本为10,000元， 单位变动成本为0.6元，预计销售量为10,000 件，根据市场条件，只能定价为1元/件。可见， 边际贡献（即销售收入减变动成本）为4000 元，它不能全部补偿固定成本，因此企业亏损 6000元。
13
影响因素 外部因素
第三节
国际市场定价的方法
一、成本导向定价法
是指国际企业在确定产品价格时主要以成本为 中心，以成本加利润为基础，完全按卖方意图 来确定产品价格的方法。 这种定价方法比较简便，并可以保证企业基本 上不亏本。那些刚开始开展国际营销业务的企 业在初步取得全球市场地位的时候，喜欢采取 这一定价方法。
21
三、竞争导向定价法
即要求企业根据竞争对手的产品价格来确定 自己产品的价格。这种定价方法主要用于以下 情况： 1、企业在某一时期、某一市场上，以击 败某些竞争对手为主要目标； 2、企业初涉某一市场，对需求、渠道等 因素知之甚少，只能模仿竞争产品的价格； 3、某些大宗商品的定价。
4
4、国际拍卖市场价格
拍卖是国际上出售商品的一种方式，拍卖价格一 般是通过公开竞争形成的。
5、国际协定价格
专利授权协定(Patent Licensing Agreements) 卡特尔(Cartels)协定； 联合(Combines)协定同业公会(Trade Associations)； 协定国际协定。
33
（二）多元定价策略
指跨国公司允许其国外子公司为同一产品制订 不同价格。这一定价策略兼顾了各个子公司的 利益。 多元定价的最大优点是充分考虑了各国生产成 本、竞争、供求、税收等定价因素以及各国市 场实际存在的差异性，有利于实现利润最大化。 多元定价的致命弱点是可能导致平行进口 (Parallel Imports)。